Control

Control Systems
Systems Design
Design

2007年1月31日 1
課程用書
iTextbook:
Richard C. Dorf and Robert H. Bishop, “MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS” 10th Edition
iReference:
Benjamin C. Kuo, “AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS” 7th Edition
Katsuhiko Ogata, ”Modern Control Engineering" 2th Edition
iMATLAB and SIMULINK:
Mathworks Inc., “Matlab User’s Guide” and “Simulink User’s Guide”

授課方式
i以投影片為主
i模擬軟體 MATLAB、SIMULINK

2007年1月31日 2
課程內容
i Chapter1 Introduction to Control Systems
i Chapter 2 Mathematical Models of Systems
i Chapter 3 State Variable Models
i Chapter 4 Feedback Control System Characteristics
i Chapter 5 The Performance of Feedback Control Systems
i Chapter 6 The Stability of Linear Feedback Systems
i Chapter 7 The Root Locus Method
i Chapter 8 Frequency Response Methods
i Chapter 9 Stability in The Frequency Domain
i Chapter 10 The Design of Feedback Control Systems

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 CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Control Systems

2007年1月31日 1
 FIGURE 1.2

Open-loop control system (without feedback).

An open-loop control system utilizes an actuating

device to control the process directly without using
feedback

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 Control :

Input Output
Reference Results

Plant or
Process

• Manual Control
• Automatic Control
− Automobile Cruise-Control
− Airplane Flight Control
− Robot Arm Control
− Inkjet Printer Head Control
− Disk Drive Read/Write Head Positioning Control
M

2007年1月31日 3
 FIGURE 1.3 Closed-loop feedback control
system (with feedback).

A closed-loop control system uses a measurement of

the output and feedback of this signal to compare it
with the desired output (negative feedback).

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 FIGURE 1.4 Multivariable control system.

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2007年1月31日 6
FIGURE 1.5 Watt’s flyball governor.
 Advantages of Feedback:
• Increased accuracy (reduced the steady-state error)
• Reduced sensitivity to parameter variations
• Reduced effects of disturbances
• Increased speed of response and bandwidth

Computer Aided Control System Design (CACSD)

• Matlab & Simulink
• Matrixx
• Simnon
• Program CC
M

2007年1月31日 7
 FIGURE 1.19 The control system design process.
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CHAPTER 2
Mathematical Models of Systems
► Differential Equations of Physical System
► Linear Approximations of Physical System
► The Laplace Transform
► The Transfer Function Of Linear System
► Block Diagram Models
► Signal-Flow Graph Model
► Computer Analysis of control system
► Design Examples
► The Simulation of System Using Matlab
2007年1月31日 1
Differential Equations of Physical System

The approach to dynamic system problem can be listed as follow:

1. Define the system and its components

2. Formulate the mathematical model and list the necessary assumptions.

3. Write the differential equations describing the model.

4. Solve the equations for the desired output variables.

5. Examine the solutions and the assumptions.

6. If necessary, reanalyze or redesign the system

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 FIGURE 2.1 (a) Torsional spring-mass
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system.(b) Spring element.
 d 2 y (t ) dy (t )
M + b + ky (t ) = r (t )
dt 2 dt

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2007年1月31日 5
 ; Linear Approximations of Physical Systems
A linear system satisfied the properties of superposition and homogeneity.

r(t) y(t)
system

r (t ) → y (t ) ⇔ y (t ) = g [ r (t )]

r1 (t ) → y1 (t ) ⎫
⎬ ⇒ r (t ) = αr1 (t ) + βr2 (t ) → y (t ) = αy1 (t ) + βy2 (t )
r2 (t ) → y2 (t ) ⎭

g [αr1 (t ) + βr2 (t )] = αg [ r1 (t )] + βg [ r2 (t )]

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2007年1月31日 7
 Linearization of a nonlinear systems:
y (t ) = g [ x (t )]
Expanding the nonlinear equation into a Taylor series about the operation point,
then we have
d ( x − xo ) d 2 ( x − xo ) 2
y = g ( x ) = g ( xo ) + g ( x ) + 2 g ( x) +L
dx x= x 1! o dx x= x 2! o

Neglecting all the high order terms, to yield

d ( x − xo )
y = g ( xo ) + g ( x) = y0 + m ⋅ ( x − xo )
dx x= x 1!
o

⇒ y − y 0 = m ⋅ ( x − xo )
or Δy = m ⋅ Δx
y = g ( x1 ,L, xn )
∂g ∂g ∂g
= g ( x1o ,L, xno ) + x = xo ( x1 − x1o ) + x = xo ( x2 − x2 o ) + L + x = xo ( xn − xno )
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂xn
2007年1月31日 8
Example 2.1 Pendulum oscillator model

T = Mgl sin θ
∂ sin θ
T − T0 ≅ Mgl |θ =θ 0 (θ − θ 0 )
∂θ
where T0 = 0.
T = Mgl (cos 00 )(θ − 0)
= Mglθ

2007年1月31日 9
 ; Rotational Motion
1. Inertia
Newton’s Law for rotation motion :
θ (t )
d d2
∑ T ( t ) = Jα ( t ) = J ω ( t ) = J 2 θ ( t ) J
dt dt
T (t )
T : Torque J : Inertia α : Angular acceleration
ω : Angular velocity θ : Angular displacement

2. Torsional Spring θ (t )
T ( t ) = kθ ( t )
k T (t )
k : Torsional spring constant

3. Friction for rotational motion : viscous, static, coulomb friction

d
T (t ) = B θ (t )
dt θ (t )
B : Viscous friction coefficient
B T (t )
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 t
v(t ) dv(t ) 1
+C + ∫ v(t ) dt = r (t )
R dt L0

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 ; The Transfer Function of Linear Systems
Definition:
The ratio of the Laplace transform of the output variable to the
Laplace transform of the input variable, with all initial conditions
assumed to be zero.
The Laplace transform of the impulse response, with all the initial
conditions set to zero.

r(t) y(t)
system

Y ( s)
= G( s)
R( s )
or
G ( s ) = L[ y (t )]

2007年1月31日 12
 Example : Mass-Spring-Friction System

y (t )
k

m f (t )

d d2
f1 (t ) = ma (t ) = m v (t ) = m 2 y (t )
dt dt
f 2 (t ) = ky (t )
d
f 3 (t ) = B y (t )
dt

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 ∑ f (t ) = f1 + f 2 + f 3
d2 d
= m 2 y (t ) + B y (t ) + ky (t )
dt dt
B k 1
&y&(t ) + y& (t ) + y (t ) = f (t )
m m m
Taking the Laplace transform with zero initial conditions, we have

B k 1
s 2Y ( s ) + s Y ( s) + Y ( s) = F ( s)
m m m
Then the transfer function between Y(s) and F(s) is obtained

Y ( s) 1
= 2
F ( s ) s m + sB + k

2007年1月31日 14
 1. Inertia
Newton’s Law for rotation motion :
θ (t )
d d2
∑ T ( t ) = Jα ( t ) = J ω ( t ) = J 2 θ ( t ) J
dt dt
T (t )
T : Torque J : Inertia α : Angular acceleration
ω : Angular velocity θ : Angular displacement

2. Torsional Spring θ (t )
T ( t ) = kθ ( t )
k T (t )
k : Torsional spring constant

3. Friction for rotational motion : viscous, static, coulomb friction

d
T (t ) = B θ (t )
dt θ (t )
B : Viscous friction coefficient
B T (t )
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 • Field-current controlled DC motor (Homework #1)
• Armature-controlled DC motor

Mathematical modeling of PM DC motor:

Ra La
Ra Armature resistance La Armature inductance
+ J,B v a (t ) Applied voltage ia (t ) Armature current
ia (t )
va (t ) eb (t ) TLoad eb (t ) Back-emf kb Back-emf constant
− km Torque constant Tm (t ) Motor torque
ω ,θ T (t ) Load torque Td Disturbance torque
J Rotor inertia B Viscous friction coefficient
The air-gap flux of the dc motor is θ (t ) Rotor displacement ω (t ) Rotor angular velocity

φ (t ) = k f i f (t )
and the torque developed by by the dc motor is

Tm (t ) = k1φ (t )ia (t ) = k1k f i f (t )ia (t )

= k1k f I f ia (t ), i f (t ) = constant
= k mia (t )
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 If La/Ra≈ 0, the approximate model of the dc motor is obtained as

ω ( s) km
=
Va ( s ) JRa s + ( BRa + kb k m )
k
Δ
sτ + 1
where
JRa km
τ= , k=
BRa + kb km BRa + kb km

 Relation between km and kb

The power input to the rotor = The power delivered to the shaft

eb (t )ia (t ) = T (t )ω (t ) km = kb
⇔ kbω (t )ia (t ) = kmia (t )ω (t )
Õ

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 The cause and effect equation for the motor circuit are
d
va (t ) = Ra ia (t ) + La ia (t ) + eb (t )
dt
eb (t ) = kbω (t ) = kbθ (t )
d
T (t ) = J ω (t ) + Bω (t ) + Td
dt
d2 d
= J 2 θ (t ) + B θ (t ) + Td
dt dt
The motor torque is equal to the torque delivered to the load, that is

Tm (t ) = T (t )

Hence the transfer function of the dc motor, with Td=0, is

ω ( s) km
=
Va ( s ) ( Ra + sLa )( Js + B ) + kb km

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 • Tachometer
d
et (t ) = ktω (t ) = kt θ (t )
dt

• Potentiometer

Vapp Vapp
e p (t ) = k pθ (t ), k p = ep
2πN

• Incremental encoder (Homework #2)

1. Measuring angular displacement
2. Measuring angular velocity

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 DC motor Filed-controlled
Home work 2:

ω( s)
=?
V f ( s)

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Homework 3

V2 ( s )
=?
V1 ( s )

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Homework 4:
θ L = nθ m
T
m
Tm
=?
TL
T
L

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The block diagram

FIGURE 2.26 Multiple-loop feedback control

system.

