Fundamentals PDF

College of Natural and Computational Sciences
Department of Mathematics
Teaching Material of the Course

Fundamentals of College Mathematics(Math 1011)
Gebre Hiluf
ii
By Gebre Hiluf
ADU
Contents
1 Logic and Set Theory 1

1.1 Definition and Examples of Proposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Logical Connectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.1 Negation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.2 Conjunction ( ∧ ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.3 Disjunction ( ∨ ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.4 Implication ( =⇒ ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.5 Bi-implication / Bi-conditional ( ⇐⇒ ) . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3 Compound(or Complex) Proposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4 Tautology and Contradiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.5 Open Proposition and Quantifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.6 The Concept of a Set and the Underlying Set Operation . . . . . . . 18
1.6.1 Sets and elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2 Real and Complex Number system 19

2.1 The Real Number System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1.1 The Natural Numbers, The Principle of Mathematical Induc-
tion and Well-Ordering Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1.2 The Integers, Rational numbers and Irrational numbers . . . . 19
2.1.3 Upper bound, lower bound, lub, glb, Completeness Property
of the of real numbers and Archimedian Property . . . . . . . 23
Contents iv
2.2 Complex Number System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2.2.1 Definition of Complex Number and the underlying Operations 25
3 Functions 27
3.1 Review of Relations and Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2 Real-valued Functions and their properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.3 Types of functions (one to one, onto) and inverse of a function . . . . 35
3.3.1 One-to- One Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.3.2 Onto Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.3.3 One-to-One Correspondence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.3.4 Inverse of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.4 Polynomial and Rational Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.4.1 Polynomial Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.4.2 Rational Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
By Gebre Hiluf
ADU
Chapter 1
Logic and Set Theory
Introduction
The term ’logic’ came from Greek word ’logos’, which means thought. There are
many thought processes such as reasoning, remembering, imagining. Reasoning is
a thought process in which inference takes place. Logic is the science of reasoning.
That is, the word logic refers to the use and study of correct (valid) reasoning. Logic
contains rules and techniques to formalize statements to make them precise. Logic
is studied by philosophers, mathematicians and computer scientists.
Any ’ formal system’ can be considered a logic if it is:
- a well-defined syntax ;
- a well-defined semantics;
- a well-defined proof theory.
æ The syntax of a logic defines the syntactically acceptable objects of the lan-
guage, which are properly called well-formed formulae.
æ The semantics of a logic associate each formula with meaning.
æ The proof theory is concerned with manipulating formulae according certain

rules.
1.1. Definition and Examples of Proposition 2
The area of logic that deals with propositions is called Propositional Logic.
Logic has been studied through the ages to exercise the mind’s ability to reason.
Understanding logic will enable you to think clearly, communicate effectively, make
more convincing arguments, and develop patterns of reasoning that will help you
in making decisions. It will also help you detect the fallacies in the reasoning or
arguments of others such as advertisers and politicians.
1.1 Definition and Examples of Proposition

The term propositional logic refers to a logic which relies on propositions. A propo-
sition is the basic building block of logic, which is defined as follows:
Definition 1.1
A declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not both is called
proposition or statement. Sentences which are exclamatory, interrogative
or imperative in nature are not propositions.
Logical Values or Truth Values: There are two logical values, true denoted by
T or 1 and false denoted by F or 0 .
Example 1.1
Which of the following are statements? If it is a statement, determine if possible
whether it?s true or false.
(a). The sun rises in the East.
(b). 2 + 2 = 3.
(c). Is Ethiopia in Africa?
(d). Give me a cafe mocha!
(e). What a great book!
(f). Calvin Butterball is a math major.
(g). x + 1 = 2
(h). 4 + 5
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3 Chapter 1. Logic and Set Theory
Solution:
(a). ”The sun rises in the East.” is a statement. We can see that it is a general
truth. So it has a truth value of T.
(b). 2 + 2 = 3. is a statement. An easy way to tell is to read it and see if it?s

