Techniques  for  solo  jazz  guitar:  

 
Compiling  and  analysing  six  techniques  crucial  in  creating  a  sense  of  
broad  harmony  and  rhythmic  feel  in  unaccompanied  jazz  guitar  
 
 
DIEGO  VILLALTA-­‐LAZO  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Submitted  in  partial  fulfilment  of  the  requirements  of  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Music  
Performance  Honours  at  the  Southbank  School  of  Music,  University  of  Melbourne  
October  2010  
 
DECLARATION  OF  ORIGINALITY  
 
This  dissertation  contains  no  material  that  has  been  accepted  for  the  award  of  any  
other   degree   or   diploma   in   any   other   university   and   to   the   best   of   my   knowledge,  
contains   no   material   previously   published   or   written   by   any   other   person   except  
where  due  reference  is  made  in  the  text.  
 
 
 
 
 
Diego  Villalta-­‐Lazo

  ii  
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS  
 
I   would   like   to   thank   Elizabeth   Mitchell   for   her   time   and   patience   throughout   an  
intense  year  of  change  at  the  Melbourne  University  and  former  Victorian  College  of  
the   Arts,   James   Sherlock   and   Stephen   Magnusson   for   sharing   their   time   and  
knowledge   so   generously   as   mentors,   Geoff   Hughes   for   his   long-­‐term   support,  
patience  and  inspiration  throughout  my  time  at  the  VCA/Melbourne  University  and  
Elizabeth  Villalta  for  just  being  herself.  
 

  iii  
TABLE  OF  CONTENTS  
 
 
1. Introduction                   1  
 
2. Independence                   7  
 
3. Chordal  Melodies                 15  
 
4. Counterpoint                   21  
 
5. Closure                   28  
 
6. Time                     35  
 
7. Key  signatures  and  open  strings             42  
 
8. Conclusion                   48  
 
9. References                   50  
 
10. Appendices  
Appendix  A  –  CD  track  list             53  
Appendix  B  –  8-­‐string  guitar             53  
Appendix  C  –  Explanation  of  chord  diagrams                                                                                54  
 

  iv  
1.  INTRODUCTION  
 
“Guitarists   should   be   able   to   pick   up   the   guitar   and   play   music   on   it   for   an   hour,  
without  a  rhythm  section  or  anything.”  –  Joe  Pass  
 
 
Solo   jazz   guitar   –   The   first   thing   to   come   to   mind,   for   anybody   with   knowledge   on  
the   subject,   could   range   from   the   well-­‐accepted   style   of   a   player   such   as   Joe   Pass   to  
the  more  modern  approach  used  by  someone  such  as  Derek  Bailey.  For  myself  these  
3   words   have   represented   the   focus   of   my   personal   practice   throughout   the   later  
part   of   my   undergraduate   studies.   With   the   popularity   of   the   guitar   taking   off  
through   the   20th   century   and   it’s   wide   acceptance   as   a   leading   voice   in   the   jazz  
context   I   was   surprised   at   what   initially   appeared   to   be   the   small   amount   of  
discussion  within  instructional  material  in  the  public  sphere  regarding  this  topic.  This  
is  not  to  say  that  good  quality  information  is  not  available,  on  the  contrary,  what  is  
out   there   is   largely   insightful   and   usually   written   and   discussed   eloquently   by   the  
masters  themselves.  What  I  do  believe  however  is  that  it  is  disproportionate  to  the  
popularity  of  the  genre  and  more  importantly  that  it  does  not  cover  every  aspect  of  
the   style.   Nevertheless   what   I   have   now   come   to   believe   is   that   these   gaps   within  
the   methodology   can   be   filled   by   material   that   exists   in   relation   to   other   musical  
practices,   quietly   waiting   to   be   embraced   and   interpreted   for   solo   jazz   guitar.   This  
has   led   me   to   the   basis   of   this   paper,   which   is   to   unify   material   relating   to   what   I  
believe   are   the   most   important   concepts   concerning   solo   jazz   guitar   under   one  
umbrella,  helping  to  give  a  broader  overview  of  what  the  genre  entails.  
 
For   the   majority   of   guitarists   the   notion   of   playing   jazz   unaccompanied   can   be  
daunting.   I   personally   have   memories   of   early   days,   struggling   to   get   through  
standard  forms  without  a  piano  player  to  outline  harmonic  movement  and  the  very  
thought   of   eliminating   the   bass   player   or   drummer   would   have   been   especially  
inappropriate   to   my   skill   level.   But   as   technical,   harmonic   and   aural   skills   develop,  
the  need  for  a  piano  player  to  hold  down  the  harmony  or  a  drummer  or  bassist  to  
outline   the   time   becomes   less   imperative,   on   the   contrary,   it   can   be   enjoyable   to  

  2  
experiment   with   different   combinations   of   instruments.   But   even   then,   it   can   be  
difficult  to  acquire  the  preferred  or  necessary  instrumentalists  and  it’s  important  to  
be   able   to   compensate   which   was   one   of   the   main   factors   that   convinced   me   into  
thinking  that  learning  to  play  unaccompanied  would  be  a  beneficial  practice.  
 
Obviously,  the  term  ‘solo  jazz  guitar’  is  too  vague  a  description  for  a  paper  such  as  
this,  so  to  expand  on  my  intention:  this  paper  will  concern  itself  with  compiling  and  
analysing   six   techniques   available   to   guitarists   crucial   in   creating   a   sense   of   broad  
harmony  and  rhythmic  feel  in  unaccompanied  jazz  tunes  containing  improvisations.  
Because  some  of  the  terms  in  the  previous  statement  can  be  interpreted  in  different  
ways,  I  will  specify  how  they  will  be  defined  in  this  paper.  
 
Jazz   -­‐   to   mean   from   the   jazz   standard   repertoire,   using   as   a   basis   harmonic  
progressions,   forms   and/or   melodic/thematic   material.   Equivalently,   non-­‐jazz  
standard   contemporary   compositions   or   improvisations   employing   similar   harmonic,  
formal  and/or  melodic  structures  will  also  fall  under  this  category.  
 
Broad   harmony   –   from   bass   notes   and   root   note   movement   to   higher   upper  
extensions  in  vertical  and  horizontal  harmonic  structures  
 
Time  –  a  strong  sense  of  pulse  to  work  with  or  against  (to  the  point  of  abandonment)  
in  order  to  create  rhythmic  interest  and  forward  motion.  
 
Guitar  –  of  the  common  6-­‐string  variety  in  EADGBe  tuning  for  the  most  part  but  also  
including   baritone   guitar,   seven   or   eight   string   varieties   and   other   open   chord  
tunings,  restricted  to  playing  techniques  common  to  the  jazz  tradition.  Not  included  
will   be   double-­‐necked   guitars   (played   with   different   hands   simultaneously),   effect  
pedals   such   as   loopers   or   synths,   midi   controller   guitars,   bass   guitars,   pedal   steel  
guitars  and  exotic  guitar-­‐based  instruments  such  as  Pat  Metheny’s  Picasso  guitar.  
 
 
 

  3  
METHOD  
 
All   the   research   undertaken   for   this   paper   has   had   a   direct   link   to   my   personal  
practice   and   development   as   a   performing   musician   allowing   it   to   be   primarily  
practice-­‐led-­‐research.     I   have   drawn   on   instructional   material   (in   both   written   and  
video   form),   audio   recordings   and   transcriptions,   and   first   hand   discussions   with  
leading   practitioners.   To   a   small   extent   I   am   also   relying   on   my   own   personal  
experiences  on  the  topic  having  studied  it  in  recent  years.  
 
The   methodological   material   I   have   relied   upon   which   relates   directly   to   solo   jazz  
guitar  includes  texts  and  video  such  as  Tuck  Andress’  Fingerstyle  Mastery  and  certain  
chapters  of  Ralph  Towner’s  Improvisation  and  Performance  Techniques  for  Classical  
and   Acoustic   Guitar   amongst   various   others.   Although   they   were   hugely   insightful   in  
terms  of  certain  aspects  relating  to  the  style  (i.e.  independence,  mimicking  walking  
bass   lines   etc)   what   they   didn’t   encompass   I   compensated   with   textual   materials  
from  other  musical  fields.  These  are  not  relating  directly  but  easily  applicable  to  solo  
jazz   guitar   and   aid   in   demonstrating   some   of   the   more   important   and   overlooked  
aspects   of   the   style.   The   main   sources   of   material   used   however   are   audio  
recordings   of   renowned   guitarists   in   the   discipline   such   as   Joe   Pass   and   Australia’s  
own  James  Sherlock  –  the  old  idiom  still  holds  true  about  the  recordings  being  the  
best  teachers.  
 
 
CHAPTER  OVERVIEW  
 
Most   chapters   follow   a   rough   template   which   include   a   description   of   the   musical  
device  at  hand,  references  to  its  use  within  the  wider  musical  spectrum  (i.e.  classical  
music,   popular   music   etc),   its   prevalence   within   jazz,   its   importance   to   solo   guitar  
and  finally  examples  of  how  it  relates  to  solo  jazz  guitar.  Each  chapter  is  dedicated  
specifically   to   one   technique   and   these   are   independence,   chordal   melodies,  
counterpoint,  closure,  time,  and  key  signatures  and  open  strings.  
 

  4  
2.  Independence  –  considering  this  is  one  of  the  most  crucial  aspects  of  solo  guitar  in  
general,   it   is   a   fitting   pace   to   begin   discussion   and   sets   up   the   necessary  
understanding  of  technical  requirements  for  subsequent  chapters.  
 
3.   Chordal   Melodies   –   deals   with   harmonisation   of   melodic   material,   a   topic  
thoroughly   discussed   in   methodological   literature   for   chordal   instruments   but  
expanded   on   so   as   to   demonstrate   its   importance   as   one   of   the   basic   techniques   for  
any  solo  jazz  guitarist.  
 
4.   Counterpoint   –   only   recently   coming   to   a   high   level   of   exposure   and   interest   in  
terms   of   jazz   guitar   within   the   last   few   decades,   this   paradigm   for   harmonic  
exploration  and  chordal  construction  is  borrowed  from  the  context  of  classical  music  
where  it  has  been  popular  for  centuries  and  explored  within  the  world  of  solo  jazz.  
Its   presence   on   jazz   guitar   however,   is   for   the   most   part   not   stringent   in   its  
application  as  in  some  classical  music  and  can  be  described  as  a  non-­‐strict  form  of  
counterpoint.  
 
5.   Closure   –   an   exploration   of   a   little   discussed   but   widely   used   technique   that  
employs   the   mind   of   the   listener   to   aid   in   establishing   harmony   and   rhythm   (or  
groove).  It  is  relevant  to  solo  jazz  playing  on  any  instrument.  
 
6.  Time  –  of  all  the  devices  available  to  solo  jazz  guitarists  I  found  the  manipulation  
of   the   one   discussed   in   this   chapter   to   be   the   least   explored   within   the   directly  
related   pedagogical   material.   It’s   existence   and   importance   within   the   recordings,  
however  could  not  be  overlooked  in  this  discussion.  
 
7.   Key   Signatures   and   Open   strings   –   this   chapter   is   the   only   one   relating   to   the  
specific  physical  layout  of  the  guitar  and  how  to  utilize  its  idiosyncratic  traits  within  
the  solo  jazz  guitar  idiom.  
 
 
 

  5  
CONCLUSION  AND  APPENDICES  
 
Following   the   main   chapters   is   a   summarising   chapter   in   which   I   present   how   my  
research   could   be   applied   to   modern   practices   in   solo   jazz   guitar   as   a   guide   to  
understanding   the   genre   itself   and   as   an   aid   in   perceiving   its   scope   in   the   most  
holistic  way.  It  also  continues  on  to  discuss  possibilities  for  further  research.  At  the  
conclusion  of  the  paper  there  is  an  appendices  containing  additional  information  and  
a  track  listing  to  accompany  the  supplemented  compact  disc  of  audio  samples  given  
throughout  the  paper.  

  6  
2.  INDEPENDENCE  –  THE  SPLIT  BRAIN  
 
One   of   the   most   crucial   elements   in   performing   unaccompanied   jazz   guitar   is   the  
ability  to  divide  attention  amongst  various  aspects  of  the  music  for  extended  periods  
of   time   (e.g.   melody/rhythm/harmony   or   2   or   more   contrapuntal   voices)   whilst  
simultaneously   playing   them   on   one   single   fingerboard.   In   an   ensemble   context  
guitarists   can   experience   these   divisions   of   musical   focus   to   a   small   degree   by   acting  
out   the   roles   of   both   a   soloist   and   accompanist   during   their   own   solo   improvisations  
(unless   there   is   an   accompanist   present)   but   for   the   majority   of   times   these   two  
roles  tend  to  be  thought  of  in  an  almost  mutually  exclusive  manner  with  attention  
being  placed  on  each  in  turn  as  opposed  to  at  the  same  time.    
 