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2007年1月31日 24
 FIGURE 2.27 Block diagram reduction of the system of
Fig.2.26
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Signal-flow Graph Modes

V f (s ) G (s ) θ (s )

FIGURE 2.28 Signal-flow graph of the dc

motor.
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Signal-flow Graph Modes

• Branch:
• Nodes:
• Forward-path gain:
• Loop gain:
• Non-touching:

FIGURE 2.31 Two-path

interacting system.
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Mason’s signal-flow gain formula:

Tij =
∑ k
Pij Δ ijk
=
input node
Δ output node
Pijk :
Δ:
Δ ijk :

2007年1月31日 28
Example 2.11
G7
G8

R G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6 Y
H4
H1
H2

H3

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The Simulation of System
Assuming that a mode and the simulation are reliably accurate,computer
simulation has the following advantages:
1. System performance can be observed under all conceivable conditions.
2. Results of field-system performance can be extrapolated with a simulation
model for prediction purposes.
3. Decisions concerning future system presently in a conceptual stage can be
examined.
4. Trials of system under test can be accomplished in a much-reduceed period
of time.
5. Simulation results can be obtained at lower cost than real experimentation.
6. Study of hypothetical situation can be achieved even when the hypothetical
situation would be unrealizable in actual life at the present time.
7. Computer modeling and simulation is often the only feasible or safe
technique to analyze and evaluate a system.
2007年1月31日 30
2007年1月31日 FIGURE 2.34 Analysis and design 31
using a system model.
 Example 2.12 Electric traction motor control

ω( s)
=?
vin ( s )

FIGURE 2.35 Speed control of an electric traction

motor.
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 FIGURE 2.35 Speed control of an electric traction motor.
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The simulation of system using Matlab

M&y& + by& + ky = r (t )
The unforced dynamic response,y(t), of the spring-mass-damper mechanical system is
y ( 0)
y (t ) = e −ξωnt sin(ωn 1 − ξ 2 t + θ )
1−ξ 2

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 FIGURE 2.40 Script to analyze the spring-mass-
2007年1月31日 damper. 35
 FIGURE 2.41 Spring-mass-damper unforced response.
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Exercises

E2.8 E2.9

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CHAPTER 4
Feedback Control System Characteristics
• Open and Closed-Loop Control.
• Sensitivity of Control System to Parameter Variations.
• Control of the Transient Response of Control system.
• Disturbance Signals in a Feedback Control system.
• Steady-state Error.
• The cost of Feedback

2007年1月31日 1
 ; Open-Loop and Closed-Loop Control Systems
• Open-loop

R(s) C(s)
G(s)

C ( s)
Transfer function: G( s) =
R( s)

Error signal: E ( s ) = R ( s ) − C ( s )

Output: C ( s ) = G ( s ) E ( s ) = G ( s )[ R ( s ) − C ( s )]

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2007年1月31日 3
 • Closed-loop

R (s ) + E (s ) C(s)
G (s )
m
H (s )
B(s)

Error signal: E ( s ) = R ( s ) − B ( s )

Feedback signal: B ( s ) = H ( s )C ( s )

Output: C ( s ) = G ( s ) E ( s ) = G ( s )[ R ( s ) − B ( s )]

C ( s) G( s)
Transfer function: T ( s) = =
R( s ) 1 ± G ( s ) H ( s )
E ( s) 1
Error transfer function: =
R( s) 1 ± G ( s) H ( s)

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Sensitivity of Control Systems to Parameter variations

Definite: System sensitivity is the ratio of the change in the system transfer
function to the change of a process transfer function( or parameter) for a
small incremental change

T (s) ΔT ( s ) / T ( s ) ΔT ( s ) G ( s )
∫
G(s)
= = ×
ΔG ( s ) / G ( s ) ΔG ( s ) T ( s )
ΔT ( s ) G ( s ) ∂T ( s ) G ( s )
= lim × = ×
Δ →0 ΔG ( s ) T ( s ) ∂G ( s ) T ( s )
∂ ln(T ( s ))
=
∂ ln(G ( s ))

∫ ∫ ∫
T (s) T (s) G(s)
The chain rule: =
α G(s) α

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 • Open-loop

C ( s)
Transfer function: T ( s) = = G( s)
R( s)
∂T ( s ) G ( s )
∫
T (s)
= ⋅ =1
G(s) ∂G ( s ) T ( s )

• Closed-loop

C ( s) G( s)
Transfer function: T ( s ) = =
R( s ) 1 + G ( s ) H ( s )

∂T ( s ) G ( s ) 1
∫
T (s)
= ⋅ =
G(s) ∂G ( s ) T ( s ) 1 + G ( s ) H ( s )

2007年1月31日 6
 Rf

Ri
Vin Ka
en Vo
K a = 3000

Homework
Answer the questions:
1. The necessary assumptions, such that the transfer function of the inverse amplifier can
be obtained as follows: V (s) = − R
o f

Vin ( s ) Rin

2. The largest ratio of the Rf and R , why?

in

3. S ATo
4. S RT f

2007年1月31日 7
Control of then Transient Response of Control System

• Open-loop

Transfer function: Y (s) b

T (s) = =
R(s) s + a

b A
G( s) = , R( s) =
s+a s
b A
Output: Y ( s) = G ( s) ⋅ R( s) = ⋅
s+a s
Ab
y (t ) = L−1{Y ( s )} = (1 − e − at ), ∀t ≥ 0
a

1
Time constant: τ =
a Settling time: 5τ
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 Error signal: As + (a − Ab)
E ( s) = R( s) − Y ( s) =
s( s + a)
a − Ab Aa − (a − Ab) − at
e(t ) = L−1{E ( s )} = + e
a a

Rise time: tr = t2 − t1

y (t ) |t =t2 = 0.9 ⋅ Cy (∞) 1 .2

1
⇒ t 2 = − ln(0.1) 0 .8

a
c(t ) |t =t1 = 0.1⋅ y (∞)
0 .6

0 .4

1
⇒ t1 = − ln(0.9) 0 .2

t1 t2
a 0
0 1 2 3 4 5

1 1
tr = − ln(0.1) + ln(0.9)
a a

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• Closed-loop ( H ( s ) = 1)

C ( s) b
Transfer function: T ( s ) = =
R ( s ) s + ( a + b)

Output: b A
Y ( s) = T ( s) ⋅ R( s) = ⋅
s + ( a + b) s
Ab
y (t ) = L−1{Y ( s )} = (1 − e −( a +b )t ), ∀t ≥ 0
a+b
1
Time constant: τ =
a+b
Error signal:
As + Aa
E ( s) = R( s) − Y ( s) =
s ( s + a + b)
Aa Ab − at
e(t ) = L−1{E ( s )} = + e
a+b a+b

2007年1月31日 10
Disturbance Signal in a Feedback Control System

• Open-loop
d

R(s) + + Y(s)
G(s)

Output due to R(s): YR ( s ) ( s ) |d =0 = G ( s ) ⋅ R ( s )

Output due to d: Yd ( s ) |R =0 = 1 ⋅ d ( s )

Total output: Y ( s ) = YR ( s ) ( s ) + Yd ( s ) ( s )
= G ( s) ⋅ R( s) + d ( s)

2007年1月31日 11
 • Closed-loop
Td (s )

+ +
R (s ) + Y(s)
G (s )
−

H (s )

G(s)
Output due to R(s): YR ( s ) ( s ) |Td =0 = ⋅ R( s)
1 + G (s) H (s)

1
Output due to Td(s): YTd ( s ) |R =0 = ⋅ Td ( s )
1 + G (s) H (s)

Total output: Y ( s ) = YR ( s ) + YTd ( s )

G (s) 1
= ⋅ R( s) + ⋅ Td ( s )
1 + G (s) H (s) 1 + G (s) H (s)

2007年1月31日 12
 Td (s )
Homework #5
Y (s )
R (s ) 8
s+5

Fig. H5a

3
r (t )
t
0
1
td (t )
t
5

y (t ) t

2007年1月31日 13
 Y (s )
R (s ) 8
s+5

Fig. H5b N d (s )

3
r (t )
t
0
1
nd (t )
t
5

y (t ) t

2007年1月31日 14
Steady-state Error
ess = e(t ) |t →∞ = e( ∞ )
= lim e(t ) = lim s ⋅ E ( s )
t →∞ s →0

• Open-loop
Error signal: E ( s ) = R ( s ) − Y ( s ) = (1 − G ( s )) R ( s )
A
Steady-state error: if R ( s ) =
s
ess = lim(1 − G ( s )) R ( s ) = A(1 − G (0))
s →0
• Closed-loop
1
Error signal: E ( s) = R( s)
1 + G( s) H ( s)

Steady-state error: A
if R ( s ) = when H ( s ) = 1 ess = lim
1
s →0 1 + G ( s )
s
A
ess = lim( sE ( s )) =
s →0 1 + G ( 0) H ( 0)
2007年1月31日 15
The Cost of Feedback System

1. Loss of gain
2. Increased number of components and complexity
3. Possibility of instability

2007年1月31日 16
  Lab #1
° Introduction to Matlab and Simulink
± Simulation (Lab #3,4,5,6)
² How can the Simulink be applied to measure the angular
velocity and angular displacement in which an incremental
encoder are used in control systems?