a complete declarative sentence which is either true or false. This statement
would read (in words): ”Two plus two is equal to three.”
You can see that it?s a complete declarative sentence (and it happens to be
a false statement about real numbers).
(c). ”Is Ethiopia in Africa?” is not a statement ? it?s a question.
(d). ”Give me a cafe mocha!” is not a statement - it?s an imperative sentence,

i.e. an order to do something.
(e). ”What a great book!” is not a statement - it?s an exclamatory sentence, i.e.
Some one is expressing an opinion.
(f). ”Calvin Butterball is a math major.” is a statement. You?d need to know

more about Calvin and math majors to know whether the statement is true
or false.
(g). ”x + 1 = 2”
(h). ”4 + 5” is not a statement. It would be read ”Four plus five”, which is not a
sentence since it does n?t have a verb. (Things like ”4 + 5” are referred to as
terms or expressions.) Since proofs are composed of statements, you should
never have isolated phrases (like ”4 + 5” or ”(a + b)2 ”) in your proofs. Be
sure that every line of a proof is a statement. Read each line to yourself to
be sure.
A proposition is a sentence that may be asserted or denied. Proposition in this way

are different from questions, commands, and exclamations.
Neither questions, which can be asked, nor exclamations, which can be uttered, can
possibly be asserted or denied. Only propositions assert that something is (or is not)
the case, and therefore only they can be true or false.
Let’s now define atomic propositions. Intuitively, these are the set of smallest propo-
sitions.
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1.1. Definition and Examples of Proposition 4
Definition 1.2
Propositions whose truth or falsity do not depend on the truth or falsity of
any other propositions are called atomic propositions (or primitive or simple
statements).
Simple statement is a sentence that conveys only one idea. All of the above examples
of propositions are atomic.
æ Now, rather than write out propositions in full, we will abbreviate them by
using propositional variables
It is standard practice to use the lower-case English letters
p, q, r, . . .
to stand for propositions.
Examples:
p: it is raining.
p represents the proposition ”it is raining”.
q: the streets are wet.
q represents the proposition ”the streets are wet”.
Proposition constructed using one or more propositions are called compound propo-
sition. The propositions are combined together using Logical Connectives or
Logical Operators
Truth Table
Since we need to know the truth value of a proposition in all possible scenarios, we
consider all the possible combinations of the propositions which are joined together by
Logical Connectives to form compound proposition. This compilation of all possible
scenarios in a tabular format is called a truth table.
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1.2 Logical Connectives

In logic, a logical connective (also called a logical operator) is a symbol or word used
to connect two or more statements in a grammatically valid way, such that the sense
of the compound statements produced depends only on the original statements.
The most common logical connectives are binary connectives (also called dyadic
connectives) which join two statements which can be thought of as the function’s
operands. Also commonly, negation is considered to be a unary connective.
Logical connectives along with quantifiers are the two main types of logical constants
used in formal systems such as propositional logic and predicate logic.
1.2.1 Negation
It is an unary connective, that is it associated with only one statement. It is in the
sense of ”NOT” (not happening of the statement). That is, any proposition can be
prefixed by the word ?not? to form a second proposition called the negation of the
original.
Definition 1.3
If p is any proposition, then the negation of p is denoted by ¬p, which when
translated to simple English means:-
”It is not the case that p” or simply ”not p”.
The truth value of ¬p is the opposite of the truth value of p.
That is, ¬p is T if p is F, and ¬p is F if p T
Example: Let p: Aksum is the capital city of Tigray.

So ¬p: It is not the case that Aksum is the capital city of Tigray. Or simply
¬p represents the proposition ”Aksum is not the capital city of Tigray”.
The truth table evaluation of negation is given below:
p ¬p
T F
F T
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1.2. Logical Connectives 6
1.2.2 Conjunction ( ∧ )
Any two propositions can be combined to form a third proposition called the con-
junction of the original propositions. The nature of this connective is in the sense of
”and” (happening of both of the statements).
Definition 1.4
If p and q are arbitrary propositions, then the conjunction of p and q is written
p∧q
and will be true if both p and q are true, otherwise false.
Example: 1. Consider p: ”Daniel is dancing” and q: ”Jemila is singing”.