Due  to  the  layout  and  scope  of  their  instrument,  piano  players  have  a  much  longer  
history   of   dividing   their   musical   awareness   between   two   or   more   parts  
simultaneously.   Piano   reductions   and   works   for   other   instruments   transcribed   for  
solo   piano   (used   extensively   in   the   classical   world)   demonstrate   this   concept  
effectively.   The   following   example   (Fig.   1)   is   from   J.S.   Bach’s   Contrapunctus   1  
BWV1080  from  his  unfinished  final  work  Die  Kunst  der  Fuge1.  In  these  initial  19  bars  
we   see   the   entry   of   the   four   voices   involved   within   the   fugue   in   the   way   it   was  
originally  written  (SATB  form),  in  addition  to  this  we  also  see  how  the  four  voices  fit  
into   the   scope   of   the   piano   (written   underneath   the   bass   voice).   The   solo   piano  
transcription   contains   each   part   in   its   entirety   therefore   requiring   the   pianist   to  
divide  his/her  attention  in  four  different  ways.    
 
 
 

                                                                                                               
1
 BACH,  J.  S.?-­‐1750.  Die  Kunst  der  Fuge,  Contrapunctus  1,  BWV  1080.  Breitkopf  &  Härtel.  

  7  
 Die Kunst der Fuge
Die Kunst der Fuge Johann Sebastian BACH (1685 - 1750)
Johann Sebastian BACH (1685 - 1750)
Contrapunctus I Johann Sebastian BACH (1685
BWV- 1750)
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Contrapuntal  techniques  will  be  explored  further  in  chapter  4.  Here  the  example  is  
used   purely   to   observe   physical   and   mental   independence.   Because   guitar   is  
drastically  more  limiting  in  terms  of  physical  potential  than  the  piano  for  facilitating  
this  manner  of  part  independence,  the  possibilities  for  pieces  are  narrower,  although  
extreme   levels   of   mastery   within   this   smaller   scope   are   achieved.   The   three   systems  
in  Fig.  2  pick  up  from  bar  7  of  Heitor  Villa-­‐Lobos’  Etude  no  5  Andantino  for  guitar.  In  
them  we  can  see  the  division  of  3  distinct  parts  –  a  repeating  ostinato  figure,  a  bass  
part,  and  a  clear  melodic  voice  on  top2:  
 

 
Fig.  2  
CD  track  1  (0:10)  
 
When  looking  at  a  piece  such  as  this  for  the  first  time,  the  common  understanding  is  
that  a  guitarist  would  work  slowly  through  each  bar  one  at  a  time  and  eventually  get  
accustomed   to   how   each   part   feels   as   it   works   over   the   others,   resulting   in   a  
thorough   understanding   of   the   parts   as   a   whole.   The   added   difficulty   of   this  
approach  in  terms  of  jazz  guitar  comes  with  the  improvisation  factor.  
 

                                                                                                               
2
 VILLA-­‐LOBOS,  H.  1952.  Etude  No  5  Andantino.  Villa-­‐Lobos  solo  guitar.  New  York:  Amsco.  

  9  
Charlie  Hunter  is  a  well-­‐known  U.S.  musician  who  has  confronted  this  challenge  in  a  
very   unique   way.   Hunter   plays   a   customised   guitar   comprised   of   seven   strings   (a  
recent   scale   down   from   eight)   –   the   top   four   are   guitar   strings   while   the   bottom  
three   are   bass   strings3,   this   allows   him   to   act   as   guitar   and   bass   player  
simultaneously   while   playing   melodies,   chords   and   bass   lines.   He   is   renowned   not  
only  for  his  independence  capabilities  but  also  for  his  ability  to  achieve  a  very  natural  
sense  of  feel  when  utilising  them.  In  a  2002  interview  Hunter  describes  guitarists  Joe  
Pass  and  Tuck  Andress  as  being  his  biggest  influences  for  what  can  be  done  solo  on  
the   guitar4   and   when   asked   about   his   approach   regarding   his   phenomenal   degree   of  
independence  Hunter’s  reply  was:    
 
“I   started   listening   to   a   lot   of   organists,   because   they   do   the   left-­‐hand   bass   thing,  
foot   pedal   bass,   just   to   get   an   idea.   Like   Big   John   Patton   and   Larry   Young,   Jimmy  
Smith,  just  to  kind  of  get  a  foundation  for  what  I  wanted  to  do.  And  a  lot  of  that  stuff  
I  just  really,  really  shedded5.  I  shedded  a  lot  of  bass  players,  and  also  shedded  a  lot  
of  drum  set,  too.  It’s  not  like  my  drum  set  playing  is  great  at  all,  or  that  I  would  even  
think   about   playing   in   front   of   people,   but   it’s   a   great   kind   of   a   cross   reference,  
because  that  taught  me  how  counterpoint  works,  how  rhythms  work  together,  and  
how  it’s  supposed  to  feel  when  you  play  one  rhythm  over  another  rhythm.”(2002:5)6  
 
Although   Hunter’s   guitar   is   unique,   similar   instances   of   voice/part   independence  
mastery   can   be   seen   on   regular   six   stringed   varieties   throughout   the   world   of   solo  
guitar.   In   fact,   Hunter’s   instrument   can   be   simply   seen   as   a   more   evolved   tool   for  
facilitating  independence  between  bass  lines  and  guitar  melodies/comping7,  which  is  
something  guitarists  have  been  exploring  for  generations.  
 

                                                                                                               
3
 Refer  to  Appendix  B  for  image  of  Hunter’s  guitar  
4
 GOODMAN,  F.  2002.  Puremusic  interview  with  Charlie  Hunter.  Puremusic.com.  
5
 When  Hunter  refers  to  shedding  he  means  extensive  practicing.  The  saying  derives  from  the  concept  
of   ‘wood-­‐shedding’   meaning   to   lock   oneself   in   an   outdoor   shed   or   small   room   to   avoid   distractions   in  
order  to  achieve  a  high  level  of  practice.  
6
 GOODMAN,  F.  2002.  Puremusic  interview  with  Charlie  Hunter.  Puremusic.com.  
7
 To  comp  is  “to  provide  a  chordal  accompaniment  for  a  soloist;  the  word  derives  from  “accompany”  
(or   perhaps   “compliment”).   (1988:240)1988a.   In:   KERNFELD,   B.   (ed.)   The   new   Grove   Dictionary   of   jazz  
A  to  K.  New  York:  Macmillan  Press.    

  10  
The   afore   mentioned   inspiration   for   Hunter,   Tuck   Andress,   is   a   prime   case   of  
independence  mastery  on  a  regular  6  string  guitar.  Andress  is  widely  known  as  half  
of   the   U.S.   husband   and   wife   musical   duo   Tuck   an   Patti   and   for   being   able   to  
condense  the  feel  of  an  entire  band  into  his  guitar  playing.  As  J.  Schroeter  stated  in  
Fingerstyle  Guitar  Magazine8  when  interviewing  Andress:  
 
“The   obvious   thing   you   bring   to   the   party   is   your   emulation   of   other   instruments.  
You   really   capture   their   nuances,   as   well.   That   is,   the   way   a   bass   player   might   play   a  
particular  phrase,  or  what  the  drummer  might  do  behind  a  given  passage.”(1995:9)  
 
To  which  Andress  replies:  
 
“That’s  been  a  big  specialty  for  me.  I’ve  seen  a  lot  of  people  do  the  solo  guitar  thing,  
but  for  me,  having  come  out  of  a  lot  of  bands  where  feel  was  the  whole  thing,  it  had  
to   feel   right.   And   it   doesn’t   feel   right   if   there   isn’t   a   clear   distinction   between   the  
parts.   The   groove’s   just   not   there.   In   an   ensemble,   there   are   all   these   micro  
elements   that   constitute   staccato,   attack,   vibrato,   or   whatever   it   is.   You   want   to  
have  independence  of  all  these  things.  So  I’ve  worked  a  lot  on  that.”(1995:10)  
 
This  independence  can  be  observed  not  only  aurally  but  also  through  transcriptions  
such  as  the  one  presented  at  the  conclusion  of  the  article.  The  following  portion  of  
the   transcription   represents   the   point   where   Andress   begins   to   combine   the   three  
elements   of   melody,   harmony   and   bass   in   his   rendition   of   Michael   Jackson’s   popular  
song   Man   in   the   Mirror.   The   bass   figure   can   be   seen   to   occur   regularly   on   beats   1  
and   2&   (4th   quaver)   with   some   variations   from   bar   17.   The   melody,   which   is   quite  
busy,  can  be  seen  situated  on  top.  The  interesting  thing  to  note  is  the  way  in  which  
the  chord  harmony  shifts  from  being  coupled  mainly  with  the  bass  figure,  in  the  first  
three   bars   of   the   example,   to   both   the   melody   and   bass   in   the   later   five.   In   my  
opinion   this   strongly   confirms   Andress’   statement   about   having   a   clear   distinction  
between  the  parts.  

                                                                                                               
 SCHROETER,  J.  1995.  Tuck  Andress  -­‐  Aural  report.  Fingerstyle  Guitar.    
8

  11  
  

 
Fig.  3  
CD  track  2  (0:27)  
 
When  it  comes  to  solo  jazz  guitar,  mastery  of  voice  independence  can  be  heard  on  
recordings  such  as  the  fifth  track  on  Ben  Monder’s  2005  album  Oceana  -­‐  a  solo  guitar  
piece   exemplifying   the   current   interests   of   some   of   the   world’s   top   guitarists   in  
contrapuntal   approaches.   With   his   great   proficiency   on   the   instrument,   Monder  
takes  the  notion  of  independence  to  extreme  levels,  achieving  great  feats  in  dividing  
his   attention   rhythmically   between   different   voices   usually   only   found   in   the   playing  
of  drummers  and  pianists.  The  following  is  a  transcription  of  the  first  four  bars  of  the  
piece:  
 

 
Fig.  4  

  12  
It  begins  simply  enough  with  what  can  be  described  as  an  F#  minor  pattern  (a  point  
of  interest  is  the  use  of  the  double  C#  notes  on  adjacent  strings)  but  as  soon  as  the  
piece  reaches  the  next  bar  Monder’s  mastery  of  independence  comes  to  light  (note  
that   I   have   converted   the   initial   pattern   into   a   5/4   time   signature,   this   is   simply   to  
facilitate  in  reading  how  the  bottom  line  interacts  with  the  it):  
 

 
Fig.  5  
CD  track  3  
 
Essentially,  Monder  is  playing  6  over  5,  or  put  differently  24  beats  (represented  by  
the  sextuplets)  over  the  original  20  crotchet  beats  (represented  by  the  40  quavers)  
and  to  add  to  that,  the  new  voice  is  playing  in  a  different  key,  which  includes  C  and  G  
naturals  (tuning  of  the  bottom  2  strings  has  been  altered  to  reach  these  low  notes).  
This   recording   entitled   Double   sun9   shows   a   rare   level   of   skill   in   terms   of  
independence   for   guitar   and   has   been   a   great   inspiration   for   me   personally   in  
regards  to  what  can  be  achieved  with  rhythmic  placement  and  feel.    
 
Within  my  own  practice,  there  are  various  techniques  I  have  found  to  be  beneficial  
for  where  I  am  in  my  development  for  building  further  independence.  One  of  these  
is   a   practice   technique   demonstrated   to   me   by   Australian   guitarist   James   Sherlock  
                                                                                                               
9
 MONDER,  B.  2005.  Oceana.  

  13  
and  deals  with  both  the  harmonic  and  rhythmic  aspects  of  2-­‐voice  independence.  It  
involves   the   superimposition   of   one   mode   (i.e.   Ionian,   Dorian,   Melodic   minor   etc)  
over  another  with  each  one  restricted  to  either  the  upper  or  lower  three  strings  of  
the  guitar,  for  example  an  Ab  Aeolian  scale  played  under  Eb  Ionian  starting  on  Ab:  
 

 
Fig.  6  
 
These   can   be   started   on   different   degrees   of   the   scales   and   also   move   in   different  
directions.  Here  are  2  short  examples:  
 

 
Fig.  7  
 
To   add   a   degree   of   rhythmic   independence   the   scales   can   be   played   using  
combinations  of  differing  rhythmic  figures,  for  example:  
 

 
Fig.  8  
 
Eventually,  the  goal  is  to  improvise  (in  melodic  and  rhythmic  terms)  using  both  scales  
simultaneously.  
 