Exercises:
E4.1 E4.3 E4.6 E4.7 P4.4 P4.14 AP4.6 AP4.7

2007年1月31日 17
CHAPTER 5
The Performance of Feedback
Control Systems
• Introduction
• Test Input Signal
• Performance of a Second-order System
• The S-Plane Root Location and The Transient Response
• The Steady-state Error of Feedback Control System
• Performance Indices

2007年1月31日 1
Introduction

2007年1月31日 2
Test Input Signal
• Step-function
⎧A t ≥ 0
u (t ) = ⎨ or u (t ) = A ⋅ us (t )
⎩0 t < 0 u (t )

A
U ( s ) = L{u(t )} =
s t
• Ramp-function
⎧ At t ≥ 0
r (t ) = ⎨ or r (t ) = At ⋅ us (t )
⎩0 t < 0 r (t )

A
R ( s ) = L{r (t )} =
s2 t

2007年1月31日 3
 • Parabolic-function
⎧⎪ 1 2
At t≥0 1 2
p(t ) = ⎨ 2 or p (t ) = At ⋅ us (t )
⎪⎩0 t<0 2 p (t )
A
P ( s ) = L{ p (t )} =
s3
t

General Form

tn A
r (t ) = A ⋅ ⋅ us (t ) ⇒ R ( s ) = n +1
n! s

2007年1月31日 4
 Performance of a Second-order System
G(s) K ωn2
Y (s) = R( s ) = 2 R( s) = 2
1 + G(s) s + ps + K s + 2ξωn s + ωn2

With a unit step input, we obtain

ωn2
Y (s) =
s ( s 2 + 2ξωn s + ωn2 )

ωn is held constant while the damping ratio ζ is varied

ζ >1 : Overdamped ⇒ s1, 2 = −ζω n ± ω n ζ 2 − 1
ζ =1 : Critically damped ⇒ s1, 2 = −ω n
0<ζ <1 : Underdamped ⇒ s1, 2 = −ζω n ± jω n 1 − ζ 2

ζ =0: Undamped ⇒ s1, 2 = ± jω n

ζ <0 : Negatively damped ⇒ s1, 2 = −ζω n ± jω n 1 − ζ 2
2007年1月31日 5
Performance of a Second-order System
ωn2
1
Y ( s) = 1− ξ 2
s ( s 2 + 2ξωn s + ωn2 )
θ
when 0 < ξ < 1
ξ
1 −ξωn t
y (t ) = 1 − e sin(ωn βt + θ ) β = 1 − ξ 2

β y (t )

y max
Overshoot

1
0 .9
ε = 2 % or 5 %

0 .5

0 .1
t (sec)
0 td tp ts
t1 t2
tr=t2-
t1
Typical unit-step response of a control system
2007年1月31日 6
 dy (t ) ωn
= e −ξωnt sin ω n 1 − ξ 2 t = 0
dt 1−ξ 2
e −ξωnt = 0 ⇒t→∞
sin ω n 1 − ξ 2 t = 0 ⇒ ω n 1 − ξ 2 t = nπ
nπ
t= n =1→ t = tp
ωn 1 − ξ 2

π
tp =
ωn 1 − ξ 2
M p = 1 + e −ξπ / 1−ξ 2

y max − y fin
P.O = × 100% = e −ξπ / 1−ξ 2
× 100%
y fin

Settling Time: Damping Factor : α = ξωn

1
e −ξωnt s < 0.02
1− ξ 2

1 4
ts = − ln(0.02 1 − ξ 2 ) ≈ , for ess < 0.02
ξωn ξωn

2007年1月31日 7
2007年1月31日 8
 The S-plane Root Location and the Transient Response

θ↑ ↓ ↑ ⇔

α↑ ↓ ⇔

ωd = ωn 1 − ξ 2 ↑ ↑ ⇔

2007年1月31日 9
 B
S-plane
Second-order step response
A
C
System A

Draw the step responses of the system B and

C,. respectively
2007年1月31日 10
 ω n 3 > ω n 2 > ω n 1 jω ζ 3 > ζ 2 > ζ1 ζ1 jω
ζ2
ωn2 ζ3 ζ =0
ω n1 σ
σ
ωn3

constant ωn constant ζ

α 2 < α1 < 0 jω ωd 2 > ωd1 jω

ωd 2
α3 > 0
ωd1

α1 α2 α3 σ σ

constant α constant ωd
2007年1月31日 11
 0<ζ<1 0>ζ>-1
ζ=0

ζ=1 ζ=-1
ζ⌫ ∞ ζ⌫ -∞
ζ>1 ζ<-1

ζ=0
0<ζ<1 0>ζ>-1

2007年1月31日 12
 jω jω
c(t ) c(t )
S - 平面
S - 平面

1 ζ =0
ω ω 1
0 0
ζ >1

0 t 0 t

jω jω
c(t ) S - 平面 c(t )
S - 平面

1
ω ω
0 0 1
ζ =1
−1 < ζ < 0
0 t 0 t

jω jω
c(t ) S - 平面 c(t )
S - 平面

0 <ζ <1
ω 1 ω 1
0 0
ζ < −1

0 t 0 t

Step response
2007年1月31日 13
2007年1月31日 14
The Steady-state Error of Feedback Control System
• Type of Control Systems
R (s ) + E (s ) C(s)
G (s )
Loop transfer function: −

Q( s) H (s )
G( s) H ( s) =
P( s )
bm s m + bm −1s m −1 + L + b1s + b0
=
an s n + an −1s n −1 + an −2 s n −2 + L + a1s + a0
m
K ∏( s + z j )
j =1
= n− N
s N ∏ ( s + pi )
i =1

The loop transfer function as s approaches zero depends on the

number of integrations N.
The number of integrations is often indicated by labeling a
system with a type number that simply is equal to N.
2007年1月31日 15
 1
Error function: E ( s ) = ⋅ R( s)
1 + G( s) H ( s)

Steady-state error: ess = lim s ⋅ E ( s )

s →0

if H ( s) = 1
Step-function input
1 A
ess = lim s ⋅ ⋅
s →0 1 + G(s) s
A
=
1 + lim G ( s )
s →0

Define the position error constant as: K p = lim G ( s )

s →0
A
ess =
2007年1月31日 1+ Kp 16
 Ramp-function input
1 A A
ess = lim s ⋅ ⋅ 2 =
s →0 1 + G ( s) s lim sG ( s )
s →0
Define the velocity error constant as: K v = lim sG ( s )
s →0
A
ess =
Kv

Parabolic-function input
1 A A
ess = lim s ⋅ ⋅ 3=
s →0 1 + G ( s) s lim s 2G ( s )
s →0

Define the acceleration error constant as: K a = lim s 2G ( s )

s →0
A
ess =
Ka

2007年1月31日 17
 Summary of steady-state errors (unit feedback)

Type of Error Constant Steady-state error ess

system
K p Kv Ka A A A
N
1+ Kp Kv Ka
0 K 0 0 Constant ∞ ∞
1 ∞ K 0 0 Constant ∞
2 ∞ ∞ K 0 0 Constant

3 ∞ ∞ ∞ 0 0 0

2007年1月31日 18
 Performance indices

A performance index is a
quantitative measure of the
performance of a system and is
chosen so that emphasis is given to
the important system specifications.
A system is consider an optimum
control system when the system
parameters are adjusted so that the
index reaches an extreme value,
commonly a minimum value.

The Integral of the Square of the Error:

T
ISE = ∫ e 2 dt
0

2007年1月31日 19
2007年1月31日 20
CHAPTER 6
The Stability of Linear Feedback Systems
• The Concept of Stability
• The Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
•The Relative Stability of Feedback Control Systems

2007年1月31日 1
The Concept of Stability

• Stability ƒ Absolute stability

ƒ Relative stability

• The methods for the determination of stability jω

S-plane
of linear continuous-time systems:
ƒ Routh-Hurwitz criterion
stable unstable
ƒ Nyquist criterion
ƒ Bode diagram σ
stable unstable

A stable system is a dynamic system with a

bounded response to a bounded input

2007年1月31日 2
 S-plane

2007年1月31日 3
2007年1月31日 4
2007年1月31日 5
 • Bounded-input bounded-output (BIBO) stability:
u (t ) y (t )
System
δ (t ) h (t )
∞

∫
y (t ) = u (t − τ ) ⋅ h (τ )dτ
0
∞ ∞
y (t ) = ∫ u (t − τ ) ⋅ h (τ )dτ ⇒ y (t ) ≤ ∫ u (t − τ ) ⋅ h(τ ) dτ
0 0

∞
If u(t) is bounded, u (t ) ≤ M
∫
⇒ y (t ) ≤ M h (τ ) dτ
0

Thus, if y(t) is to be bounded, or y (t ) ≤ N < ∞

∞

∫
⇒ M h(τ ) dτ ≤ N < ∞
0
∞

∫
⇔ h (τ ) dτ ≤ Q < ∞
0

M , N and Q are finite positive number

2007年1月31日 6
 ; The Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
Consider the characteristic equation of a linear SISO system

q ( s ) = an ( s − r1 )( s − r2 ).....( s − rn ) = 0
=a n s n − an (r1 + r2 + ... + rn ) s n −1 + an (r1r2 + r2 r3 + ...) s n − 2
+ an (r1r2 r3 + r1r2 r4 + ...) s n −3 + .... + an (−1) n r1r2 ... = 0
an −1 n −1 a a
q( s) = s n + s +L+ 1 s + 0 = 0
an an an
an −1
an =− ∑ all roots
an −2
an = ∑ products of the roots taken two at a time
an −3
an = − ∑ products of the roots taken three at a time
M
a0
an = ( −1) n products of the roots
2007年1月31日 7
The necessary condition to guarantee that all roots of q(s)=0 with
negative real part are:
Š All the coefficients of the equation have the the same sign.
Š None of the coefficients vanishes.
Necessary but not sufficient!
q( s) = an s n + an −1s n −1 + ..... + a1s + a0 = 0

sn an a n−2 a n−4 a n −6 ...... a n −1a n − 2 − a n a n −3 a n −1a n − 4 − a n a n −5

b1 = b2 =
s n −1 a n −1 a n −3 a n −5 a n −7 .... an an

s n−2 b1 b2 b3
c1 =
b1a n −3 − a n −1b2
b1
s n −3 c1

. .
. The Routh-Hurwitz criterion states that the number of roots of q(s)
.
.
s .
with positive real parts is equal to the number of changes in sign
of the first column of the Routh array
s0

2007年1月31日 8
Case1:No element in the first column is zero
Second-order system Third-order system
q ( s ) = a2 s 2 + a1s + a0 = 0 q ( s ) = a3 s 3 + a2 s 2 + a1s + a0 = 0

s2 a2 a0 s3 a3 a1
s1 a1 0 s2 a2 a0
a1a0 − a2 0 1 a2 a1 − a3a0
s0 b1 = = a0 bs1 = 0
a1 a2
s0 a0

The system is stable if all the coefficients a3 ~ a0 > 0

set
have the same sign.
The system is stable if a a 2 1 > a3a0

2007年1月31日 9
Case 2: Zeros in the first column while some other elements of the row containing a
zero in the first column are nonzero.
q( s ) = s 5 + 2 s 4 + 2 s 3 + 4s 2 + 11s + 10 = 0
ε >0 4ε − 12 12
s5 1 2 11 c1 = ≈− ≈ −∞
ε ε
s4 2 4 10 ε
6c1 − 10ε
s3 0 6 0 d1 ≈6
c1
s2 c1 10 0
s1 d1 0 0
s0 10 0 0

F ( s) s= =
1
1
x5
+ 2 x1 + 2 x1 + 4 x1 + 11 x1 + 10
4 3 2 1
x

= 1
x5
⋅ (1 + 2 x1 + 2 x 2 + 4 x 3 + 11x 4 + 10 x 5 )
≡ 1
x5
⋅ F ( x)

2007年1月31日 10
Case 3: Zeros in the first column, and the other element of the row containing the
zero are also zero.