Thus p ∧ q represents ” Daniel is dancing and Jemila is singing”.
This statement is considered to be true if both of the event occur.
If any one or both do not happened the conjunction should be considered false.
2. Consider p: ”126 is divisible by 4” and q: ”Abebe Bekela is the first African
Athlete who won marathon” Thus p ∧ q represents ” Daniel is dancing” and ”
Jemila is singing”.
This statement is considered to be true if both of the event occur.
We can summarize the operation of conjunction( ∧ ) in a truth table.
p q p∧q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
1.2.3 Disjunction ( ∨ )
Any two propositions can be combined by the word ’ or ’ to form a third proposition
called the disjunction of the originals. The nature of this connective is in the sense
of ”OR” (happening of at least any one of the statements).
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Definition 1.5
If p and q are arbitrary propositions, then the disjunction of p and q is written
p∨q
and will be true iff either p is true, or q is true, or both p and q are true.
Example: Consider p: ”Daniel is dancing” and q: ”Jemila is singing”.

Thus p ∨ q: ” Daniel is dancing” or ” Jemila is singing”.
This statement is considered to true if at least any one of the event occur or both.
We can summarize the operation of disjunction( ∨ ) in a truth table evaluation.
p q p∨q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
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1.2.4 Implication ( =⇒ )
One of the most frequently used types of statements in mathematics is the so-called
conditional statement. Given statements p and q, a statement of the form ”If
p then q” is called a conditional statement. It seems reasonable that the truth
value (true or false) of the conditional statement ”If p then q” depends on the
truth values of p and q. The statement ”If p then q” means that q must be true
whenever p is true. or ”whenever p is true, q is true too.”
Definition 1.6
If p and q are arbitrary propositions, then the conditional of p and q is written
p =⇒ q
and will be true iff either p is false or q is true. Or It is false when p is true and
q is false and true otherwise.
In the implication p ⇒ q, the proposition p is called hypothesis or antecedent and

the proposition q is known as conclusion or consequent. The conclusion expresses a
necessary condition for p, while the hypothesis expresses a sufficient condition for q
to hold.
The conditional statement means that q is true whenever p is true. It says nothing
about the truth value of q when p is false. Using this as a guide, we define the
conditional statement (p ⇒ q) to be false only when p is true and q is false, that
is, only when the hypothesis is true and the conclusion is false. In all other cases,
(p ⇒ q) is true. This is summarized in the table below, which is called a truth table
for the conditional statement.
p q p⇒q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
The important thing to remember is that the conditional statement p ⇒ q has its
own truth value. It is either true or false (and not both). Its truth value depends
on the truth values for p and q, but some find it a bit puzzling that the conditional
statement is considered to be true when the hypothesis p is false. We will provide a
justification for this through the use of an example.
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Example 1.2
Suppose that I say
”If it is not raining, then Ribka is riding her bike.”
We can represent this conditional statement as p ⇒ q where p is the statement,

”It is not raining” and q is the statement, ”Ribka is riding her bike.”
Although it is not a perfect analogy, think of the statement p ⇒ q as being false
to mean that I lied and think of the statement p ⇒ q as being true to mean that I
did not lie. We will now check the truth value of p ⇒ q based on the truth values
of p and q.
(a). Suppose that both p and q are true. That is, it is not raining and Ribka is
riding her bike. In this case, it seems reasonable to say that I told the truth
and that is true.
(b). Suppose that p is true and q is false or that it is not raining and Ribka is not
riding her bike. It would appear that by making the statement, ”If it is not
raining, then Ribka is riding her bike”, that I have not told the truth. So in
this case, the statement is false.
(c). Now suppose that is p false and q is true or that it is raining and Ribka
is riding her bike. Did I make a false statement by stating that if it is not
raining, then Ribka is riding her bike? The key is that I did not make
any statement about what would happen if it was raining, and so
I did not tell a lie. So we consider the conditional statement, ”If it is not
raining, then Ribka is riding her bike,” to be true in the case where it is
raining and Ribka is riding her bike.
(d). Finally, suppose that both p and q are false. That is, it is raining and Ribka
is not riding her bike. As in the previous situation, since my statement was
p ⇒ q, I made no claim about what would happen if it was raining, and so
I did not tell a lie. So the statement cannot be false in this case and so we
consider it to be true.
In p ⇒ q there may not be any connection between p and q
Examples of valid but counterintuitive implications:
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- If the moon is made of green cheese then you get a PhD in physics
True!
- If John has a smartphone then 2 + 3 = 6:
False if John does have a smartphone
True if he does NOT
Some other common ways of expressing the implication p ⇒ q are:
• p implies q; • q when p;
• if p, q;
• q whenever p;
• p only if q;
• q follows from p
• p is sufficient for q;
• q if p; • q is necessary for p.
For Example, ”If It is raining, then streets are wet.” can be expressed as:
Raining implies streets are wet. Or Streets are wet whenever it is raining. Or
Streets being wet follows from there being a rain. and so on.
Sufficient Versus Necessary