  14  
3.  CHORDAL  MELODY  TECHNIQUE  –  COMBINING  PARTS  
 
A  device  that  is  widely  known  amongst  guitarists  and  other  chordal  instruments  alike  
is  that  of  fitting  an  improvised  line  (or  parts  of  a  line)  into  the  harmonic  and  rhythmic  
context  of  a  tune  by  means  of  having  it  as  the  top  or  accented  voice  of  chords.  For  
this   paper   I   will   refer   to   the   technique   as   the   ‘chordal   melody   technique’   (note   -­‐   I  
give   it   this   name   for   ease   of   reference   within   this   paper   only   not   to   try   and   establish  
a  new  or  reinforce  an  existing  technical  paradigm  for  guitar).  This  is  a  natural  starting  
point  for  guitarists  interested  in  ‘going  solo’  considering  that  in  ensemble  contexts,  
as   jazz   accompanists,   playing   with   a   melodic   chordal   type   of   accompaniment   is  
common.   To   illustrate   the   concept   here   is   a   harmonised   example   of   the   first   four  
bars  of  Alice  in  Wonderland10:  
 

 
Fig.  9  
 
Although   this   example   shows   the   harmonisation   of   a   composed   melody   the   same  
principle  can  also  be  used  for  an  improvised  one.    
 
There   are   plenty   of   sources   available   regarding   this   practice   commonly   under  
headings   such   as   harmonising   a   melody.   Guitarist   Ted   Greene   has   written   a  
succession   of   method   books   that   deal   partly   with   this   subject;   the   following   is   an  
example  from  Modern  chord  progressions:    
 
                                                                                                               
10
 HILLIARD,  S.  F.  B.  1951.  Alice  in  wonderland.  The  real  book.  Milwakee  WI:  Hal  Leonard.  

  15  
  
 

 
Fig.  10  
 
(Greene   illustrates   chords   in   his   books   primarily   with   these   types   of   guitar   diagrams,  
refer  to  Appendix  C  for  how  to  interpret  them.)  
 
In   it   Greene   demonstrates   the   harmonising   of   a   line   starting   on   E   that   runs  
diatonically   up   a   C   major   scale   to   D,   down   an   octave   before   returning   to   the   original  
note.  Although  this  concept  is  relatively  simple,  he  uses  this  example  to  demonstrate  
how   chordal   melodies   tend   to   move   on   guitar   in   a   process   known   as   string  
transference11  which  relates  to  moving  from  one  set  of  strings  to  another.  This  type  
of   guitar-­‐specific   chordal-­‐melody   material   is   imperative   to   know   for   solo   jazz  
guitarist  and  can  be  seen  as  part  of  the  ‘bread  and  butter’  for  the  style.  
 
In  his  first  book  Chord  chemistry  Greene  makes  note  of  the  fact  that  often  in  many  
cases   a   melody   has   to   be   played   in   the   higher   register   in   order   to   allow   for  
harmonising   voices   to   physically   fit   underneath   it   on   the   guitar   neck12.   The   tune   of   a  
song  is  often  times  raised  an  octave  in  light  of  this  and  sometimes  changing  the  key  
can  be  highly  beneficial,  particularly  to  make  use  of  open  strings.  Pat  Metheny’s  solo  
version   of   Keith   Jarrett’s   My   song13,   recorded   on   baritone   guitar   but   written   out  
below  for  standard  guitar,  is  a  good  example  of  this  and  is  transposed  from  the  key  

                                                                                                               
11
 GREENE,  T.  1985.  Modern  Chord  Progressions,  Van  Nuys  CA,  Alfred  Music  Publishing.  
12
 GREENE,  T.  1981.  Chord  chemistry,  Alfred  music  publishing.  
13
 METHENY,  P.  2003.  One  quiet  night.  Warner  Brothers.  

  16  
of  C  to  the  key  of  G  in  order  to  make  better  use  of  the  available  lower  register  for  
harmonising  the  melody  in  what  can  be  seen  as  a  slightly  more  broken  up  manner.  
Here  are  the  first  8  bars  of  the  melody  following  the  introduction:  
 

 
Fig.  11  
CD  track  4  (0:07)  
(Note:  CD  track  in  original  key  –  therefore  notes  transpose  down  a  P4  but  fingering  remains  the  same)  
 

An   example   such   as   this   shows   how   guitarists   must   be   willing   to   shift   melodies   in  
order  to  make  full  use  of  the  chordal-­‐melody  technique.  Key  transposition  and  the  
use  of  open  strings  will  be  looked  at  in  greater  depth  in  chapter  7.  
 
Another   point   Greene   makes   in   relation   to   chordal   melodies   is   to   do   with   using   a  
consistent   number   of   voices   and   although   I   would   not   call   the   examples   he   cites  
contrapuntal,   he   does   elude   to   a   more   contrapuntal   approach   and   even   refers   to  
practicing  Bach  chorals  as  exercises  for  exploring  and  building  up  a  bank  of  voicings  
which  can  be  used  for  constructing  chordal  melodies14.    
 
                                                                                                               
14
 GREENE,  T.  1981.  Chord  chemistry,  Alfred  music  publishing.  

  17  
The   chordal   melody   technique   can   be   heard   on   a   large   number   of   recordings,   for  
instance  Wes  Montgomery’s  version  of  I’ve  grown  accustomed  to  her  face  from  his  
album   Full   House   (live)15.   Although   the   track   includes   bass   and   drums,   the   chordal  
melodic  concept  can  still  be  heard  on  solo  guitar  during  the  introduction  (shown  in  
Fig.  12),  4-­‐bar  bridge  section  and  outro  of  the  tune,  consequently  he  also  plays  using  
this  technique  throughout  the  whole  song  even  with  the  accumulation  of  the  other  
band  members  into  the  piece.  
 

 
Fig.  12  
CD  track  5  
 
In   my   experience,   because   of   its   simplicity   and   the   evident   benefits   it   has   for  
unaccompanied   guitarists,   it   is   always   one   of   the   first   concepts   to   come   up   when  
discussing   solo   guitar   with   various   teachers.   During   my   time   studying   under  
Australian   based   guitarist   James   Sherlock,   the   importance   of   this   technique   was  
established   along   with   appropriate   practice   methods.   In   one   private   lesson   he  
pointed   out   that   when   he   is   improvising   a   harmonised   melody   he   simplifies   chord  
progressions   to   facilitate   melodic   lines,   for   example   reducing   a   4-­‐bar   I   vi   ii   V  
progression  like  CMaj7,  Am7,  Dm7,  G7  into  just  2  bars  of  Cmaj7  and  2  bars  of  G7.  Joe  

                                                                                                               
 MONTGOMERY,  W.  1962.  Full  House  (live).  
15

  18  
Pass   describes   a   similar   thought   process   in   his   method   video   Joe   Pass   –   solo   jazz  
guitar.16   Sherlock   explained   that   considering   there   is   no   accompanying   harmonic  
instrument  the  solo  guitarist  is  free  to  create  harmonised  melodies  under  whichever  
harmonic   context   he/she   chooses   and   describes   instances   where   the   notes   in   the  
melody  can  be  treated  as  the  only  harmonic  constant  resulting  in  great  freedom  for  
improvising   chords   around   them.   Practice   methods   prescribed   to   me   personally   by  
Sherlock   included   harmonising   scales   (similar   to   the   previous   Greene   example   but  
exploring   an   infinite   amount   of   variations)   and   harmonising   a   single   note   through  
various  chord  changes,  similar  to  an  exercise  from  his  instructional  video  where  he  
demonstrates   the   harmonising   of   the   chords   E7(b5#9),   A7(b9),   D7(#9#5)   and  
G13(#9)  all  with  a  Bb  note  as  the  top  voice17:  
 
 

 
 

 
Fig.  13  
 
Another  guitar  method  book  that  I  consider  being  a  valuable  resource  for  guitarists  
to  draw  upon  in  order  to  build  up  knowledge  (theoretical,  practical  and  aural)  of  how  
to   utilise   chord   voicings   for   harmonising   melodies   is   Barry   Galbraith’s   Guitar  
comping.   Although   the   book   is   not   concerned   directly   with   solo   guitar   either,   the  
chordal  principles  outlined  within  apply  strongly  to  the  chordal  melody  technique.  In  
his  introduction  Galbraith  states:  
 

                                                                                                               
 PASS,  J.  1986.  Joe  Pass  -­‐  solo  jazz  guitar.  Hot  Licks.  
16
17
 Ibid.  

  19  
 “Upper   voices   of   a   chord   should   form   a   simple   counter   line   rather   than   jumping  
aimlessly   about.   However,   at   times   inversions   work   well.   Using   a   common   upper  
tone  while  changing  chords  is  effective”(1986:2)18.  
 
This   idea   uses   the   same   basic   principle   as   the   chordal   melody   technique   but   goes  
about  it  in  the  reverse  order,  placing  more  emphasis  on  the  chords  rather  than  the  
melodic  idea.  For  this  reason  I  found  Galbraith’s  book  to  be  inadvertently  useful  in  
my  own  practice  with  relation  to  solo  jazz  guitar.    
 
Personally,   as   I   explored   this   chordal   melody   technique   I   found   its   greatest  
advantage  was  that  it  dealt  with  melody  and  harmony  at  the  same  time,  even  bass  
movement   could   be   addressed   depending   on   the   complexity   of   the   melody   and  
technical   demand   of   the   voicings.   Conversely   I   found   that   an   improvised   melody  
could   be   compromised   when   trying   to   fit   chords   underneath   each   note,   though   in  
reality   not   all   notes   of   the   melody   have   to   be   harmonised   (as   in   the   Montgomery  
example)   and   in   many   cases   where   there   are   many   notes   and   the   tempo   is   reaching  
a  fast  pace  it  becomes  too  cumbersome  to  apply  a  chord  to  each.  A  player’s  sense  of  
musicality  ought  to  be  the  judge  as  to  which  melody  notes  should  be  harmonised  in  
any  given  phrase.  
 
 
 
 
 

                                                                                                               
 GALBRAITH,  B.  1986.  Jazz  guitar  study  series:  guitar  comping,  New  Albany,  IM,  Jamey  Aebersold.  
18

  20  
4.  COUNTERPOINT  –  KEEPING  THE  VOICES  ALIVE  
 
Looking   at   the   way   jazz   guitar   has   evolved   from   its   early   beginnings   in   a  
percussive/chordal  role  to  its  modern  day  way  of  speaking,  one  can  see  a  trend  from  
using   primarily   a   vertical   harmonic   paradigm   towards   accepting   and   amalgamating  
contrapuntal  ways  of  thinking.  For  a  long  time  guitarists  accepted  the  responsibility  
of   ‘wearing   two   hats’,   acting   as   a   chordal   accompaniment   instrument   while  
supporting  soloists  and  at  other  times  being  the  lead  solo  voice19.  Combining  the  two  
more   often   than   not   involved   giving   preference   to   the   lead   solo   line   with   vertical  
chord   structures   spread   intermittently   in   the   ‘gaps’.   For   example,   in   Peter   Leitch’s  
solo   through   Chick   Corea’s   Tones   for   Joan’s   bones   the   solo   voice   is   heard   to   be  
complimented   by   chordal   ‘stabs’   at   different   intervals,   such   as   in   the   three   bars  
between  the  end  of  the  line  beginning  at  the  Ebmaj7  turnaround  and  the  start  the  
next  over  the  F7  chord  in  the  following  transcription20:  
 

 
Fig.  14  
CD  track  6  (0:08)  
 
Similarly   in   James   Muller’s   up   tempo   rendition   of   the   Kern/Hammerstein   standard  
All   the   things   you   are   Muller   drives   his   solo   strongly   with   lengthy   single   note   lines  

                                                                                                               
19
 GOODRICK,  M.  1987.  The  advancing  guitarist,  Third  Earth.  
20
 LEITCH,  P.  1991.  Trio/Quartet  '91.  

  21  
interspersed  by  moments  of  chordal  playing  as  can  be  seen  at  the  0:48  mark  in  Fig.  
15  when  moving  from  Abmaj7  through  to  Gmaj7  two  bars  later21.  
 

 
Fig.  15  
CD  track  7  (0:08)  
(Note:  disregard  0:45  and  0:48  in  the  transcription  as  this  refers  to  the  time  on  the  original  CD)  

 
The   other   common   technique   for   the   combining   of   harmony   and   melody   is   the  
chordal   melody   technique   referred   to   in   the   previous   chapter.   This   was   a   popular  
technique  for  the  late  Wes  Montgomery  who  would  often  begin  his  solos  with  single  
note  lines  before  moving  onto  octaves  and/or  chordal  melodies.  
 