This condition occurs when the polynomial contains singularities that are symmetrically
located about the origin of the s-plane.

S-plane S-plane S-plane

2007年1月31日 11
q( s) = s 3 + 2s 2 + 4s + 8 = 0

s3 1 4
2 A( s ) = 2 s 2 + 8 = 0
s 2 8
= s2 + 4 = 0
s1 0 0 s = ± j2
s0
( 2)
(1)
dA( s )
s+2 = 2s
ds
s 2 + 4 s 3 + 2s 2 + 4s + 8
s3 1 4
s3 + 4s
2s 2
+8 s2 2 8
2s 2 +8 s1 2 0

q ( s ) = ( s + 2)( s + j 2)( s − j 2) = 0 s0 8
The system has not any pole on the RHP,
but system is marginally stable.
2007年1月31日 12
 (1)
Case 4: Repeated roots of the characteristic equation A( s ) = s 4 + 2 s 2 + 1 = ( s 2 + 1) 2 = 0
on the imaginary axis. s = j , j ,− j ,− j

(2)
q( s) = s 5 + s 4 + 2s 3 + 2s 2 + s + 1 = 0
s +1

5
A( s ) = s 4 + 2 s 2 + 1 = ( s 2 + 1) 2 = 0 s 4 + 2s 2 + 1 s5 + s 4 + 2s 3 + 2s 2 + s + 1
s 1 2 1
4
s = j , j ,− j ,− j s5 + 2s 3 +s
s 1 2 1
3
s4 + 2s 2 +1
s 0 0 0
2
s4 + 2s 2 +1
s
.
dA( s )
s 5
1 2 1 = 4s 3 + 4s
4
ds The system has not any root on the RHP,
s 1 2 1 but the system is unstable.
s3 4 4 0 Repeated roots on the imaginary axis

s2 1 1 0
s1 0 0 0
. The resulted of Routh array is Falsely
indicated.
2007年1月31日 13
q( s) = s 3 + 2s 2 + 4s + k = 0 q ( s ) = s 3 + 3ks 2 + (k + 2) s + 4 = 0
s3 1 4
Ans: k>0.528, system is stable.
2
s 2 k
8−k
s1 0
2
s0 k
(1) k > 8
(2) k > 0

∞
8

∞
0

Ans: k>8, system is stable.

2007年1月31日 14
2007年1月31日 15
q ( s ) = s 4 + 8s 3 + 17 s 2 + (k + 10) s + ka = 0

s4 1 17 ka
s3 8 (k + 10) 0
s 2 b1 ka
s1 c1
s 0 ka

126 − k b (k + 10) − 8ka

b1 = , and c1 = 1
8 b1
k < 126
ka > 0
(k + 10)(126 − k ) − 64ka > 0

2007年1月31日 16
2007年1月31日 17
 Exercises and Problems
E6.1,E6.2,E6.6,E6.17
P6.6,P6.12,P6.15,P6.18
AP6.4,DP6.1

2007年1月31日 18
CHAPTER 7
The Root Locus Method
•The Root Locus Concept
•The Root Locus Procedure
•The Root contour
•The Root Locus Using Matlab

2007年1月31日 1
 Y ( s ) p( s)
T ( s) = =
R ( s ) q( s )
Roots to find out the solution of the characteristic R (s ) + E (s ) C(s)
G (s )
equation.
−
q( s ) = 1 + G ( s ) H ( s ) = 0 H (s )

q( s ) = 1 + KG1 ( s ) H1 ( s ) = 0
1
G1 ( s ) H1 ( s ) = −1 •
K

q( s ) = s 3 + 2 s 2 + Ks + 4 K = 0
1
| G1 ( s ) H1 ( s ) |= = s 3 + 2 s 2 + K ( s + 4) = 0
|K |
⎧180 ± 2kπ , for K > 0 ⎫ s+4
⎪ ⎪ = 1+ K 2 =0
∠G1 ( s ) H1 ( s ) = ⎨ 00 ± 2kπ , for K < 0 ⎬ s ( s + 2)
⎪ where k = 0,1,2... ⎪ s+4
⎩ ⎭
G1 ( s ) H1 ( s ) = 2
s ( s + 2)

2007年1月31日 2
2007年1月31日 3
 1
q( s ) = 1 + G ( s ) H ( s ) = 1 + K =0
s ( s + 2)
1
| G1 ( s ) H1 ( s ) |s = s1 = = s1
s( s + 2) s = s1
∠G1 ( s ) H1 ( s ) |s = s1

2007年1月31日 4
2007年1月31日 5
2007年1月31日 6
 ; The Root Locus Procedure
Step Related equation or Rule
1. Write the characteristic equation so that F ( s ) = 1 + KG1 ( s ) H 1 ( s ) = 0
the parameter of interest K appears as a
multiplier.
m
2. Factor G1 ( s ) H 1 ( s ) in terms of n poles and ∏(s + z j )
j =1
m zeros. G1 ( s ) H 1 ( s ) = n
∏( s + pi )
i =1

3. Locate the open-loop poles and zeros of  : poles, {: zeros,

F (s ) in the s-plane with selected symbols. Δ or †: roots of characteristic equation
4. Locate the segments of the real axis that a). Locus begins at a pole and ends at zero.
are root locus. b). Locus lies to left of an odd number of
poles and zeros ( K ≥ 0 ).
5. The number of branch on the root loci, ρ. ρ = n, when n ≥ m;
n: number of finite poles, m: number of finite zeros
6. The root loci are symmetrical with respect
to the horizontal real axis.
7. Intersect of the asymptotes (Centroid)
σ=
∑ pi − ∑ z j or σ = ∑ Re( pi ) − ∑ Re( z j )
n−m n−m
8. Angles of asymptotes of the root loci. ⎧ ( 2k + 1)π
⎪ , ∀K ≥ 0
θk = ⎨ n − m ; k = 0,1,2,L, n − m − 1
2kπ
⎪ , ∀K < 0
⎩ n−m
2007年1月31日 7
 9. Breakaway points (saddle points) on the Roots of d G ( s ) H ( s ) = 0 or d K = 0
1 1
root loci. ds ds
10. Intersection of root loci with imaginary Routh-Hurwitz criterion.
axis.
11. Angles of departure and angles of arrival ⎧( 2k + 1)π ∀K ≥ 0
∠G1 ( s ) H 1 ( s ) = ⎨ , k = 0,1,2,L
of the root loci. ⎩ 2 kπ ∀K < 0
at s = pi or s = z j .
12. Calculation of K at a specific root si . n
∏ (s + p ) i
K= i =1
m
∏ (s + z j )
j =1
s = si

2007年1月31日 8
2007年1月31日 9
 Step 4: The root locus on the real axis always lies in a section of the
real axis to the left of an odd number of poles and zeros.

Odd segments

Step 5: Determine the number of separate loci,SL.The number

of separate loci is equal to the number of poles

2007年1月31日 10
Step 6: The root loci must be symmetrical with respect to the horizontal real
axis.
Step 7: The linear asymptotes are centered at a point on the real axis given
by σ = ∑ poles − ∑ zeros The angle of the asymptotes with respect to the
n−m
A

( 2q + 1) ( 2q + 1)
real axis is φA = × 1800 n = 4, m = 1, φ1 = × 1800 , q = 0,1,2, n − m − 1
n−m 4 −1

2007年1月31日 11
Step 8:The actual point at which the root locus crosses the imaginary axis is
readily evaluated by utilizing the Routh-Hurwitz criterion.
dK
Step 9: Determine the breakaway point =0
ds
the tangents to the loci at the breakaway point are equally over 3600

1
1 + KG1 ( s ) = 1 + K =0
( s + 2)( s + 4)

2007年1月31日 12
K = −( s + 2)( s + 4)
dK
= −( 2 s + 6) = 0, s = −3
ds

dK
ds
2
s

-2

2007年1月31日 13
Step 10:Determine the angle of departure of the locus from a pole and the
angle of arrival of the locus at a zero,using the phase angle criterion.

2007年1月31日 14
 ; Examples

1
F ( s) = 1 + K
1 F ( s) = 1 + K
s ( s + 2) s( s + 2)( s + 3)

2 6

1.5
4

2
0.5
Imag A xis

Imag Axis
0 0

-0.5
-2

-1

-4
-1.5

-2 -6
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
Real A xis Real Axis

Effects adding poles to G1(s)H1(s)

2007年1月31日 15
 1
F ( s) = 1 + K s+4
s( s + 2)( s + 3)( s + 4) F ( s) = 1 + K
s( s + 2)( s + 3)
4 5

3 4

3
2
2
1
1
Imag Axis

Imag A xis
0 0

-1 -1

-2
-2
-3
-3
-4

-4 -5
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
Real Axis Real A xis

Effects adding poles to G1(s)H1(s) Effects adding zeros to G1(s)H1(s)

2007年1月31日 16
 1 1
F ( s) = 1 + K F ( s) = 1 + K
s 4 + 12 s 3 + 64 s 2 + 32 s s( s + 3)( s 2 + 2 s + 2)
6 4

3
4

2
1

Imag A xis
Imag A xis

0 0

-1
-2

-2

-4
-3

-6 -4
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Real A xis Real A xis

Effects adding poles to G1(s)H1(s) -∞<K<∞

 Lab #3
Written a M-file to plot the root loci step by step. (rlocfind)

2007年1月31日 17
q( s ) = s 3 + s 2 + β s + α = 0 βs
1+ =0
s + s +α
3 2

s3 + s2 + α = 0
α
1+ =0
s ( s + 1)
2

2007年1月31日 18
R (s ) Y (s )
k1
s(s + 2)

k2s

Specifications:
1. Steady-state error for a ramp input ≤ 35%
2. Damping ratio of dominant roots ≥ 0.707 sec.
3. Settling time to within 2 % of the final value ≤3 sec.