Take the above example: Raining is sufficient for streets being wet.
Raining is a sufficient condition for streets being wet.
Wet streets are necessary for there being rain.This suggest that wet streets are a
requirement for rain.
Better: implicitly read ”necessary result of” or ”necessary consequence of”
From p =⇒ q we can form new conditional statements namely:
q =⇒ p is the converse of p =⇒ q
¬p =⇒ ¬q is the inverse of p =⇒ q
¬q =⇒ ¬p is the contra-positive of p =⇒ q
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1.2.5 Bi-implication / Bi-conditional ( ⇐⇒ )

Another common form of statement in mathematics is: p is true if, and only if, q is
true.
The sense of such statements is captured using the biconditional operator .
Definition 1.7
If p and q are arbitrary propositions, then the bi-conditional of p and q is written:
p ⇐⇒ q
and will be true if they have the same truth value , i.e, if either
1. p and q are both true; or
2. q and q are both false.

The biconditional proposition p ⇔ q means:
p if and only if q
Other ways to say this:
Truth table of bi-implication
• p iff q
p q p⇔q
• If p then q, and conversely T T T
T F F
(p ⇒ q) ∧ (q ⇒ p) F T F
F F T
• p is necessary and sufficient for q
• p is sufficient and necessary for q
Example 1.3
Let
p: You buy an airline ticket.
q: You can take a flight.
p ⇔ q: You can take a flight if and only if you buy an airline ticket.
• True if you do both or neither
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1.3. Compound(or Complex) Proposition 12
• Doing only one or the other makes the proposition false
1.3 Compound(or Complex) Proposition

Definition 1.8
A proposition formed by joining two or more proposition by one or more con-
nective(s) is called a compound( or complex ) proposition.
ä All logical operations can be applied to build up arbitrarily complex com-

pound propositions
ä Any proposition can become a term inside another proposition
ä Examples:
æ p, q, r, t are simple propositions
æ p ∨ q and r ⇒ t combine simple propositions
æ (p∨q) ⇒ t and (p∨q)∧(r ∨t) combine simple and compound propositions
into more complex compound propositions
ä Parenthesis indicate the order of evaluation
Order of precedence
As a way of reducing the number of necessary parentheses, one may introduce prece-
dence rules: ¬ has higher precedence than ∧, ∧ higher than ∨ , and ∨ higher than
⇒.
Here is a table that shows a commonly used precedence of logical operators.
Examples:
Operator Precedence • p ∨ q ∧ r means: p ∨ (q ∧ r)