However,   a   more   contrapuntal   approach   to   melodies   and   harmony   on   jazz   guitar  
appears  to  be  a  relatively  recent  way  of  thinking.  Classical  guitar  players  on  the  other  
hand   have   employed   the   extensive   use   of   counterpoint   for   a   longer   time   with  
countless  pieces  and  exercises  available  for  exploration  on  the  matter.  An  example  
to  demonstrate  one  such  piece  is  Fernando  Sor’s  study  in  C  Opus  6,  no.  8:  
 

                                                                                                               
 MULLER,  J.  2006.  Kaboom.  
21

  22  
  
Fig.  16  
CD  track  8  
 
But  even  with  an  excess  of  material  such  as  this  devoted  to  counterpoint  for  guitar  in  
the   classical   world,   in   jazz   its   exploration   has   taken   significantly   longer   to   unfold.   I  
personally   tend   to   think   this   is   because   of   the   initial   role   guitar   took   in   early   jazz  
before  the  invention  of  amplification,  resulting  in  more  emphasis  put  onto  thinking  
in  terms  of  easy-­‐to-­‐grab,  block-­‐type  chord  voicings  for  the  sake  of  an  immediate  and  
loud-­‐as-­‐possible   rhythmic   presence.   Further   to   this   I   contend   that   it   has   led   to   a   ‘re-­‐
inventing   of   the   wheel’   in   terms   of   counterpoint   and   jazz   guitar,   with   a   profound  

  23  
importance   being   placed   on   the   subject   only   in   recent   times   (35   years   or   so   from  
anecdotal   evidence).   Nevertheless,   interest   has   risen   with   texts   such   as   The  
advancing   guitarist   helping   to   pave   the   way   for   a   contrapuntal   approach   to   jazz  
guitar  with  author  M.  Goodrick  making  statements  such  as:    
 
“Counterpoint  (or  the  study  of  intervals)  is  one  of  the  most  neglected  and  important  
aspects  of  the  guitar.”(1987:18)    
 
He   supplements   this   and   other   similar   views   with   ideas   for   exercises   aiding   in  
horizontal   playing   of   voices   with   intent   to   incite   contrapuntal   thinking   for   the   jazz  
guitarist.   These   ideas   include   playing   intervals   on   adjacent   and   non-­‐adjacent   string  
sets  and  even  the  possibility  of  playing  contrapuntally  solely  in  open  position22.  All  of  
his   practice   suggestions   are   based   around   the   four   types   of   contrapuntal   motion  
shown  in  Fig.  17:  
 

 
Fig.  17  
 
A   strong   advocate   for   Goodrick’s   ideas   concerning   horizontal   movement   and  
counterpoint   on   guitar   is   Australia’s   Stephen   Magnusson.   Aside   from   personally  
talking  to  Stephen  about  the  large  impact  the  book  has  had  on  him,  his  playing  is  a  
                                                                                                               
22
 GOODRICK,  M.  1987.  The  advancing  guitarist,  Third  Earth.  

  24  
strong  testament  to  the  ideas  Goodrick  argues  for  and  can  be  heard  on  a  variety  of  
his   recordings,   such   as   the   bass-­‐less   trio   album   Healing   songs23   for   example.  
Magnusson’s  ability  to  vary  his  articulations  between  different  voices  and/or  phrases  
is   a   tremendous   tool   for   distinguishing   them   and   places   him   alongside   other  
renowned   guitarists   such   as   John   Scofield   and   Bill   Frisell   who   employ   similar  
techniques.    
 
It   was   while   receiving   lessons   from   Stephen   that   my   personal   interest   regarding  
contrapuntal  melodic  and  harmonic  techniques  really  started  to  unravel  itself  and  I  
have   consequently   implemented   certain   aspects   of   it   into   my   own   practice   and  
playing  style.  These  practices  are  along  the  vein  of  the  one’s  established  by  Goodrick  
in  his  book,  only  with  solo  jazz  guitar  in  mind.  One  example  would  be  using  the  form  
of   a   standard   and   improvising   in   a   single-­‐note   linear   style   concentrating   on  
alternating  short  phrases  which  are  voiced  on  different  parts  of  the  fingerboard  (i.e.  
top  3  strings  versus  lower  3  strings),  giving  the  feel  of  two  separate  parts  alternating  
one  phrase  at  a  time.  Then  slowly  overlapping  the  phrases  so  they  eventually  occur  
simultaneously.  At  first  I  found  this  type  of  playing  on  guitar  foreign  and  somewhat  
difficult  considering  the  physical  limitations  of  the  instrument  and  the  independence  
involved,   particularly   with   an   increased   number   of   voices,   but   I   have   come   to  
personally   believe   this   is   where   thorough   horizontal   fingerboard   knowledge,  
technique   and   harmonic   understanding   come   into   play.   It   doesn’t   hurt   to   blur   the  
line  between  oneself  as  an  accompanist  and  soloist  either,  as  Goodrick  states:    
 
“Counterpoint   can   be   viewed   as   the   study   of   intervals   that   helps   to   dissolve   rigid  
ways   of   thinking   about   melody   as   one   thing   and   harmony   as   another”(Goodrick,  
1987).  
 
In  terms  of  unaccompanied  jazz  guitar  pedagogy,  I  found  it  difficult  to  unearth  any  
textual  resources  that  related  directly  to  counterpoint,  not  to  say  there  is  none  out  
there  only  that  I  failed  to  discover  any  in  my  research,  therefore  I  will  endeavour  to  
show  it’s  relevance  in  the  discipline  with  a  transcribed  audio  sample.  
                                                                                                               
 BALL  MAGNUSSON  BERESOVSKY,  E.  S.  S.????  Healing  songs.  
23

  25  
  
This   short   transcription   comes   from   Israeli   born   guitarist   Gilad   Hekselman   and   in  
these  initial  bars  to  his  freely  stated  introduction  of  his  version  of  the  standard  I  fall  
in  love  too  easily24  a  clear  distinction  of  2  voices  can  be  seen  and  heard:  
 

 
Fig.  18  
CD  track  9  
 
Although   the   phrases   alternate,   Hekselman   uses   the   technique   of   allowing   the   last  
note   of   each   one   to   bleed   into   the   next.   Added   to   this   are   register   and   timbral  
differences,  all  in  all  creating  a  true  sense  of  contrapuntal  movement.  It  is  of  interest  
to  note  that  at  the  end  of  bar  4  the  two  voices  link  up,  with  the  higher  one  picking  up  
from   the   note   where   the   lower   left   off   but   because   they   have   already   been  
established   as   separate   in   the   initial   bars   they   maintain   their   sense   of   separation.  
Similar   instances   of   implying   separate   voices   have   been   heard   clearly   for   centuries  
going  back  to  the  baroque  period  and  implied  counterpoint.    
 
A  method  for  approaching  this  type  of  single-­‐note  counterpoint  specifically  for  jazz  
guitar   is   given   by   Jon   Damian   in   his   book   The   guitarist’s   guide   to   composing   and  
improvising.  In  Fig.  19  one  can  see  his  method  for  condensing  two  contrapuntal  lines  
into  a  singular  line25:  
 

                                                                                                               
24
 HEKSELMAN,  G.  2006.  Split  life.  New  York:  Smalls  Records.  
 DAMIAN,  J.  2001.  The  guitarist's  guide  to  composing  and  improvising,  Boston,  MA,  Berklee.  
25

  26  
  
Fig.  19  
 
Considering  the  melodies  are  an  example  of  improvised  lines,  strict  adherence  to  the  
original   rhythm   is   not   important,   what   is   important   is   maintaining   the   feel   of   two  
parts   working   against   each   other.   Damian   then   goes   on   to   explain   how   the   notes  
making  up  the  improvised  lines  could  be  derived  from  the  chords  they  will  be  played  
over.  In  this  un-­‐harmonised  style,  core  notes  from  the  chords  make  up  the  strongest  
parts  of  the  lines,  e.g.  from  the  chord  Cm7  the  notes  C,  Eb,  G  and  Bb  would  be  the  
strongest  to  use.  
 
The   biggest   strength   that   I   see   in   working   to   obtain   a   grasp   over   this   type   of  
technique  for  a  solo  jazz  guitarist  is  that  it  offers  him/her  quite  a  modern  voice  away  
from   clichés   that   have   come   to   be   associated   with   the   style   over   the   years.   I   believe  
that  thinking  in  separate  voices  also  benefits  greatly  to  the  notion  of  including  bass  
lines   on   guitar   when   playing   solo   and   that   this   type   of   practice   leads   to   better  
thought-­‐out  bass  lines  in  general  (from  my  personal  practice  experience).  

  27  
5.  CLOSURE  -­‐  SMOKE  AND  MIRRORS  
 
‘Filling  in  the  gaps’  is  something  the  human  brain  has  evolved  to  do  quite  well.  The  
phenomenon   is   known   as   closure26   within   the   Gestalt   principles   of   perception.   An  
example  of  how  our  brains  do  this  is  illustrated  in  the  following  optical  illusion:  
 

                                                                                                                               
 
 
This  image  is  originally  from  Dr  Haseltine’s  online  blog  at  longfusebigbang.com  and  
his  explanation  of  how  it  works  is  as  followed:  
 
“Your   brain   “fills   in”   the   gaps   in   the   rectangle   between   four   corners,   creating  
completed   lines   where   there   are   no   lines   at   all.   Your   brain   engages   in   this   bit   of  
creative  fiction  to  help  you  make  sense  of  what  you’re  seeing”(2010)27.    
 
Although  the  term  closure  was  originally  coined  in  terms  of  visual  perception,  for  this  
chapter  I  am  going  to  hijack  it  for  use  in  an  audio/musical  context.  My  reason  for  this  
being  that  I  feel  it  describes  adequately  the  phenomenon  at  the  heart  of  this  chapter  
in  both  harmonic  and  rhythmic  terms  but  also  steers  away  from  related  titles  which  
may  carry  other  connotations  and  lead  to  misunderstandings.  Riecke  et  al.’s  article  
on   auditory   illusion   and   how   the   brain   fills   in   the   gaps   when   sound   is   fragmented  
describes  the  process  well  in  regards  to  audio-­‐sensory  perception:  
 

                                                                                                               
26
 Closure  –  a  paradigm  for  the  study  of  visual  perception  established  in  the  1920’s.  The  principle  can  
be   described   as   “incomplete   figures   will   be   perceived   as   closed   in   order   to   obtain   their   familiar  
meaning”   (2006.   Gestalt   Psychology.   In:   DAVEY,   G.   (ed.)   Encyclopaedic   dictionary   of   psychology.  
London:  Hodder  Arnold.)  
27
  HASELTINE,   D.   E.   2010.   Optical   illusions   can   you   help   predict   the   future?   [Online].   Hyperion.  
Available:   http://longfusebigbang.com/blog/optical_illusions_can_help_you_predict_the_future/  
[Accessed  03/09/10  2010].  

  28  
 “It  is  quite  common  for  us  to  "hear"  sounds  that  aren't  really  there:  human  hearing  
is  a  constructive  process.    
The  brain  has  the  ability  to  take  auditory  fragments  and  generate  an  overall  "image"  
of   the   sound.   It   is   like   assembling   a   jigsaw   puzzle   with   some   of   the   pieces   missing  
but  still  having  a  good  enough  impression  of  the  overall  picture”(2009:555)28.  
 
Before   explaining   how   this   phenomenon   can   be   used   as   a   tool   for   solo   guitar   it   is  
important   to   be   aware   that   our   brains   perform   this   on   a   daily   basis   and   also   to  
understand   the   way   it   is   made   effective   in   a   general   musical   context.   To  
demonstrate   this,   take   the   following   example;   in   Colombian   group   Los   Tupamaros’  
soca29  hit  Enamorao30,  the  opening  solo  piano  riff  is:  

 
Fig.  20  
CD  track  10  
 
This  riff  is  restated  again  at  0:57  minutes,  but  unlike  the  first  time  it  is  presented  it  
takes  place  after  a  verse  that  has  established  a  strong  danceable  rhythm.  Because  of  
this,  even  though  the  riff  is  again  played  unaccompanied,  the  ‘groove’  persists  in  the  
listeners  mind  enabling  the  rhythm  to  be  felt  (and  danced)  straight  through.    
 
 

                                                                                                               
28
 LARS  RIECKE,  FABRIZIO  ESPOSITO,  MILENE  BONT,  ELIA  FORMISANO.  2009.  Hearing  Illusory  Sounds  
in  Noise:  The  Timing  of  Sensory-­‐Perceptual  Transformations  in  Auditory  Cortex.  Neuron,  64,  550-­‐561.  
29
 Soca  is  an  abbreviation  for  ‘soul  calypso’.  
30
 TUPAMAROS,  L.  2008.  20  anos  de  exitos.  Discos  Fuentes.  