1 + GH ( s ) = s 2 + 2 s + βs + α = 0
β = k2k1 , α = k1

2007年1月31日 19
2007年1月31日 20
2007年1月31日 21
 s +1
1 + G1 ( s ) H1 ( s ) = 1 + K =0
s (s + a)
2

Root Locus
Root Locus Root Locus
10
8 8

6 6
6

4 4
4

2
2
2
Imaginary Axis

Imaginary Axis

Imaginary Axis
0
0
0
-2

-2
-4 -2

-6 -4
-4

-8
-6
-6
-10
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
Real Axis -8
-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 -8

a = 10
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
Real Axis
Real Axis

a=9 a =8

Root Locus
8 Root Locus Root Locus
5 0.4

6
4
0.3

3
4
0.2

2
2
0.1
Imaginary Axis

Imaginary Axis
Imaginary Axis

0
0 0

-2 -1
-0.1

-2
-4
-0.2

-3

-6
-0.3
-4

-8 -0.4
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 -5
-2 -1.8 -1.6 -1.4 -1.2 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 -1.2 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2
Real Axis Real Axis

a=7
Real Axis

a=2 a =1
2007年1月31日 22
2007年1月31日 23
2007年1月31日 24
2007年1月31日 25
2007年1月31日 26
CHAPTER 8
Frequency Response Methods
Introduction
Frequency Response Plots
Š Polar Plot
Š Bode Plot
Š Log Magnitude and Phase Plot
Frequency Response Measurements
Performance Specifications in The Frequency Domain
2007年1月31日 1
 ;Introduction
r(t) c(t)
T(s)
R(s) C(s)

Output: C ( s ) = T ( s ) R ( s )

If r (t ) = A sin(ω ⋅ t ) ⇒ c(t ) = C sin(ω ⋅ t + φ )

For sinusoidal steady-state analysis, we replace s by jω, and

output c(t) becomes

C ( jω ) = T ( jω ) ⋅ R ( jω ) = C ( jω ) ∠C ( jω ) = C ( jω ) e j∠C ( jω )

For a closed-loop system

G ( jω )
T ( jω ) = T ( s ) s = jω =
1 + G ( jω ) H ( jω )
= T ( jω ) ∠T ( jω )
or R( w) + jX ( w)
2007年1月31日 2
 where
G ( jω )
T ( jω ) =
1 + G ( jω ) H ( jω )

∠T ( jω ) = ∠G ( jω ) − ∠1 + G ( jω ) H ( jω )

and
R (ω ) = Re[T ( jω )] T ( jω ) = Re[T ( jω )] + j Im[C ( jω )]
X (ω ) = Im[T ( jω )] ΔR (ω ) + jX (ω )
T ( jω ) = R 2 (ω ) + X 2 (ω )
X (ω )
∠T ( jω ) = tan −1
R (ω )

2007年1月31日 3
 The Laplace transform pair
C ( s ) = L{c(t )} = ∫0 c(t )e − st dt
∞

1 σ + j∞
c(t ) = L−1{C ( s )} = ∫ C ( s ) e st
ds
2πj σ − j∞

The Fourier transform pair

C ( jω ) = F {c(t )} = ∫−∞ c(t )e − jωt dt

∞

and
1
c(t ) = F −1{C ( jω )} =
j∞
∫−∞ C ( jω ) e jωt
dω
2π
The Fourier transform exists for f(t) when
∞
∫−∞ c(t ) dt < ∞

2007年1月31日 4
 ;Frequency Response Plots
Š Polar plot
A plot of the magnitude versus phase in the polar coordinates as ω is
varied from 0 → ∞.
ƒ Find T(jω); | T(jω)|, ∠ T(jω), R (jω) and X(jω).
ƒ To Determine the behavior of the magnitude and phase of T(jω) at
ω→0 and ω→∞.
lim T ( jω ) ; lim ∠T ( jω )
ω →0 ω →0

lim T ( jω ) ; lim ∠T ( jω )
ω →∞ ω →∞

ƒ To Determine the the intersection

R (ω ) ω =ω = 0 ⇒ X (ω ) ω =ω = β
i i

X (ω ) ω =ω = 0 ⇒ R (ω ) ω =ω = α
r r

ƒ To Determine the the asymptotic line

lim T ( jω ) = lim[R (ω ) + jX (ω )] = a + jb
ω →0 ω →0

2007年1月31日 5
 ‘Case 1: Integral and derivative factor s ±1

ω →∞
ω →∞ ω →0

ω →0
1
A). T ( jω ) = B ). T ( jω ) = jω
jω
‘Case 2: First-order factor T ( s ) = (1 + τs ) ±1

ω →∞
ω →0 ω →0
ω →∞ 1 1
ω = ωi
1
A). T ( jω ) = B ). T ( jω ) = 1 + jωτ
1 + jωτ
2007年1月31日 6
 ‘Case 3: Quadratic factor

ω n2
A). T ( s ) = 2
s + 2ζω n s + ω n2
ω →∞ ω →0
1
=
1 1 ωn
s 2
+ 2ζ s +1
ωn 2
ωn
1
T ( jω ) =
1 + 2ζ (ωjω ) + (ωjω ) ζ : small
2
n n

1
=
1 − (ωω ) + j 2ζ (ωω ) ω →∞
2
n n

s 2 + 2ζω n s + ω n2
B ). T ( s ) = ω →0
ω n2
1

2007年1月31日 7
 ŠBode plot
The Bode plot of the function T(jω) is composed of two plots:
° The amplitude of T(jω) in decibels (dB) versus ω or log10 ω.
± The phase of T(jω) in degree versus ω or log10 ω.

T ( jω ) = T ( jω ) e j∠T ( jω )
Logarithmic gain = 20 ⋅ log10 T ( jω )
100

50

0
Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

-50

-100

-50

-100

-150

-200

-250

-300
-2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)
2007年1月31日 8
 ƒ Constant factor: K

K dB = 20 ⋅ log K

and

⎧0° for K > 0

∠K = ⎨
⎩± 180° for K < 0
15

14.5

14
Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

13.5

13

12.5

200

100

-100
-1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10

Frequency (rad/sec)

2007年1月31日 9
 T ( jω ) dB = 20 ⋅ log ( jω ) ± p = ±20 p ⋅ log(ω )

d
[ ±20 p ⋅ log(ω )] = ±20 p dB / decade
d (log ω )

and 200

100

Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

∠( jω ) ± p = ± p × 90° 0

-100

-200

200

100

-100

-200

-300
-1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10

Frequency (rad/sec)

2007年1月31日 10
 ƒ Simple zero: 1 + sτ

T ( jω ) dB = 20 ⋅ log T ( jω ) = 20 ⋅ log 1 + (ωτ ) 2

ωτ << 1 ⇒ T ( jω ) dB ≅ 20 ⋅ log(1) = 0
ωτ >> 1 ⇒ T ( jω ) dB ≅ 20 ⋅ log (ωτ ) 2 = 20 ⋅ log(ωτ )
and 25

∠T ( jω ) = tan (ωτ )
−1 20

15

Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

10

1 ⎧ T ( jω ) dB = 20 ⋅ log 2 ≅ 3
-5

ω = ⇒⎨ 100

τ ⎩∠T ( jω ) = tan (1) = 45°

−1
80

60

40

20

0
0 1 2
10 10 10

Frequency (rad/sec)

2007年1月31日 11
 1
ƒ Simple pole:
1 + sτ
T ( jω ) dB = 20 ⋅ log T ( jω ) = 20 ⋅ log 1
1+ ( ωτ ) 2

ωτ << 1 ⇒ T ( jω ) dB ≅ 20 ⋅ log(1) = 0
ωτ >> 1 ⇒ T ( jω ) dB ≅ −20 ⋅ log(ωτ )

and 5

∠T ( jω ) = − tan (ωτ )
−1
-5

Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

-10

-15

1⎧ T ( jω ) dB = −20 ⋅ log 2 ≅ −3 -20

ω = ⇒⎨ 0

τ ⎩∠T ( jω ) = − tan (1) = −45°

−1
-20

-40

-60

-80

-100
0 1 2
10 10 10

Frequency (rad/sec)

2007年1月31日 12
 ƒ Quadratic poles: ω 2
n

s 2 + 2ζω n s + ω n2

T ( jω ) dB = 20 ⋅ log 1
[1−( ωn )] [2ζ ( ) ]
ω 2 2+ ω
ωn
2

ω
<< 1 ⇒ T ( jω ) dB ≅ 20 ⋅ log(1) = 0
ωn
ω
>> 1 ⇒ T ( jω ) dB ≅ −20 ⋅ log(ωω ) = −40 ⋅ log(ωω )
2

ωn n n

and
⎡ 2ζ ( ωω ) ⎤
∠T ( jω ) = − tan ⎢−1
ω 2⎥
n

⎣1 − ( ω ) ⎦ n

ω
<< 1 ⇒ ∠T ( jω ) = 0°
ωn
ω
>> 1 ⇒ ∠T ( jω ) = −180°
ωn
2007年1月31日 13
 ω = ω n ⇒ T ( jω ) dB = −20 ⋅ log(2ζ )
ω = ω n ⇒ ∠T ( jω ) = −90°

20

ζ = 0.1, 0.2
0

Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

-20

-40

-50

-100

-150

-200
0 1 2
10 10 10

Frequency (rad/sec)

Š Log Magnitude and Phase Plot

2007年1月31日 14
 ;Performance Specifications in The Frequency Domain
Š Resonant peak: Mpω
The resonant peak is the maximum value of |T(jω)|.
Š Resonant frequency: ωr
The resonant frequency is the frequency at which the peak resonant occur.
Š Bandwidth: BW (ωB)
The bandwidth is the frequency at which T(jω) drops to 70.7% of, or 3 dB
down from, its zero-frequency value.
Š Cutoff rate
The cutoff rate is the slop of log-magnitude curve near the cutoff frequency.