¬ 1
∧ 2 • (p ∨ q) ∧ r requires the parentheses
∨ 3 • p ∨ q ⇒ ¬r means: (p ∨ q) ⇒ (¬r)
=⇒ 4
⇐⇒ 5 • p ∨ (q ⇒ ¬r) requires parentheses
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The order of precedence determines which connective is the ”main connective” when
interpreting a non-atomic formula.
In most cases, it?s best for the sake of clarity to use parentheses even if they aren?t
required by the precedence rules.
Translating English sentence to compound Statements
Example 1.4
Write the following statement symbolically, and then make a truth table for the
statement. ”If I go to the mall or go to the movies, then I will not go to the gym.”
Solution:
Suppose we set
p: I go to the mall; q: I go to the movies; r: I will go to the gym
The proposition can then be expressed as ”If p or q, then not r,” or (p ∨ q) ⇒ ¬r.
p q r p∨q ¬r (p ∨ q) ⇒ ¬r
T T T T F F
T T F T T T
T F T T F F
T F F T T T
F T T T F F
F T F T T T
F F T F F T
F F F F T T
When building a truth table for a compound proposition, you need a row for every
possible combination of T0 s and F0 s for the component propositions.
Notice that a truth table for a statement involving n different propositions have 2n
rows (plus the header).
It is not always so clear cut how many columns one needs. If we have only three
propositions p, q, and r, you would, in theory, only need four columns: one for each
of p, q, and r, and one for the compound proposition under discussion, which is
(p ∨ q) ⇒ ¬r in above example.
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1.3. Compound(or Complex) Proposition 14
In practice, however, you will probably want to have a column for each of the suc-
cessive intermediate propositions used to build the
final one. In this example it is convenient to have a column for p ∨ q and a column
for ¬r, so that the truth value in each row in the column for (p ∨ q) ⇒ ¬r is easily
supplied from the truth values for p ∨ q and ¬r in that row.
Another reason why you should show the intermediate columns in your truth table is
for grading purposes. If you make an error in a truth table and do not give this extra
information, it will be difficult to evaluate your error and give you partial credit.
Equivalence of Propositions
Definition 1.9
Two propositions P and Q are logically equivalent if they always have the
same truth value
We write this as P ≡Q
One way to determine equivalence is to use truth tables. To show non-equivalence

find at least one row where values differ.
Example 1.5
Show that
(i) The implication p ⇒ q is equivalent to ¬p∨q and its contra-positive ¬q ⇒ ¬p
(ii) neither the converse nor the inverse of an implication are equivalent to the
implication
Solution:
p q ¬p ¬q p⇒q ¬p ∨ q ¬q ⇒ ¬p
T T F F T T T
(i) T F F T F F F
F T T F T T T
F F T T T T T
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From the above truth table we can conclude p ⇒ q ≡ ¬p ∨ q and

p ⇒ q ≡ ¬q ⇒ ¬p
p q ¬p ¬q p⇒q ¬p ⇒ ¬q q⇒p
T T F F T T T
(ii) T F F T F F F
F T T F T T T
F F T T T T T
From the above truth table we can conclude p ⇒ q 6≡ ¬p ∨ q and

p ⇒ q 6≡ ¬q ⇒ ¬p
Truth tables with many propositional variables become cumbersome

Use laws of logic to transform propositions into equivalent forms
To prove that p ≡ q, produce a series of equivalences leading from p to q:
p ≡ p1
p1 ≡ p2
..
.
pn ≡ q
Each step follows one of the equivalence laws
Idempotent p∨p≡p p∧p≡p

Associate laws (p ∨ q) ∨ r ≡ p ∨ (q ∨ r) (p ∧ q) ∧ r ≡ p ∧ (q ∧ r)
Commutative p∨q ≡q∨p p∧q ≡q∧p
Distributive p ∨ (q ∧ r) p ∧ (q ∨ r)
laws ≡ (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r) ≡ (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r)
Identity laws p∨F≡p p∧T≡p
Domination laws p∧F≡F p∨T≡T
Double negation ¬¬p ≡ p
Complement laws p ∧ ¬p ≡ F ¬T ≡ F p ∨ ¬p ≡ T ¬F ≡ T
De Morgan’s laws ¬(p ∨ q) ≡ ¬p ∧ ¬q ¬(p ∧ q) ≡ ¬p ∨ ¬q
Absorption laws p ∨ (p ∨ q) ≡ p p ∧ (p ∨ q) ≡ p
Conditional identities p ⇒ q ≡ ¬p ∨ q p ⇐⇒ q ≡ (p ⇒ q) ∧ (q ⇒ p)
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1.4. Tautology and Contradiction 16
Example 1.6
Show that ¬(p ∨ (¬p ∧ q)) ≡ (¬p ∧ ¬q)
Solution:
¬(p ∨ (¬p ∧ q)) given proposition
¬p ∧ ¬(¬p ∧ q) De Morgan’s law
¬p ∧ (¬¬p ∨ ¬q) De Morgan’s law
¬p ∧ (p ∨ ¬q) Double negation law
(¬p ∧ p) ∨ (¬p ∧ ¬p) Distributive law
F ∨ (¬p ∧ ¬q) Complement law
(¬p ∧ ¬q) ∨ F Commutative law
¬p ∧ ¬q Identity law
1.4 Tautology and Contradiction