  29  
  
Fig.  21  
 
Fig.   21   shows   the   different   aspects   of   the   rhythm   section   that   contribute   to  
establishing  the  rhythmic  groove  of  the  piece.  In  my  opinion  it  is  the  rhythms  of  the  
bass  figure,  cowbell  and  timbales  that  embed  themselves  the  strongest  in  the  mind’s  
internal  ear  and  allow  for  a  perceived  groove  to  be  felt  even  in  the  absence  of  actual  
input  into  the  sensory  ear.  
 
The   previous   example   illustrated   closure   in   relation   to   rhythm   and   how   it   can   be  
implied   for   a   period   of   time   but   it   can   also   occur   in   relation   to   harmony.   A   very  
common  example  in  the  jazz  world  is  what  is  known  as  ‘trading’31  with  a  drummer.  
An   example   (amongst   possibly   tens   of   thousands)   of   this   can   be   heard   on   the  
recording  of  Wes  Montgomery’s  Four  on  six,  the  first  track  on  guitarist  Pat  Martino’s  
album   Remember   –   a   tribute   to   Wes   Montgomery32.   The   harmonic   progression   for  
the  solo  section  of  the  piece  can  be  seen  in  the  following  chord  chart:  
 

               Gm7                          %                        %                        %  
   Cm7        F7    Bbm7    Eb7      Am7        D7    Ebm7    Ab7  
               Gm7                          %                        %      Cm7        F7  
Bbmaj7  Gm7      Eb7            D7                    Gm7   Am7(b5)  D7  
Fig.  22  
                                                                                                               
31
 To  trade:  “In  jazz  to  divide  a  chorus  between  or  among  solo  players,  so  that  each  takes  a  phrase  in  
turn.   The   length   of   the   phrases   traded   is   usually   four   bars,   but   eight-­‐bar   and   two-­‐bar   phrases   and  
even  single  bars  are  also  treated  in  this  way;  the  players  are  said  to  “trade  fours”  (“eights,”  “twos,”  
“ones”).”  (1988b.  In:  KERNFELD,  B.  (ed.)  The  New  Grove  Dictionary  of  Jazz.  London:  Macmillan.)  
32
 MARTINO,  P.  2006.  Remember  -­‐  a  tribute  to  Wes  Montgomery.  Blue  Note.  

  30  
  
At  4:35  minutes  on  the  original  recording  (immediately  after  the  piano  solo)  Martino  
and  drummer  Scott  Allan  Robinson  begin  3  choruses33  of  8-­‐bar  trading  (CD  track  11  
(0:16)).  The  entire  band  plays  over  each  of  Martino’s  8-­‐bar  phrases  clearly  outlining  
the  chord  changes  which,  because  the  form  is  an  even  16  bars,  turns  out  to  be  the  
first  8  bars  each  time.  But  when  it  comes  to  Robinson’s  8-­‐bar  solos  the  rest  of  the  
band   tacets34   and   although   the   average   person   with   little   understanding   of   jazz  
harmony  may  struggle  to  keep  the  chord  progression  moving  in  their  heads,  people  
with  a  more  developed  aural  sense  of  harmony  (such  as  musicians  or  long-­‐time  jazz  
listeners)  do  achieve  this.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  chord  progression  has  been  
established   for   the   listener   through   numerous   form35   repetitions   during   previous  
solos   by   the   time   it   reaches   the   trading.   Internally   hearing   the   harmony   while   the  
drummer  solos  is  no  small  feat  but  because  the  passages  of  8-­‐bar  solo  drumming  are  
divided  by  Martino  and  the  rest  of  the  band  the  listener  accepts  this  as  a  mode  of  
reinforcement   and   the   form   can   feel   to   move   on   uninterrupted,   as   opposed   to  
having  blocks  of  solo  drums  that  halt  the  song’s  harmonic  progression.  
 
The   same   can   be   achieved   with   an   unaccompanied   guitar   piece.   Guitarist   Ralph  
Towner  supports  this  view  and  states  (in  terms  of  solo  jazz  guitar)  that:  
 
“…different   parts,   when   they   become   silent,   linger   in   the   listener's   and   player's  
memories.   When   you   overlap   two   parts,   the   attention   swing   to   the   new   part   is  
occupied  momentarily  by  the  old  part.  When  the  actual  silence  takes  place  in  the  old  
part,  it  is  not  as  consciously  abrupt  this  way.  For  example,  if  the  accompaniment  has  
a   specifically   motor   like   personality,   it   can   be   implied   to   continue   unabated   if   you  
maintain  the  same  qualities  upon  returning  to  it.”(1985:37)36  
 

                                                                                                               
33
 A  chorus  can  be  defined  as  “In  general  usage  the  refrain  of  a  song  or  hymn,  that  section  which  is  
repeated,  always  with  the  same  tune  and  text,  after  each  verse;  for  the  use  of  harmonic  and  metric  
structures  of  song  refrains  as  the  basis  of  jazz  pieces”  (1988b.  In:  KERNFELD,  B.  (ed.)  The  New  Grove  
Dictionary  of  Jazz.  London:  Macmillan.)  
34
 To  Tacet  means  to  remain  silent  
35
 In  this  jazz  context  the  term  ‘form’  and  ‘chorus’  are  interchangeable.  
36
  TOWNER,   R.   1985.   Improvisation   and   Performance   Techniques   for   Classical   and   Acoustic   Guitar,  
Wayne  N.J.,  21st  Century  Music  Productions.  

  31  
An   example   of   this   principle   of   closure   in   solo   guitar   can   be   heard   on   James  
Sherlock’s  recording  of  Domestic  arts  and  sciences37.  The  5/4  swing  tune  begins  by  
establishing   a   groove,   which   can   be   seen   within   the   first   4   bars,   but   then   the   bass  
and   chord   patterns   making   up   the   groove   change   in   order   to   compensate   for   the  
melody   in   the   next   4   bars.   In   this   example   I   have   excluded   the   melody   in   order   to  
allow  for  a  better  view  of  what  is  taking  place  in  the  underlying  groove.    
 
 

 
Fig.  23  
CD  track  12  
 
Immediately   on   first   glance   the   parts   look   noticeably   different.   The   main   change  
being   that   the   duration   of   many   of   the   notes   has   shortened.   This   makes   sense  
considering   the   fact   that   inserting   a   melody   would   create   gaps   in   the   underlying  
support   structure.   Secondly   some   of   the   rhythms   have   shifted   or   disappeared   all  
together,   this   can   be   seen   to   occur   in   every   bar   and   is   also   to   be   expected   when  
adding  a  melody.  Nevertheless  the  song  maintains  its  drive  and  pace  thanks  to  our  
brains   ability   to   fill   in   the   gaps   aided   by   moments   of   reinforcement   such   as   the  
triplet  figure  found  in  the  bass  part  of  bar  7.    
 
In  my  opinion,  the  ability  to  control  this  audio  illusion  is  one  of  the  most  important  
and  least  discussed  aspects  of  solo  jazz  guitar.  Although  it  can  be  easily  arranged  and  
incorporated   into   the   melody   of   a   tune   I   have   personally   found   it   a   challenging  

                                                                                                               
37
 SHERLOCK,  J.  2010.  Solo.  Pinnacles  Music.  

  32  
concept   to   grapple   with   while   improvising   simply   because   it   adds   a   further  
dimension   to   the   way   ones   mind   has   to   mould   the   music   and   develop   the  
improvisation.   However   through   trial   and   error   I   have   found   a   useful   method   for  
practicing   this   concept,   which   has   turned   out   to   be   quite   similar   to   an   exercise  
prescribed  by  Ralph  Towner.  It  involves  mapping  out  a  chart  (of  12  bars  for  example)  
with  certain  areas  roughly  dedicated  to  playing  an  accompanist-­‐type  role  and  laying  
down  a  groove  while  having  other  areas  set  aside  for  unrestricted  improvisation  of  
melodic   lines.   The   two   areas   are   made   to   overlap   slightly.   Towner’s   exercise   is   a  
slight  expansion  of  this  by  having  the  accompanist-­‐type  section  divided  into  bass  and  
chords  accompaniment.  Towner’s  example  is  demonstrated  below  in  Fig.  2438:  
 

 
Fig.  24  
 
This   type   of   mapped   out   chart   can   be   superimposed   over   the   form   of   any   tune  
starting  at  any  point  with  the  time  signature  being  altered  as  required.  It  can  also  be  
lengthened,   shortened,   played   in   double/half   time   or   be   split   up   to   achieve  
numerous  permutations,  and  when  all  possibilities  have  been  exhausted,  countless  
others  can  be  written  resulting  in  an  infinite  amount  of  variations.  
 

                                                                                                               
38
  TOWNER,   R.   1985.   Improvisation   and   Performance   Techniques   for   Classical   and   Acoustic   Guitar,  
Wayne  N.J.,  21st  Century  Music  Productions.  

  33  
Towner’s   separation   of   bass   and   chord   accompaniment   is   not   unexpected  
considering  the  importance  that  solo  jazz  guitarists  have  put  on  mimicking  bass  lines  
within   the   style.   In   fact,   in   this   music,   the   concept   of   closure   lends   itself   well   to   bass  
line   parts   because   of   their   generally   pattern-­‐based   rhythms   which   our   brains   can  
latch  on  to  –  whether  they  be  4  to  the  bar  walking  lines  or  more  syncopated  ones  
like  the  one  seen  in  the  previous  Sherlock  example.  

  34  
6.  TIME  –  THE  NOT  SO  CONSTANT  
 
  “…a  single  second  ticking  by,  all  the  clocks  
in  this  house  suddenly  wrong,  &  another  hour  lost.”39    
 
This  is  taken  from  the  final  verse  in  Tempo  Rubato  by  Aleda  Shirley  and  is  a  poetic  
description  of  how,  for  all  of  us,  time  can  feel  to  warp  itself  from  being  a  measurable  
constant   into   a   more   fluid   thing.   The   musical   equivalent   of   this   real   time   that   we  
experience  in  everyday  life  is  what  we,  funnily  enough,  refer  to  as  time  and  is  made  
up   by   the   variables   of   meter,   rhythm   and   tempo40   -­‐   which   can   also   be   made   to  
appear  to  be  warped.  The  topic  of  time  in  music  is  incredibly  massive  and  far  beyond  
the  scope  of  this  paper  to  cover  in  any  great  detail  but  my  intention  is  to  recognise  
its   importance   as   a   significant   tool   for   solo   jazz   guitar   with   the   use   of   various  
examples.  
 
Despite   being   such   an   immensely   vital   factor   in   music,   I   am   not   surprised   that  
mastery   of   the   manipulation   of   time   is   not   discussed   in   terms   of   solo   jazz   guitar  
considering  its  gross  underrepresentation  in  jazz  related  texts  as  a  whole.  Obtaining  
a   high   level   of   harmonic   mastery   for   improvisation   is   extremely   important   but   in  
general,   jazz   musicians   tend   to   focus   primarily   on   this   to   the   detriment   of   their  
mastery   of   time.   Achieving   a   comfortable   and   adequate   ‘feel’   within   music   is   usually  
the   extent   to   which   the   majority   of   jazz   musicians   explore   this   concept   (in   my  
opinion).  The  true  jazz  masters,  however,  appear  to  be  the  exception  to  this,  which  
raises  an  interesting  point  between  the  correlation  of  time  mastery  and  mastery  of  
jazz  as  a  whole.  
 
The   3   forms   of   time-­‐manipulation   I   will   be   discussing   are   free-­‐time   playing,   tempo  
shifting   (ritardando/accelerando)   and   the   use   of   rubato.   In   the   jazz   world   there  
seems   to   be   some   overlap   of   these   3   principles   with   the   terms   being   thrown   around  

                                                                                                               
39
 SHIRLEY,  A.  2006.  Tempo  rubato.  The  North  American  Review,  291,  42.  
40
 BARRA,  D.  1983.  The  dynamic  performance  -­‐  A  performer's  guide  to  musical  expression  and  
iterpretation,  Sydney,  Prentice  Hall  (of  Australia).  