M pω
1
0.707

ωr ωB

2007年1月31日 15
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2007年1月31日 43
2007年1月31日 44
 CHAPTER 9
Stability in the Frequency Domain
Introduction
Mapping Contours in the s-Plane
The Nyquist Criterion
Relative Stability and the Nyquist Criterion
Time-Domain performance Criteria Specified in
the Frequency Domain

2007年1月31日 1
 Introduction

Time-domain
Routh-Hurwitz criterion
Root-Locus
by locating the roots of characteristic equation in the s-plane.

Frequency domain
Nyquist stability criterion
based on the theorem of complex variables due to Cauchy,
commonly known as principle of argument.
H. Nyquist 1932

2007年1月31日 2
 F ( s) = 2s + 1

Enclose

A : F ( s ) |s =1+ j = 2 s + 1 = 2 + 2 j + 1 = 3 + 2 j Clockwise and eyes right

B : F ( s ) |s =1− j = 2 s + 1 = 3 − 2 j

2007年1月31日 3
 s
F (s) =
s+2

Γs ΓF

Cauchy’s Theorem:If a contour Γ in the s-plane encircles Z zeros and P poles of

s
F(s) and does not pass through any poles or zeros of F(s) and the traversal is in the
clockwise direction along the contour, the corresponding contour ΓF in the F(s)-plane
encircles the origin of the F(s)-plane N=Z-P time in the clockwise direction
2007年1月31日 4
 s
F ( s) =
s + 0.5

Γs ΓF

2007年1月31日 5
 | s + z1 || s + z 2 |
F ( s ) =| F ( s ) | ∠F ( s ) = (∠s + z1 + ∠s + z 2 − ∠s + p1 − ∠s + p2 )
| s + p1 || s + p2 |
=| F ( s ) | ∠(φ z1 + φ z2 − φ p1 − φ p2 ) =| F ( s ) | ∠φF
φF = φ z − φ p

2007年1月31日 6
 P = 1, Z = 3, N = Z − P = 3 −1 = 2

2007年1月31日 7
 Nyquist contour (Nyquist path)
Since the Nyquist contour must not pass through any poles and zeros
of F(s), the small semicircles shown along the jω-axis are used to
indicate that the path should go around these poles and zeros if they
fall on the jω-axis.
jω
j∞
d

c
jω 1 ×
b

a
0×
j e
σ
i

h
− jω1×
g

f
− j∞
2007年1月31日 8
 jω Path ab:
s=jω ; 0<ω<ω1
j∞
d Path bc:
s=jω1+ε⋅ejθ; ε→0 and -90 º <θ<90º
c
jω1 × Path cd:
b s=jω ; ω1<ω<∞
Path def:
a
σ s=R⋅ejθ; R→∞ and 90 º <θ<-90º
0×
j e

i Path fg:
s=jω ; -∞<ω<-ω1
h
− jω1 × Path gh:
g s=-jω1+ε⋅ejθ; ε→0 and -90 º <θ<90º
Path hi:
f
− j∞ s=jω ; -ω1< ω<0
Path ija:
s=ε⋅ejθ; ε→0 and -90 º <θ<90º

2007年1月31日 9
 K
GH ( s ) =
s (τs + 1)

jφ 3. ω : ∞ ~ -∞ , s = Re jφ , R → ∞, φ : 90 ~ −90
1.ω : 0 → 0 , φ : −90 ~ 90, s = εe
− +
K K
GH ( s ) |s = Re jφ = lim = 2 e − j 2φ ≈ 0e − j 2φ ,−180 ~ +180
K φ φ
R → ∞ Re (τ Re + 1)
j j
τR
G ( s ) = lim φ φ
= ∞e − jφ ,900 ~ −900
ε →0 εe (ττe
j j
+ 1)

2. ω : 0 + → ∞, s = jω 4. ω : −∞ → 0 −
K K The portion of the polar plot from ω = −∞ to ω = 0 −
GH ( s ) = = , ω → ∞, | GH ( jω ) |≈ 0, φ ≈ −180 0
jω ( jωτ + 1) − ω τ + jϖ
2 is symmetrical to the polar plot from ω = 0 + to ω = +∞

2007年1月31日 10
 100
G ( s) =
( s + 1)( s + 1)
10

2007年1月31日 11
 Nyquist criterion and the GH(s) plot
Since the open-loop transfer function GH(s) is generally known, it
would be simpler to construct the GH(s) plot that corresponds to the
Nyquist path, and the same stability conditions of the closed-loop
system can be obtained by observing the number of encirclements of
the (-1,j0) point in the GH(s)-plane.
F ( s ) = 1 + GH ( s ) ⇔ GH ( s ) = 1 − F ( s )

jω jv
GH(s)
+ j∞
Γs
s-plane ( −1, j 0)
σ u

− j∞

2007年1月31日 12
 Stability requirements
For the closed-loop system to be stable, there should be no zeros
of F(s) in right half s-plane; i.e.,
Z=0
this condition is met if
N=Z–P=0 – P= – P
The special case of P=0, means open-loop stable system, the
closed-loop system is stable if
N=Z–P=0
N 0 = Z 0 − P0
N ( s)
Open − loop : GH ( s) = P−1 = P0 ⇐ poles of L( s ) = F ( s )
D( s)
N ( s) D( s) + N ( s) N −1 = Z −1 − P−1
closed − loop : F ( s ) = 1 + GH ( s ) = 1 + =
D( s) D( s) Z −1 = 0 ⇐ stable for closed - loop
N −1 = 0 − P−1 = − P−1

2007年1月31日 13
 K
GH ( s ) =
s (τ 1s + 1)(τ 2 s + 1)
1.ω : 0 − → 0 + , s = εe jφ , ε → 0, φ : −90 ~ 90
K
GH ( s ) = lim jφ jφ φ
= ∞e − jφ , | GH ( S ) |= ∞, φ : 90 ~ −90
ε → 0 εe (τ εe + 1)(τ 2εe + 1)
j
1

2. ω : 0 + → ∞, s = jω ,
K
GH ( s ) =
jω ( jτ 1ω + 1)( jτ 2ω + 1)
Re =
− K (τ 1 + τ 2 ) − jK ( 1 )(1 − ω 2τ 1τ 2 )
= ω = Re + J Im
1 + ω 2 (τ 12 + τ 22 ) + ω 4τ 12τ 22

1
Let Im=0 ω=
τ 1τ 2

The magnitude of the real part,Re of the GH(jw) at this frequency is

− K (τ 1 + τ 2 ) 1
Re = ,ω =
1 + ω (τ 1 + τ 2 ) + ω τ 1 τ 2
2 2 2 4 2 2
τ 1τ 2
- Kτ 1τ 2 3. ω : +∞ → -∞, s = re jφ , r → ∞, φ : 90 ~ −90
=
τ1 + τ 2 GH ( s ) = lim jφ
K
≈ 0e − j 3φ
r →∞ re ( rτ e φ jφ
1
j
+ 1)(rτ 2 e + 1)

2007年1月31日 14
 K
GH ( s ) =
s ( s + 1)( s + 1)
K =1 K =3
K =2
stabl unstab

2007年1月31日 15
System with a pole in the right-hand s-plane

K1
GH ( s ) = , K2 = 0 1.ω = 0 − → 0 +
s ( s − 1)

2007年1月31日 16
1.w : 0 − → 0 + , s = εe jφ , φ : −90 ~ 90
K
GH ( s ) = lim φ φ
= −∞e − jφ = ∞∠ − 180 − φ
ε →0 εe (εe
j j
− 1)

2.w : 0 + → ∞, s = jw
K K
GH ( jw) = = ∠ − 900 − tan −1 (− w)
jw( jw − 1) 1
( w4 + w )
2 2

K
= 1
∠90 + tan −1 ( w)
( w4 + w )
2 2

3.w : ∞ → −∞, s = re jφ , φ : 90 ~ −90

2007年1月31日 17
closed − loop
Y ( s) K1
= 2 , F ( s ) = s 2 + K1 K 2 s − s + K 1 = 0
R( s ) s + ( K1 K 2 − 1) s + K1
K1 (1 + K 2 s)
F (s) = 1 + =0
s ( s − 1)

2007年1月31日 18
 System with a zero in the right-hand s-plane N0 = 1
N −1 = 1

K ( s − 2)
GH ( s ) =
( s + 1) 2

Z 0 = 1, N 0 = 1 ⇒ P0 = 0
P−1 = P0 = 1, N −1 = 1, ⇒ Z −1 = 2
∴ Closed-loop system is unstable

2007年1月31日 19
 Relative Stability and the Nyquist Criterion
The Nyquist stability criterion is defined in term of (-1,j0) points on the
polar plot or the 0 dB, -180 º point on the Bode diagram or Log-magnitude-
phase diagram. Clearly, the proximity of L(jω) locus to this stability point is
a measure of the relative stability of the system.

Definition
Phase Crossover
A phase crossover on the L(jω) plot
is a point at which the plot intersects
the negative real axis. ωp
Phase Crossover Frequency: ωp
The phase crossover frequency is the
ω2
frequency at the phase crossover, or
where
ω1
∠L(jωp)=± 180 º

2007年1月31日 20
 Gain Crossover
The gain crossover is a point on L(jω) plot at which the
magnitude of L(jω) is equal to 1.
Gain Crossover Frequency: ωg
The gain crossover frequency is the frequency of L(jω) at the
gain crossover, or where
|L(jωg)|=1

( −1, j 0)

ωg

2007年1月31日 21
 Gain Margin: (GM)
The gain margin is the increase in the system gain when phase = - 180 º
that will result a marginally stable system with intersection of (-1,j0)
point on the Nyquist plot.
Gain margin is the amount of gain in decibels (dB) that can be added to
the loop before the closed-loop system become unstable.

GM = 20 log{1 − L( jω p ) }
= −20 log{ L( jω p ) }
1 ω = ωp
or 20 log{ }
L( jω p ) (−1, j0)
L ( jω p )

2007年1月31日 22
 Bode plot
Gm=15.563 dB (at 2.2361 rad/sec), Pm=43.21 deg. (at 0.77934 rad/sec)
50

0
GM
Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

-50

-100

-150

-50

-100

-150
PM
-200

-250

-300
10
-2
10
-1
ω = ω g 10 0
ω = ωp 1
10
2
10

Frequency (rad/sec)

2007年1月31日 23
 K
GH ( s ) =
s (τ 1s + 1)(τ 2 s + 1)

2007年1月31日 24
 60

40

20
PM
0
dB GM ω = ωg
-20
ω = ωp
-40

-60

-80

-100

-120
-280 -260 -240 -220 -200 -180 -160 -140 -120 -100 -80
degree

Log-magnitude-phase curve

2007年1月31日 25
 ζ = 0.01φPM

2007年1月31日 26
Y ( jw) G ( jw)
= T ( jw) = = M ( w)e jφ ( w)
R ( jw) 1 + GH ( jw)
G ( jw) = u + jv
1
G ( jw) u + jv u 2 + v2 2
M= = =
1 + G ( jw) 1 + u + jv (1 + u ) 2 + v 2
(1 − M 2 )u 2 + (1 − M 2 )v 2 − 2 M 2u = M 2
2
2 M 2u ⎛ M 2 ⎞ ⎛ M 2 ⎞ ⎛ M 2 ⎞
u +v −
2 2
+⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟
1 − M 2 ⎜⎝ 1 − M 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 1 − M 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 1 − M 2 ⎟⎠
2
⎛ M2 ⎞
2
⎛ M ⎞
⎜⎜ u − ⎟ + v2 = ⎜
2 ⎟ 2 ⎟
⎝ 1− M ⎠ ⎝1− M ⎠

⎛v⎞ ⎛ v ⎞
φ = ∠T ( jw) = ∠(u + jv) /(1 + u + jv) = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ − tan −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝u⎠ ⎝1+ u ⎠
let N = tan φ
v
u2 + v2 + u − =0
N
1 2 1⎛ 1 ⎞
(u + 0.5) 2 + (v − ) = ⎜1 + 2 ⎟
2N 4⎝ N ⎠

2007年1月31日 27
2007年1月31日 28
2007年1月31日 29
 Time-Domain performance Criteria Specified in
the Frequency Domain
Nichols Charts
40

30

20 Mpω=8dB
Open-Loop Gain (dB)

10

0 ω = ωr
-10 ω = ωB
-3dB
-20

-30

k = k2 k = k1
-40
-280 -260 -240 -220 -200 -180 -160 -140 -120 -100 -80

Open-Loop Phase (deg)

2007年1月31日 30
Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007年1月31日 31
Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007年1月31日 32
Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007年1月31日 33
Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007年1月31日 34
Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007年1月31日 35
Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007年1月31日 36
Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007年1月31日 37
Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007年1月31日 38
Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007年1月31日 39
Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007年1月31日 40
Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007年1月31日 41
Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007年1月31日 42
Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007年1月31日 43
Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007年1月31日 44
Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007年1月31日 45
Exrcises
E9.1,E9.7,E9.8,E9.15,E9.21,P9.2,P9.4,P9.17,P9.21,AP9.4,

2007年1月31日 46
CHAPTER 10
The Design of Feedback Control Systems
The Design of Feedback Control System
§ Introduction
§ Time Domain Design
P-Control PI-Control PD-Control PID-Control
Phase-Lead Compensation Design
Phase-Lag Compensation Design
§ Frequency Domain Design
Phase-Lead Design Using Bode Diagram
Phase-Lag Design Using Bode Diagram
§Design for Deadbeat Response

2007年1月31日 1
 ;Introduction

Š Design procedure
ƒ Determine what the system should do and how to it (design specifications).
ƒ Determine the controller or compenstaor configuration relative to how it is
connected to the controlled plant.
ƒ Determine the parameter values of the controller or compensator to achieve
the design goals.
ƒ Simulation verifications and recheck the specifications.
ƒ Experimental results.
Š Design specification
ƒ Time domain: maximum overshoot, rise time, settling time and steady-state
accuracy
ƒ Frequency domain: gain margin, phase margin, resonant peak, bandwidth

2007年1月31日 2
 Š Controller (Compensator) configuration
ƒ Cascade (series) compensation
ƒ Feedback compensation
ƒ Series-feedback compensation
ƒ Forward compensation with series compensation (two degree of
freedom)
ƒ Feedforward compensation (two degree of freedom)
ƒ State-feedback compensation

r (t ) e(t ) u (t ) y (t ) r (t ) e(t ) u (t ) y (t )
Gc (s ) G p (s ) G p (s )

Gc (s )
Figure 1 Cascade
Figure 2 Feedback

2007年1月31日 3
 r (t ) e(t ) u (t ) y (t )
Gc (s ) G p (s )

G H (s )

Figure 3 Series-feedback compensation

r (t ) e(t ) u (t ) y (t )
GcF (s ) Gc (s ) G p (s )

Figure 4Forward compensation with series compensation (two degree of freedom)

2007年1月31日 4
 GcF (s )

r (t ) u (t ) y (t )
Gc (s ) G p (s )

Figure 5 Feedforward compensation (two degree of freedom)

r (t ) u (t ) x (t ) y (t )
G p (s ) C

Figure 6 State-feedback compensation

2007年1月31日 5
§ Time Domain Design
r (t ) e(t ) u (t ) y (t )
Gc ( s ) G p ( s)
PID Controller Design
d
u (t ) = K p e(t ) + K I ∫ e(t ) + K d e(t ) Kp
dt
U ( s ) = ( K p + K i 1s + K d s ) E ( s )
U (s)
U (s) E (s) 1
Gc ( s ) = = K p + K i 1s + K d s KI
s
E ( s)
db Kds

db
20 log K p

− 20db / decade
ω
p − Controller − 900
db ω
I − Controller
+ 20db / decade

+ 900 D − Controller

ω
2007年1月31日 6
 § Closed-loop control with P-controller
PM → ∞, GM → ∞
P-control for first order system
R (s ) Y (s)
a
Kp
s+a
a>0
r (t )
Kp = 3 S − plane
GH ( jω ) − plane
Kp = 2
Kp =1 ∞ ← Kp
t
−a
Y (s) aK p
=
R ( s ) s + (aK p + a )
KP
y (t ) = (1 − e − a ( K P +1)t )
KP +1

2007年1月31日 7
P-control for second order system

R (s ) Y (s)
Y ( s) aK p a
= 2 Kp
R( s ) s + as + aK p s( s + a)
a
ωn = aK p , ξ=
2 aK p a>0

K P1
K p1 > K p 2 > K p 3 GH ( jω ) − plane
K P2 S − plane

K P3
−1 ω→∞

GM →∞

ω → 0+

2007年1月31日 8
PI-control for first order system
1
Gc ( s ) = K p + K I R (s ) b
Y (s)
s
Kp
Y (s)
=
a( K p s + K I ) s+a
R( s ) s 2 + (a + bK p ) s + bK I
a + bK p 1 a, b > 0
KI
ωn = bK I , ξ = , A = 1, B = ( a + bK p ), C = bK I s
bK I
B 2 − 4 AC > 0, ⇒ ξ > 1
B 2 − 4 AC = 0, ⇒ ξ = 1
B 2 − 4 AC < 0, ⇒ ξ < 1
GH ( jω ) − plane S − plane

−1 ω→∞

GM →∞

ω → 0+
2007年1月31日 9
PI-control for second order system
K I R (s ) Y (s)
K ps + KI b
b bK ( s + ) Kp
Y ( s) s
p
K s(s + a)
= , F (s) = 1 + P
R(s) b( K s + K I ) s ( s + a)
2
a, b > 0
1+ 2 p 1
s (s + a)
KI
s

KI
<< a
KP

GH ( jω ) − plane S − plane

ω→∞

0+ ← ω −a

KI
−
KP

2007年1月31日 10
PD-control for second order system
R (s ) b
Gc ( s ) = K p + K d s Kp
s(s + a)
Y (s) a( K d s + K p )
= 2 a, b > 0
R( s ) s + (a + bK d ) s + bK p
KDs
a + bK d
ωn = bK p , ξ = , A = 1, B = (a + bK d ), C = bK I
bK p
B 2 − 4 AC > 0, ⇒ ξ > 1
B 2 − 4 AC = 0, ⇒ ξ = 1
B 2 − 4 AC < 0, ⇒ ξ < 1
GH ( jω ) − plane S − plane

−1 ω → ∞

GM →∞

ω → 0+
2007年1月31日 11
PID-control for second order system
R (s ) b Y (s)
1 Kp
Gc ( s ) = K p + K d s + K I s(s + a)
s
Y (s) b( K d s 2 + K p s + K I ) 1 a, b > 0
= KI
s
R( s ) s 3 + (a + bK d ) s 2 + bK p s + bK I
(a + bK d ) • bK p > bK I
Kds
The Optimum Coefficients of T(s) Based on the ITAE
Criterion for a step Input (P.252 Table 5.6)

s 3 + 1.75ωn s 2 + 2.15ωn s + ωn3

GH ( jω ) − plane S − plane

2007年1月31日 12
Phase-lead Compensation Network
V2 ( s ) R2 ( R1Cs + 1)
G(s) = =
V1 ( s) R1 + R2 {[ R1 R2 /( R1 + R2 )]Cs + 1}
R1 R2 R + R2
τ= C,α = 1
R1 + R2 R2
(1 + ταs)
G(s) = ,α > 1
α (1 + τs )
1 1 1
ωm = zp = z= , p = ,z < p
τ α ατ τ
αωτ − ωτ
φ = tan −1 , when ω = ωm ,
1 + (ωτ )) 2 α
(α / α − (1 / α ) α − 1
tan φm = =
1+1 2 α
α −1 1 + sin φm
sin φm = ,α =
α +1 1 − sin φm

2007年1月31日 13
 Phase-Lag Compensation Network

Vo R2 + ( 1 ) R2Cs + 1
G(s) = = Cs =
Vin R1 + R2 + ( 1 ) ( R1 + R2 )Cs + 1
Cs
1 + τs 1 s+z ( R + R2 )
= = ,τ = R2C , α = 1
1 + ατs α s + p R2

1 1
z= ,p= , α > 1, ωm = zp
τ ατ

2007年1月31日 14
Root Locus Method S − plane
s+z
Gc ( s ) = ,z < p
Phase-Lead Compensation Design s + p

The s-plane root locus method is as follows: −p −z

1. List the system specifications and translate them into a desired root
location for the dominant roots.
2. Sketch the uncompensated root locus, and determine whether the
desired root locations can be realized with an uncompensated system.
3. If a compensator is necessary, place the zero of the phase-lead network
directly below the desired root location (or to the left of the first two
real poles).
4. Determine the pole location so that the total angle at the desired root
location is 1800
5. Evaluate the total system gain at the desired root location and then
calculate the error constant.
6. Repeat the steps if the error constant is not satisfactory.