  35  
somewhat  loosely.  In  the  classical  world  on  the  other  hand,  these  terms  have  existed  
with   quite   some   contention   as   to   their   strict   definitions.   To   avoid   getting   bogged  
down  in  definitions  I  will  use  sources  that  describe  most  simply  the  concepts  I  wish  
to  get  across.    In  terms  of  free  time  I  mean  free  from  any  pulse  or  rhythmic  patterns,  
it   can   be   for   extended   periods   such   as   an   improvisation   cycling   through   the   chord  
progression  of  a  tune  with  no  meter,  or  as  a  entity  residing  within  a  tune  itself  (i.e.  a  
cadenza   type   line   coming   out   of   a   dominant   chord   and   into   a   tonic   chord).   Tempo  
shifting  I  describe  as  an  increase  or  decrease  of  tempo,  this  can  include  ritardandos  
and   accelerandos   but   also   combinations   of   the   two   in   close   succession   resulting   in   a  
fluid  like  pulse.  Rubato  I  define  by  Donald  Barra’s  terms  from  his  book  The  Dynamic  
Performance,  which  states:  
 
“This   technique,   which   is   based   on   subtle   readjustments   in   the   timing   of   the   rhythmic  
patterns  directly  reinforces  the  amount  of  tension  that  is  generated  from  within  the  
musical  impulse.  
Most   musical   resolutions   tend   to   coincide   with   the   strong   beats   of   the   metric  
structure.   A   slight   retard   before   the   arrival   of   these   metric   pulses   tends   to   increase  
the  level  of  musical  tension  and  so  produces  a  stronger  resolution  when  the  release  
finally  does  occur.”  (1983:100)41  
 
The  important  things  I  wish  to  outline  are  that  rubato  and  tempo-­‐shifting  techniques  
differ  in  that  one  works  against  a  pulse  and  the  other  is  the  pulse  shifting,  also  that  
these   forces   can   work   simultaneously.   While   free-­‐playing   cannot   work  
simultaneously  to  these  2  techniques,  it  can  appear  alongside,  take  for  example  the  
opening   of   Geoff   Hughes’   Snoring   waters   from   the   Allan   Browne   Quintet’s   album  
Cyclosporin42:  
 

                                                                                                               
41
 Ibid.  
42
 ALLAN-­‐BROWNE-­‐QUINTET  2004.  Cyclosporin.  Melbourne:  Jazz  head.  

  36  
  
Fig.  25  
CD  track  13  
 
Although   this   introduction   may   feel   free,   when   analysed,   saxophonist   David   Rex’s  
line   can   be   felt   to   have   a   pulse   albeit   that   it’s   shifting,   irregular   and   understated   due  
to   his   attack.   True   free-­‐time   is   felt   at   the   fermatas   particularly   at   the   second   one  
where  Rex  plays  a  flurry  of  ornamental  notes  (not  illustrated  here,  refer  to  track  13  
on   accompanying   CD)   complimented   by   the   rest   of   the   band.   This   example   is  
interesting  because  the  group  explores  this  time  manipulation  as  a  whole,  similar  to  
the  way  an  orchestra  might,  with  Rex’s  phrasing  acting  as  conductor  and  allows  for  
melodic  strong  points  to  dock  periodically  with  chordal  landmarks.    
 
In  terms  of  solo  playing,  the  combination  of  rubato  playing  with  tempo-­‐shifting  can  
be  heard  on  pianist  Keith  Jarrett’s  introduction  to  My  funny  valentine  from  his  1988  
trio  album  Still  live43.  A  pulse  is  clearly  discernable  as  depicted  in  the  transcription  of  
the  initial  12  bars44:  
 

                                                                                                               
 JARRET,  K.  1988.  Still  live.  ECM.  
43
44
 BRUCHEZ,  O.  1999-­‐2010.  Keithjarret.org  [Online].  Word  press.  Available:  
http://www.keithjarrett.org/transcriptions/  [Accessed  2010].  

  37  
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and  life  to  the  improvisation  but  it  is  the  treatment  of  twelfth  bar  that  is  of  particular  

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While   practicing   to   become   proficient   in   the   solo   jazz   guitar   style,   I   noticed   quite  
early  on  the  bland  results  that  ensued  from  practicing  without  giving  much  thought  
to  the  concept  of  time.  This  time-­‐manipulation  is  an  extremely  essential  technique  
for  achieving  an  overall  high  standard  in  jazz  playing  but,  as  I  stated  earlier,  there  is  
                                                                                                               
45
 BARRA,  D.  1983.  The  dynamic  performance  -­‐  A  performer's  guide  to  musical  expression  and  
iterpretation,  Sydney,  Prentice  Hall  (of  Australia).  

  38  
next-­‐to-­‐no   insightful   material   on   how   it   can   aid   solo   jazz   guitar   playing.   In   my  
opinion,  there  are  2  main  reasons  for  this  –    
 
1)  When  learning  to  play  solo  the  initial  hurdles  that  are  faced  include  being  able  to  
juggle  groove  and  tempo  along  with  harmony  and  melody  (at  least  from  my  personal  
experience)   and   so   much   emphasis   is   put   on   trying   to   combine   these   different  
aspects   of   playing   that   we   can   overlook   the   importance   of   other   musical   devices  
such   as   time-­‐manipulation.   Techniques,   such   as   the   ones   shown   in   Tuck   Andress’  
Fingerstyle  Mastery,  that  aid  in  playing  multiple  parts  of  songs  while  maintaining  the  
tempo  and  feel  can  take  years  to  master  (10  years  in  Andress’  case46)  so  there  is  no  
surprise  to  the  oversight.    
 
2)  It  would  seem  to  be  ‘common  sense’  for  a  solo  guitarist  to  have  an  understanding  
that  he/she  is  in  total  control  of  the  time  and  should  therefore  be  able  to  manipulate  
it   in   whichever   way   he/she   sees   fit.   But   what   is   common   sense   to   an   experienced  
player,  with  years  of  intuitive  exploration,  is  not  the  same  for  a  guitarist  beginning  
their  journey  in  solo  jazz  guitar.  To  compound  this  even  further  I  believe  that  time-­‐
manipulation,   as   a   musical   technique,   is   so   personal   from   player   to   player   that   most  
players  don’t  even  know  what  they  are  doing  or  how  they  are  doing  it.  This  is  just  a  
personal  opinion,  but  even  the  methodical  Andress  says  in  his  accompanying  booklet  
to  Fingerstyle  Mastery  when  discussing  techniques  relating  to  his  own  feel:  
 
“That’s  hard  to  talk  about  –  I  still  don’t  fully  understand  it  myself”47.  
 
Time   manipulation,   in   terms   of   solo   guitar,   can   be   heard   extensively   in   the   first  
chorus  of  Joe  Pass’  recording  of  Night  and  day  from  his  solo  album  Virtuoso48.  Fig.  27  
shows   the   first   11   bars49   (note   the   authors   vague   yet   common   use   of   the   word  
rubato  at  the  beginning):  

                                                                                                               
46
 ANDRESS,  T.  2005  (dvd  release).  Fingerstyle  Mastery.  Hot  Licks.  
47
 Ibid.  
48
 PASS,  J.  1974.  Virtuoso.  Berkeley  CA:  Pablo  Records.  
49
 POPARAD,  J.  year  unknown.  Jeremy  Poparad  [Online].  Available:  
http://www.poparad.com/learn.php  [Accessed  2010].  

  39  
  

 
Fig.  27  
CD  track  15  
 
Tempo   shifting   is   heard   and   seen,   for   example,   in   the   first   bar   with   the   wide  
expansion   of   the   four   pulses   contained   within,   accentuated   with   the   chords   Eb-­‐
7(b5),   B7(#9b5),   E-­‐7(b5)   and   A7(b9).   Contained   pockets   of   free-­‐time   playing   also  
appear,  for  example  in  places  such  as  bars  2  and  5  where  the  abandonment  of  time  
is   illustrated   by   the   fact   that   the   notes   do   not   add   up   rhythmically   to   the   amount  
designated  by  the  time  signature  (also  seen  in  the  first  bar).  
 

  40  
This   topic   has   a   large   scope   for   discussion,   much   larger   than   is   applicable   to   this  
paper   but   outlining   it   as   a   technique   that   heightens   solo   guitar   performance   is   my  
only  intention  for  the  moment.    

  41  
7.  KEYS  AND  OPEN  STRINGS  –  FAMILIAR  TERRITORY  
 
The  topic  of  key  signatures  for  solo  jazz  guitarists  is  another  in  which  I  believe  there  
is   too   little   discussion.   It   can   appear   to   seem   unnecessary   considering   that   if   a  
musician   is   capable   of   playing   this   style   of   music   he/she   is   most   likely   comfortable  
with  transposing  songs  into  different  keys.  But  from  my  research  I  believe  that  some  
of  the  benefits  of  choosing  appropriate  keys  tend  to  be  overlooked  in  popular  solo  
jazz  guitar  literature.    
 
In  the  world  of  jazz  standards,  key  transposition  is  a  device  used  most  extensively  by  
vocalists.  This  comes  as  no  surprise  considering  that  in  terms  of  comfortable  range  
amongst   the   most   popular   melodic   instruments   of   the   genre   (i.e.   vocals,   trumpet,  
saxophone,   trombone,   piano   and   guitar)   they   have   the   least50,   thus   requiring  
transposition   more   often   to   achieve   optimal   performances.   On   the   Sarah   Vaughan  
Verve  Jazz  Masters  1851  recordings,  common  standards  such  as  My  funny  valentine,  
How   high   the   moon,   Lullaby   of   Birdland,   All   the   things   you   are   and   Misty   are   all  
transposed  from  their  original  keys,  popular  with  instrumentalists  (Cm,  G,  Ab,  Ab  and  
Eb  respectively),  to  the  keys  of  Gm,  Eb,  D,  Eb  and  C.  Ella  Fitzgerald  recorded  Misty  in  
B,  Frank  Sinatra’s  My  funny  valentine  was  regularly  performed  in  Bm,  and  they  both  
recorded   their   famous   versions   of   All   the   things   you   are   in   F.     The   amount   of  
worldwide   examples   throughout   history   could   carry   on   and   replace   in   number   the  
sentences  of  this  paper.    
 
As  opposed  to  vocalists,  other  jazz  instrumentalists  have  a  propensity  for  performing  
standard  repertoire  in  original  keys  or  popular  lead  sheet  versions  as  those  found  in  
the   Hal   Leonard   Real   Books.   However,   as   mentioned   briefly   in   chapter   3,   it   is  
common  for  guitarists  to  transpose  melodies  up  and  down  octaves  to  place  them  in  
desired  timbral  locations  on  the  instrument  but  the  2  main  reasons  for  transposing  
                                                                                                               
50
  SCHNEIDER,   J.   year   unknown.   Musical   Instrument   Range   Chart.   In:   CHART,   M.   I.   R.   (ed.)   John   R.  
Pierce,  The  Science  of  Musical  Sound  (New  York,  1992),  pp.  18-­‐19;  Donald  E.  Hall,  Mucical  Acoustics:  
An   Introduction   (Pacific   Grove,   California,   1991),   inside   back   cover;   and   Edward   R.   Tufte,   Visual  
Explanations  (Cheshire,  Connecticut,  2001),  p.  87.  
51
 VAUGHAN,  S.  1954-­‐1963.  Sarah  Vaughan  Verve  Jazz  Masters  18.  In:  PULLMAN,  P.  (ed.)  Verve  Jazz  
Masters.  

  42  
to   other   keys   are   to   utilise   open   strings   and   to   shift   songs   from   especially   unfamiliar  
guitar   keys.   An   example   of   the   latter   would   be   the   common   transposition   of   John  
Coltrane’s  Mr.  P.C.  from  its  original  key  of  C#  minor  down  a  semitone  into  the  better  
known  key  of  C  minor.  Similarly  in  the  pop  world,  it  has  become  very  customary  for  
guitarists  and  bass  players  to  prefer  the  key  of  E  minor  to  the  original  Eb  minor  when  
playing  Stevie  Wonder’s  1972  Motown  hit  Superstition.  This  reason  for  transposing  
keys  is  substantially  more  common  in  other  musical  genres  such  as  this  (as  opposed  
to  jazz)  with  my  belief  being  that  jazz  guitarists  are  generally  better  equipped  with  
harmonic  and  fingerboard  knowledge  to  handle  awkward  keys.  
 
The  more  important  reason  for  key  transposition  for  guitar  players  (particularly  solo  
jazz   players)   and   the   one   I   wish   to   discuss   in   greater   detail   is   the   one   that   aims   to  
make  greater  use  of  open  strings.  
 