2007年1月31日 15
 s+z R (s ) Y (s)
Gc ( s ) = K 2
s+ p Gc (s)
s2
The specification for the system are
Settling time(2% criterion) Ts ≤ 4 sec onds
a>0
Percent overshoot for a step input, ≤ 35%
S − plane
Sol:
−πξ
r1
P.O = e 1−ξ ≤ 0.35 ⇒ ξ ≥ 0.32, θ = cos −1 ξ = 710
2

4
Ts ≤ = 4 ⇒ ξωn ≥ 1 −1
ξωn
r2
Select the desired roots location are

r1r2 = −1 ± j 2 θ = 63.40 ⇒ ξ = 0.45 r1

φ = −2(1800 − tan −1 2) + 900 = −2(1160 ) + 900 = −142

− 180 = φ − θ p ⇒ θ p = 380 θp
−p
−1

2007年1月31日 16
 R + jQ
Q Q
= tan θ p , M = , p = z+m
M tan θ p
2 A
M= = 2.6 ⇒ p = 1 + 2.6 = 3.6
0.7812 B C
θp

2 K ( s + 1) −z
GcG p ( s ) = , F ( s ) = 1 + KG1 H1 ( s ) = 0 −p M
s 2 ( s + 3.6)
1 A * A * B 2.232 * 3.25
K= = = = 4.1
G1 H1 ( s ) s = r 2C 2*2
1

s +1
Gc ( s ) = 4.1
s + 3.6

2007年1月31日 17
Phase-Lag Compensation Design

The steps necessary for the design of a phase-lag network on the s-plane are as
follows:
1. Obtain the root locus of the uncompensated system.
2. Determine the transient performance specifications for the system and locate
suitable dominant root location on the uncompensated root locus that will
satisfy the specifications.
3. Calculate the loop gain at the desired root location and thus the system error
constant,
4. Compare the uncompensated error constant with the desired error constant,
and calculate the necessary increase that must result from the pole-zero ratio
of the compensator,α.
5. With the known ratio of the pole-zero combination of the compensator,
determine a suitable location of the pole and zero of the compensator so that
the compensated root locus will still pass through the desired root location.
Locate the pole and zero near the origin of the s-plane in comparison to ωn .

2007年1月31日 18
 R (s ) Y (s)
K
Sol: Gc (s)
s ( s + 10) 2
Spec. : ξ = 0.707, K v = 20
K
K v = 20 = lim G ( s ) = , K = 2000
s →0 10 2
If K=2000, the system will be unstable

ξ = 0.707 ⇒ s1, 2 = −2.9 ± j 2.9

K
⇒ = 236
α
z 2000
α= = = 8.5
p 236
select z = 0.1, p = 0.1 / 9 = 0.0111

2007年1月31日 19
§ Frequency Domain Design
Phase-Lead Design Using Bode Diagram

1. Determined the system DC-gain such that the error constant can be satisfied.
2. Evaluate the uncompensated system phase margin when the error constant are satisfied
3. Allowing for a small of safety(5~10 degree), determine the necessary additional phase
sin φm + 1
lead, φm φm = φd − φn + 30 ~ 100 α =
1 − sin φm
4. Evaluate α from Eq.(10.11).
5. Evaluate 10 logα and determined the frequency where the uncompensated magnitude
curve is equal to -10 logα . Because the compensation network provides a gain of
10 logα atωm ,this frequency is the new 0-dB crossover frequency and simultaneously.
p
6. Calculate the pole p = ωm α and z = α
7. Draw the compensated frequency response, check the resulting phase margin, and repeat
the steps if necessary. Finally, for an acceptable design, raise the gain of the amplifier in
order to account for the attenuation( 1α )

2007年1月31日 20
 dB

ωm log ω
− 10 log α

− 1800

2007年1月31日 21
 R (s ) Y (s)
Example 10.1 ⎛ p⎞ s+z 2
K⎜ ⎟
⎝ z ⎠s+ p s ( s + 2)
p s+z 1 1
Gc ( s ) = K , z= , p=
z s+ p ατ τ
Spec. : K v < 5%, ξ ≥ 0.4

The system dc-gain>=20

Phase margin 0
20:45
GH ( jw) =
jw(0.5 jw + 1)
1 find the new crossover frequency from the bode diagram
0 − dB = 20 log 20 − 20 log w − 20 log[(0.5w) 2 + 1] 2
p
= 20log20 - 20logw - 10log[(0.5w) 2 + 1] ωm = 8.4 ⇒ p = ωm α = 14.4, z = = 4.8
α
wc ≈ 6.2 p
K * ( ) = 20 * 3 = 60
φn = 180 − 90 − tan −1 (0.5wc ) = 180 − 162 = 180 z
s + 4.8
φm = φd − φn + 30 ~ 100 = 450 − 180 + 30 = 300 Gc ( s ) = 60
s + 14.4
1 + sin φm 1 + 0.5
α= = =3
1 − sin φm 1 − 0.5
− 10 log α = −4.77 dB

2007年1月31日 22
 Bode Diagram
40

20

0
Magnitude (dB)

-20

-40

-60

-80
-90
Phase (deg)

-135

-180
-2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)
2007年1月31日 23
 Bode Diagram
80

60

40
Magnitude (dB)

20

-20

-40
-90
Phase (deg)

-135

-180
-2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)

2007年1月31日 24
Phase-lag Design Using the Bode Diagram

1. Obtain the Bode diagram of the uncompensated system with the gain adjusted for
the desired error constant.
2. Determined the phase margin of the uncompensated system and , if it is
insufficient, proceed with the following steps.
3. Determined the frequency where the phase margin requirement would be
0
satisfied if the magnitude curve crossed the 0-dB line at this frequency. ( allow 5
phase lag from the phase-lag network when determining the new crossover
frequency.
4. Place the zero of the compensator one decade below the new crossover frequency
and thus ensure only 50 of additional phase lag at ωc' due to the lag network.
5. Measure the necessary attenuation at ωc' to ensure that the magnitude curve
crosses at this frequency.
6. Calculate by noting that the attenuation introduced by the phase-lag network is -
20logα at .
7. Calculate the pole as ω p = 1ατ = ω z / α ,and the design is completed.

2007年1月31日 25
 dB

20 log α

p z
log ω
ω '
c

z
p= ωc'
α z=
10

− 1800

2007年1月31日 26
Example: R (s ) Y (s)
⎛ p⎞ s+z 20
⎜ ⎟ s ( s + 2)
⎝ z ⎠s+ p
1
1 + τs
τ ( + s) p s+z
Gc ( s ) = = τ =
1 + ατs ατ ( 1 + s ) z s + p
ατ
1 1
p= ,z =
ατ τ

20 Kv
GH ( jw) = = , K v = 20 / 2
jw( jw + 2) jw( j 0.5w + 1)
20dB = 20 log α ⇒ α = 10
ωc' 1.5 ω
Spec. :phase margin=450 the uncompensated system z = ωz = = = 0.15, p = ω p = z = 0.015
has a phase margin of 200 α 10 10
1 s + 0.15
Allowing for the phase-lag compensator, we locate Gc ( s ) =
10 s + 0.015
the frequency ω where φ (ωc' ) = −1300 which is to be
our new crossover frequency ωc = 1.5

The attenuation necessary to cause to be the new

crossover frequency is equal to 20 dB.

2007年1月31日 27
 Bode Diagram
60

40

20

d
itu B
e(d )
0

a
Mgn
-20

-40

-60
-90
e
se(dg)

-135
h
Pa

-180
-2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)

Bode Diagram
100

50
d
itu B
e(d)

0
a
Mgn

-50

-100
-90

-120
h
Pas e
e(dg)

-150

-180
-2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)

2007年1月31日 28
§Design for Deadbeat Response
Deadbeat response: proceeds rapidly to the desired level and
holds at that level with minimal overshoot.
F ( s ) = s 3 + αω n s 2 + βω n2 s + ωn3
A deadbeat response has the following characteristics:
1. steady-state error=0 F ( s ) = s 4 + αω n s 3 + βω n2 s 2 + γωn3 s + ωn4
2. Fast response: minimum rise time and settling time
3. 0.1%<= percent overshoot<2%
4. Percent undershoot<2%

2007年1月31日 29
Spec. : settling time 1.2 sec
R (s ) Y (s)
z s+z 2
K (s + z) 2 s+z
K
s+ p s(s + 2)
Gc G p ( s ) =
s + p s ( s + 2) Pre-filter
z Gc G p ( s ) 2 Kz
T ( s) = = 3
s + z 1 + Gc G p ( s ) s + (2 + p ) s 2 + (2 p + 2k ) s + 2kz

4.04
sol : ωnTs = 4.04,ωn = = 3.37
1.2
T (s) = s3 + αωn s2 + βωn2s + ωn3
α = 1.9, β = 2.2
T (s) = s3 + 6.4s2 + 24.98s + 38.27 = s3 + (2 + p)s2 + (2 p + 2k)s + 2kz
p = 4.4, K = 8.09, z = 2.36
s + 2.36
Gc ( s ) = 8.09
s + 4.4

2007年1月31日 30
2007年1月31日 31
 1.4

1.2

0.8

Uncompensated system step response

0.6

0.4

system step response with deadbeat compensated

0.2

0
0 5 10 15

2007年1月31日 32
 PD controller

2007年1月31日 33
 PI controller

2007年1月31日 34
 PID controller

2007年1月31日 35
Exercises:
E10.1, E10.2, E10.4, E10.8, P10.9 P10.11,
P10.14, P10.21, P10.39 ,AP10.9 AP10.10, DP10.4
DP10.5

2007年1月31日 36