The   extensive   use   of   open   strings   in   jazz   guitar   music   (particularly   in   terms   of  
physical  chord  shapes)  felt  like  a  very  revolutionary  concept  when  presented  to  me  
by   a   teacher   many   years   ago.   This   may   seem   odd   considering   that,   like   many  
guitarists,  open  position  was  the  first  port  of  call  for  me  when  learning  chord  shapes  
on   the   instrument.   However,   my   belief   is   that   many   jazz   guitarists   begin   with  
exploring   open   position   (as   most   non-­‐jazz   guitarists   also)   before   undertaking   study  
of  chords  and  shapes  particular  to  the  jazz  tradition  which  are  generally  fingered  in  
ways  to  abstain  from  using  open  strings  in  order  to  utilise  them  as  moveable  shapes.  
Take  the  following  example:  
 

 
Fig.  28  

  43  
Because   the   first   Am9   chord   uses   no   open   strings   guitarists   are   able   to   move   the  
shape   up   and   down   the   neck   in   order   to   exploit   it   for   different   chords,   i.e.   moved  
back   a   tone   would   make   it   Gm9,   moved   up   a   semitone   would   be   Bbm9   etc.  
Conversely,  the  second  shape  cannot  be  shifted  due  to  the  open  strings,  although  it  
can   be   used   to   function   as   different   chords   if   viewed   as   an   inversion,   for   example  
Cmajor7/A.   When   learning   to   play   in   various   jazz   styles   the   former   varieties   of  
shapes  aid  in  obtaining  a  large  store  of  easy-­‐to-­‐grab  chords  quicker,  and  because  the  
potential  combinations  of  intervals  making  them  up  is  quite  extensive,  jazz  guitarists  
can  easily  make  careers  in  which  open-­‐string  exploration  is  never  returned  to.  
 
It  was  an  article  from  Guitar  Player  magazine,  brought  to  my  attention  by  Melbourne  
guitarist   and   my   former   teacher   Robbie   Melville,   which   sparked   an   interest   in   the  
possibilities   for   open   strings   in   jazz.   In   it,   leading   jazz   guitarist   Bill   Frisell   is  
interviewed   concerning   the   musical   devices   he   employs   for   achieving   his   distinct  
sound,  and  the  use  of  open  strings  is  a  big  part  of  that.  Author  Jude  Gold  describes  
Frisell’s  unique  use  of  open  strings  for  creating  harmony:  
 
“When  playing  melodies,  Frisell  often  plucks  notes  on  different  strings  and  lets  them  
ring   against   each   other.   These   overlapping   tones   create   stabs   of   harmony   that  
enrich  a  melodic  phrase”.  (2002:96)  
   
Frisell  expands  on  this  by  giving  an  example  of  one  way  in  which  he  may  approach  
the  playing  of  an  Em11  chord52:  
 

 
Fig.  29  

                                                                                                               
52
 GOLD,  J.  2002.  The  Big  Bang.  Guitar  Player.  

  44  
His   extensive   use   of   such   techniques   can   be   heard   on   many   of   his   recordings  
including  throughout  his  2005  rendition  of  Norman  Whitfield  and  Barrett  Strong’s  hit  
I  heard  it  through  the  grapevine53,  best  known  from  Marvin  Gaye’s  1968  version.  The  
entire   song   is   an   excellent   example   of   what   kind   of   possibilities   can   be   taken  
advantage  of  when  a  song  is  transposed  to  a  key  inclusive  of  open  strings  –  Frisell’s  
rendition   is   in   E   minor   where   all   open   strings   can   be   brought   into   play   whereas  
Gaye’s   popular   version   was   recorded   in   Eb   minor   which   contains   no   open   string  
possibilities  for  guitar).    
 
Another   improvising   guitarist   who   exploits   tonal   possibilities   within   chords   using  
open   strings   is   Ralph   Towner.   In   a   2008   paper   on   Towner   from   the   University   of  
Melbourne,  H.  Stuckey  stated:  
 
“It   (the   use   of   open   strings)   forms   an   essential   part   of   his   chordal   approach   to  
playing,  as  the  open  strings  are  used  to  extend  and  add  tones  to  chords  which  might  
not   otherwise   be   available.   This   not   only   leads   to   an   extension   of   chordal  
possibilities   but   also   to   a   range   of   quite   unusual,   and   in   some   cases   unexpected,  
chord  voicings.”(2008:18)54  
 
This  is  very  much  in  line  with  Frisell’s  approach  although  in  a  slightly  less  horizontal  
manner,   for   while   Frisell   creates   a   lot   of   his   harmony   by   superimposing   melodic  
fragments   on   adjacent   strings   and   allowing   them   to   ‘bleed’   into   each   other   as   in   the  
previous  example,  Towner  utilizes  vertical  shapes  intersected  by  open  strings,  seen  
here  in  Fig.  30  from  Stuckey’s  paper:  

                                                                                                               
53
 FRISELL,  B.  2005.  East  West.  In:  EDRIDGE-­‐WAKS,  R.  (ed.).  New  York:  Nonesuch  Records.  
54
 STUCKEY,  H.  2008.  Discovering  Musical  Identity:  
An   exploration   of   the   solo   guitar   improvisation   of   Ralph   Towner,   with   particular   reference   to   the  
elements,   and   their   contributing   factors,   that   shapes   the   creation   of   his   complete,   unique   musical  
identity.  honours,  Melbourne  University.  

  45  
    
Fig.  30  
 
This   transcription   of   Towner’s   2001   interpretation   of   Gloria’s   step55   demonstrates  
the   large   range   that   can   be   taken   advantage   of   when   employing   open   strings,   e.g.  
the   perfect   12th   on   the   adjacent   B   and   E   strings   seen   in   the   first   chord   would   usually  
be  completely  impossible.  
 
In   such   solo   guitar   contexts,   opportunities   opened   up   by   using   keys   containing   open  
strings  are  even  more  beneficial  than  the  purely  textural  ones  offered  in  ensemble  
situations.   An   advantage   of   solo   players   using   them   is   that   they   offer   a   chance   to  
easily  achieve  a  sense  of  overlapping  harmony  that  can  be  static  and  shifting  at  the  
one  time.  An  example  of  this  is  a  solo  piece  of  my  own  which  makes  use  of  the  open  
G  and  D  strings  as  drones  throughout  a  section  with  2  other  shifting  voices,  resulting  
in  them  acting  as  different  scale  degrees  throughout  each  chord.  
 

     
 

 
Fig.  31  

                                                                                                               
55
 TOWNER,  R.  2001.  Anthem.  Munich:  ECM.  

  46  
In   the   Bb6/9   the   D   and   G   act   as   the   3rd   and   6th   respectively,   in   the   Csus   they   are   the  
2nd  and  5th,  in  the  Dsus  they  are  the  tonic  and  4th,  in  the  Em9  they  are  the  minor  7th  
and  minor  3rd,  and  in  the  F6/9  they  act  as  the  6th  and  9th.  
 
Drones  on  open  strings  can  also  be  used  in  the  lower  register  to  allow  for  melodies  
or  shifting  harmonies  in  higher  voices  and  can  be  particularly  useful  for  modal  pieces  
due   to   their   long   periods   of   static   harmony.   This   technique   has   been   used  
extensively   in   folk   music   all   around   the   world   including   in   the   jazz   precursor,   the  
American  blues.  

  47  
8.  CONCLUSION  
 
The   study   of   unaccompanied   jazz   guitar   is   a   lifelong   commitment   and   there   are  
many  restrictions  to  what  an  instrumentalist  can  physically  achieve  within  this  solo  
context.  However  the  practice  opens  up  many  other  possibilities  in  terms  of  control  -­‐  
control   of   rhythm,   time,   harmony,   form,   intention,   and   nearly   every   other   musical  
aspect.   To   fully   explore   these   possibilities   it   is   important   for   guitarists   to   understand  
them  by  observing  how  the  masters  define  them.  With  this  knowledge,  boundaries  
can  be  explored  and  new  frontiers  can  be  reached  within  the  genre.  
 
The   concepts   and   techniques   discussed   in   this   paper   all   have   their   origins   within   the  
playing  of  the  masters  (as  shown  in  the  musical  examples  and  text  references)  and  
therefore   aid   in   establishing   a   clear   outline   for   the   scope   of   what   unaccompanied  
jazz   is   today   and   how   to   approach   its   practice.   My   initial   reason   for   collecting   this  
material   was   precisely   for   that   reason   and   I   am   optimistic   that   it   will   also   bring   to  
light  some  issues  that  seem  to  be  lacking  discussion  within  the  pedagogical  material.  
Due   to   the   limited   size   of   this   paper   and   the   broad   issues   raised   within,   there   is   a  
vast  span  for  further  research  into  the  techniques  I  have  described,  not  to  mention  
others   which   I   may   have   neglected.   These   could   include   techniques   relating   to  
physical   prowess,   form   control,   or   even   psychological   issues   faced   by   solo   jazz  
guitarists.  
 
In  terms  of  the  techniques  I  have  discussed,  further  possibilities  for  research  could  
include   a   detailed   analysis   of   what   the   human   mind   is   capable   of   in   terms   of   closure  
in   relation   to   solo   guitar   and   studying   the   different   degrees   to   which   individual  
people  perceive  ‘ghost’  parts  of  that  particular  music.  Also  of  interest  could  be  the  
evolution   of   the   traditional   jazz   guitar   style   in   contrast   to   what   could   have   been   had  
it  begun  with  a  more  contrapuntal  mindset.  The  entire  concept  of  contrapuntal  solo  
jazz  guitar  also  has  extensive  room  for  exploration  and  I  felt  that  I  but  touched  on  its  
relevance  and  emerging  prevalence  in  the  genre  in  what  can  be  seen  as  a  stepping  
stone  for  well  needed  research.  

  48  
Direct  interviews  with  leading  guitarists  regarding  the  issues  in  each  chapter  would  
be  phenomenally  insightful  and  my  biggest  regret  is  that  this  paper  could  not  contain  
more   information   received   from   leading   guitarists   in   a   one-­‐on-­‐one   format.   This   is  
better   suited   to   a   paper   capable   of   supporting   a   larger   scope   such   as   a   masters  
dissertation  or  doctorate  paper.  
 
The   potential   of   an   expansion   of   this   material   into   something   that   can   be   made  
available   for   the   general   public   is   also   a   very   real   possibility   considering   some   of   the  
gaps  in  what  is  currently  offered  concerning  solo  jazz  guitar.  

  49  
9.  REFERENCES  
 
1988a.  In:  KERNFELD,  B.  (ed.)  The  New  Grove  Dictionary  of  Jazz.  London:  Macmillan.  
1988b.   In:   KERNFELD,   B.   (ed.)   The   new   Grove   Dictionary   of   jazz   A   to   K.   New   York:  
Macmillan  Press.  
2006.  Gestalt  Psychology.  In:  DAVEY,  G.  (ed.)  Encyclopaedic  dictionary  of  psychology.  
London:  Hodder  Arnold.  
2010.  Charlie  Hunter  solidbody  8  string  [Online].  Eugene,  Oregon:  Novax.  Available:  
http://www.novaxguitars.com/sales/ch8.html  [Accessed  2010].  
ALLAN-­‐BROWNE-­‐QUINTET  2004.  Cyclosporin.  Melbourne:  Jazz  head.  (CD).  
ANDRESS,  T.  2005  (dvd  release).  Fingerstyle  Mastery.  Hot  Licks.  (DVD).  
BACH,   J.   S.Unknown-­‐1750.   Die   Kunst   der   Fuge,   Contrapunctus   1,   BWV   1080.  
Breitkopf  &  Härtel.  
BALL  MAGNUSSON  BERESOVSKY,  E.  S.  S.2003  Healing  songs.  (CD).  
BARRA,   D.   1983.   The   dynamic   performance   -­‐   A   performer's   guide   to   musical  
expression  and  interpretation,  Sydney,  Prentice  Hall  (of  Australia).  
BRUCHEZ,   O.   1999-­‐2010.   Keithjarret.org   [Online].   Word   press.   Available:  
http://www.keithjarrett.org/transcriptions/  [Accessed  2010].  
DAMIAN,   J.   2001.   The   guitarist's   guide   to   composing   and   improvising,   Boston,   MA,  
Berklee.  
FRISELL,   B.   2005.   East   West.   In:   EDRIDGE-­‐WAKS,   R.   (ed.).   New   York:   Nonesuch  
Records.  (CD).  
GALBRAITH,  B.  1986.  Jazz  guitar  study  series:  guitar  comping,  New  Albany,  IM,  Jamey  
Aebersold.  
GOLD,  J.  2002.  The  Big  Bang.  Guitar  Player.  
GOODMAN,  F.  2002.  Puremusic  interview  with  Charlie  Hunter.  Puremusic.com.  
GOODRICK,  M.  1987.  The  advancing  guitarist,  Third  Earth.  
GREENE,  T.  1981.  Chord  chemistry,  Alfred  music  publishing.  
GREENE,  T.  1985.  Modern  Chord  Progressions,  Van  Nuys  CA,  Alfred  Music  Publishing.  
HASELTINE,   D.   E.   2010.   Optical   illusions   can   you   help   predict   the   future?   [Online].  
Hyperion.   Available:  

  50  
 http://longfusebigbang.com/blog/optical_illusions_can_help_you_predict_th
e_future/  [Accessed  03/09/10  2010].  
HEKSELMAN,  G.  2006.  Split  life.  New  York:  Smalls  Records.  (CD).  
HILLIARD,   S.   F.   B.   1951.   Alice   in   wonderland.   The   real   book.   Milwakee   WI:   Hal  
Leonard.  
JARRET,  K.  1988.  Still  live.  ECM.  (CD).  
LARS   RIECKE,   FABRIZIO   ESPOSITO,   MILENE   BONT,   ELIA   FORMISANO.   2009.   Hearing  
Illusory   Sounds   in   Noise:   The   Timing   of   Sensory-­‐Perceptual   Transformations  
in  Auditory  Cortex.  Neuron,  64,  550-­‐561.  
LEITCH,  P.  1991.  Trio/Quartet  '91.  (CD).  
MARTINO,  P.  2006.  Remember  -­‐  a  tribute  to  Wes  Montgomery.  Blue  Note.  (CD).  
METHENY,  P.  2003.  One  quiet  night.  Warner  Brothers.  (CD).  
MONDER,  B.  2005.  Oceana.  (CD).  
MONTGOMERY,  W.  1962.  Full  House  (live).  (CD).  
MULLER,  J.  2006.  Kaboom.  (CD).  
PASS,  J.  1974.  Virtuoso.  Berkeley  CA:  Pablo  Records.  (CD).  
PASS,  J.  1986.  Joe  Pass  -­‐  solo  jazz  guitar.  Hot  Licks.  (DVD).  
POPARAD,   J.   year   unknown.   Jeremy   Poparad   [Online].   Available:  
http://www.poparad.com/learn.php  [Accessed  2010].  
SCHNEIDER,   J.   year   unknown.   Musical   Instrument   Range   Chart.   In:   CHART,   M.   I.   R.  
(ed.)  John  R.  Pierce,  The  Science  of  Musical  Sound  (New  York,  1992),  pp.  18-­‐
19;   Donald   E.   Hall,   Mucical   Acoustics:   An   Introduction   (Pacific   Grove,  
California,  1991),  inside  back  cover;  and  Edward  R.  Tufte,  Visual  Explanations  
(Cheshire,  Connecticut,  2001),  p.  87.  
SCHROETER,  J.  1995.  Tuck  Andress  -­‐  Aural  report.  Fingerstyle  Guitar.  
SHERLOCK,  J.  2010.  Solo.  Pinnacles  Music.  (CD).  
SHIRLEY,  A.  2006.  Tempo  rubato.  The  North  American  Review,  291,  42.  
STUCKEY,  H.  2008.  Discovering  Musical  Identity:  
An   exploration   of   the   solo   guitar   improvisation   of   Ralph   Towner,   with   particular  
reference   to   the   elements,   and   their   contributing   factors,   that   shapes   the  
creation   of   his   complete,   unique   musical   identity.   honours,   Melbourne  
University.  

  51  
TOWNER,   R.   1985.   Improvisation   and   Performance   Techniques   for   Classical   and  
Acoustic  Guitar,  Wayne  N.J.,  21st  Century  Music  Productions.  
TOWNER,  R.  2001.  Anthem.  Munich:  ECM.    
TUPAMAROS,  L.  2008.  20  anos  de  exitos.  Discos  Fuentes.  (CD).  
VAUGHAN,   S.   1954-­‐1963.   Sarah   Vaughan   Verve   Jazz   Masters   18.   In:   PULLMAN,   P.  
(ed.)  Verve  Jazz  Masters.  (CD).  
VILLA-­‐LOBOS,   H.   1952.   Etude   No   5   Andantino.   Villa-­‐Lobos   solo   guitar.   New   York:  
Amsco.  
 
 

  52  
10.  APPENDICES  
 
APPENDIX  A  
CD  track  list  
1. Excerpt  from  ‘Etude  no  5  Andantino’  –  Heitor  Villa-­‐Lobos  
2. Excerpt  from  ‘Man  in  the  mirror’  –  Tuck  Andress  
3. Excerpt  from  ‘Double  sun’  –  Ben  Monder  
4. Excerpt  from  ‘My  song’  –  Pat  Metheny  
5. Excerpt  from  ‘I’ve  grown  accustomed  to  her  face’  –  Wes  Montgomery  
6. Excerpt  from  ‘Tones  for  Joans  Bones’  –  Peter  Leitch  
7. Excerpt  from  ‘All  the  things  you  are’  –  James  Muller  
8. Study  in  C,  Opus  6  no.  8  –  Fernando  Sor  
9. Excerpt  from  ‘I  fall  in  love  too  easily’  –  Gilad  Hekselman  
10. Excerpt  from  ‘Enamorao’  –  Los  Tupamaros  
11. Excerpt  from  ‘Four  on  six’  –  Pat  Martino  
12. Excerpt  from  ‘Domestic  arts  and  sciences’  –  James  Sherlock  
13. Excerpt  from  ‘Snoring  waters’  –  Allan  Browne  Quintet  
14. Excerpt  from  ‘My  funny  valentine’  –  Keith  Jarrett  Trio  
15. Excerpt  from  ‘Night  and  day’  –  Joe  Pass  
 
 
APPENDIX  B  
Hunter’s  original  8-­‐string  guitar  prior  to  its  downsizing  to  7  strings:  
 

(2010)  

  53  
APPENDIX  C  
In  regards  to  guitar  chord  diagrams,  Stuckey  states:  
 
“Strings   are   represented   by   vertical   lines   while   frets   are   represented   by   horizontal  
lines.   The   string   lowest   in   pitch   (the   sixth   string)   is   found   on   the   leftmost   line,  
likewise   the   string   highest   in   pitch   (the   first   string)   is   found   on   the   rightmost   line.  
The   guitar’s   nut   is   represented   by   the   topmost   line,   and   frets   are   represented   by  
subsequent  horizontal  lines.  A  dot  drawn  at  the  intersection  of  two  lines  is  used  to  
represent   a   note   played   on   that   particular   string   at   that   particular   fret.   Chord  
diagrams   can   also   illustrate   open   strings   (strings   that   are   played   without   any   left  
hand   fingers   on)   and   strings   that   are   not   sounded   at   all.   Open   strings   are  
represented  with  a  circle  at  the  top  of  the  string,  while  strings  that  are  not  played  
are  represented  by  a  cross.”(Stuckey,  2008)  
 

  54  
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
1988a.  In:  KERNFELD,  B.  (ed.)  The  new  Grove  Dictionary  of  jazz  A  to  K.  New  York:  
Macmillan  Press.  
1988b.   In:   KERNFELD,   B.   (ed.)   The   New   Grove   Dictionary   of   Jazz.   London:  
Macmillan.  
2006.   Gestalt   Psychology.   In:   DAVEY,   G.   (ed.)   Encyclopaedic   dictionary   of  
psychology.  London:  Hodder  Arnold.  
2010.   Charlie   Hunter   solidbody   8   string   [Online].   Eugene,   Oregon:   Novax.  
Available:   http://www.novaxguitars.com/sales/ch8.html   [Accessed  
2010].  
ALLAN-­‐BROWNE-­‐QUINTET  2004.  Cyclosporin.  Melbourne:  Jazz  head.  
ANDRESS,  T.  2005  (dvd  release).  Fingerstyle  Mastery.  Hot  Licks.  
BACH,  J.  S.?-­‐1750.  Die  Kunst  der  Fuge,  Contrapunctus  1,  BWV  1080.  Breitkopf  &  
Härtel.  
BALL  MAGNUSSON  BERESOVSKY,  E.  S.  S.????  Healing  songs.  
BARRA,   D.   1983.   The   dynamic   performance   -­   A   performer's   guide   to   musical  
expression  and  iterpretation,  Sydney,  Prentice  Hall  (of  Australia).  
BRUCHEZ,   O.   1999-­‐2010.   Keithjarret.org   [Online].   Word   press.   Available:  
http://www.keithjarrett.org/transcriptions/  [Accessed  2010].  
DAMIAN,  J.  2001.  The  guitarist's  guide  to  composing  and  improvising,  Boston,  MA,  
Berklee.  
FRISELL,  B.  2005.  East  West.  In:  EDRIDGE-­‐WAKS,  R.  (ed.).  New  York:  Nonesuch  
Records.  
GALBRAITH,   B.   1986.   Jazz   guitar   study   series:   guitar   comping,   New   Albany,   IM,  
Jamey  Aebersold.  
GOLD,  J.  2002.  The  Big  Bang.  Guitar  Player.  
GOODMAN,  F.  2002.  Puremusic  interview  with  Charlie  Hunter.  Puremusic.com.  
GOODRICK,  M.  1987.  The  advancing  guitarist,  Third  Earth.  
GREENE,  T.  1981.  Chord  chemistry,  Alfred  music  publishing.  

  55  
GREENE,   T.   1985.   Modern   Chord   Progressions,   Van   Nuys   CA,   Alfred   Music  
Publishing.  
HASELTINE,   D.   E.   2010.   Optical   illusions   can   you   help   predict   the   future?   [Online].  
Hyperion.   Available:  
http://longfusebigbang.com/blog/optical_illusions_can_help_you_predict
_the_future/  [Accessed  03/09/10  2010].  
HEKSELMAN,  G.  2006.  Split  life.  New  York:  Smalls  Records.  
HILLIARD,   S.   F.   B.   1951.   Alice   in   wonderland.   The   real   book.   Milwakee   WI:   Hal  
Leonard.  
JARRET,  K.  1988.  Still  live.  ECM.  
LARS   RIECKE,   FABRIZIO   ESPOSITO,   MILENE   BONT,   ELIA   FORMISANO.   2009.  
Hearing   Illusory   Sounds   in   Noise:   The   Timing   of   Sensory-­‐Perceptual  
Transformations  in  Auditory  Cortex.  Neuron,  64,  550-­‐561.  
LEITCH,  P.  1991.  Trio/Quartet  '91.  
MARTINO,  P.  2006.  Remember  -­‐  a  tribute  to  Wes  Montgomery.  Blue  Note.  
METHENY,  P.  2003.  One  quiet  night.  Warner  Brothers.  
MONDER,  B.  2005.  Oceana.  
MONTGOMERY,  W.  1962.  Full  House  (live).  
MULLER,  J.  2006.  Kaboom.  
PASS,  J.  1974.  Virtuoso.  Berkeley  CA:  Pablo  Records.  
PASS,  J.  1986.  Joe  Pass  -­‐  solo  jazz  guitar.  Hot  Licks.  
POPARAD,   J.   year   unknown.   Jeremy   Poparad   [Online].   Available:  
http://www.poparad.com/learn.php  [Accessed  2010].  
SCHNEIDER,  J.  year  unknown.  Musical  Instrument  Range  Chart.  In:  CHART,  M.  I.  
R.  (ed.)  John  R.  Pierce,  The  Science  of  Musical  Sound  (New  York,  1992),  pp.  
18-­19;   Donald   E.   Hall,   Mucical   Acoustics:   An   Introduction   (Pacific   Grove,  
California,   1991),   inside   back   cover;   and   Edward   R.   Tufte,   Visual  
Explanations  (Cheshire,  Connecticut,  2001),  p.  87.  
SCHROETER,  J.  1995.  Tuck  Andress  -­‐  Aural  report.  Fingerstyle  Guitar.  
SHERLOCK,  J.  2010.  Solo.  Pinnacles  Music.  
SHIRLEY,  A.  2006.  Tempo  rubato.  The  North  American  Review,  291,  42.  
STUCKEY,  H.  2008.  Discovering  Musical  Identity:  
An   exploration   of   the   solo   guitar   improvisation   of   Ralph   Towner,   with   particular  
reference   to   the   elements,   and   their   contributing   factors,   that   shapes   the  
creation   of   his   complete,   unique   musical   identity.   honours,   Melbourne  
University.  
TOWNER,   R.   1985.   Improvisation   and   Performance   Techniques   for   Classical   and  
Acoustic  Guitar,  Wayne  N.J.,  21st  Century  Music  Productions.  
TOWNER,  R.  2001.  Anthem.  Munich:  ECM.  
TUPAMAROS,  L.  2008.  20  anos  de  exitos.  Discos  Fuentes.  
VAUGHAN,  S.  1954-­‐1963.  Sarah  Vaughan  Verve  Jazz  Masters  18.  In:  PULLMAN,  P.  
(ed.)  Verve  Jazz  Masters.  
VILLA-­‐LOBOS,   H.   1952.   Etude   No   5   Andantino.   Villa-­Lobos   solo   guitar.   New   York:  
Amsco.  
 
 

  56