Definition 1.10
(a) A tautology is a proposition that is always true.
(b) A contradiction is a proposition that is always false.
(c) A contingency is a proposition that is neither a tautoloy nor contra-

diction.
Example 1.7
Determine whether the following proposition is tautology, contradiction or neither.
(i) ¬p ∧ (q ⇒ p) (ii) (p ∧ q) ⇒ (p ∨ q) (iii) ¬q ∧ (p ∨ q)
Solution:
Let’s draw one truth table for all the three compound propositions
p q ¬p ¬q p ∧ q p ∨ q q ⇒ p ¬p ∧ (q ⇒ p) (p ∧ q) ⇒ (p ∨ q) ¬q ∧ (p ∧ 75q)
T T F F T T T F T F
T F F T F T T F T F
F T T F F T F F T F
F F T T F F T T T F
Column 9 indicates (p∧q) ⇒ (p∨q) is tautology, column ¬q∧(p∧q) is contradiction,
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and column 8 shows ¬p ∧ (q ⇒ p) is contingency.
1.5 Open Proposition and Quantifiers
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1.6. The Concept of a Set and the Underlying Set Operation 18
1.6 The Concept of a Set and the Underlying Set

Operation
1.6.1 Sets and elements

Set theory is a basis of modern mathematics, and notions of set theory are used
in all formal descriptions. The notion of set is taken as ”undefined”, ”primitive”,
or ”basic”, so we dont try to define what a set is, but we can give an informal
description, describe important properties of sets, and give examples. All other
notions of mathematics can be built up based on the notion of set.
Similar (but informal) words: collection, group, aggregate.

Description: a set is a collection of objects which are called the members or elements
of that set. If we have a set we say that some objects belong (or do not belong) to
this set, are (or are not) in the set. We say also that sets consist of their elements.
Examples: the set of students in this room; the English alphabet may be viewed
as the set of letters of the English language; the set of natural numbers1; etc.
So sets can consist of elements of various natures: people, physical objects, numbers,
signs, other sets, etc. (We will use the words object or entity in a very broad way
to include all these different kinds of things.) A set is an ABSTRACT object; its
members do not have to be physically collected together for them to constitute a set.
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Chapter 2
Real and Complex Number system
2.1 The Real Number System
2.1.1 The Natural Numbers, The Principle of Mathematical

Induction and Well-Ordering Principle
2.1.2 The Integers, Rational numbers and Irrational num-

bers
The Integers
The elements of the set of Integers
Z = {· · · , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, · · · }
consists three types of numbers
• The positive integers {1, 2, 3, · · · }

• The negative integers {· · · , −3, −2, −1}
• The number zero, 0
The ordering on N extends to an ordering of Z
· · · < −3 < −2 < −1 < 0 < 1 < 2 < 3 < · · ·

2.1. The Real Number System 20
but there is no well-ordering principle for Z because many subsets of Z (including

itself) have no least element.
Properties of Integers Z
All the properties of natural numbers listed in theorem 1 also hold for integers. In
addition to them the following properties hold.
1. (a − b) ∈ Z, for all a, b ∈ Z; Closed under subtraction.
2. a + 0 = a = 0 + a, ∀a ∈ Z; 0 is called additive identity.
3. a + (−a) = 0 = (−a) + a; −a is called additive inverse of a.
4. −(−a) = a, for each integer a.
5. For a, b ∈ Z and a < b, then
am < bm if m > 0
am > bm if m < 0
Rational Numbers
Definition 2.1
The set of rational numbers, denoted by Q, is defined as
na o
Q= : a, b ∈ Z and b 6= 0
b
a
Note that Z ⊂ Q, because 1
= a, ∀a ∈ Z
Properties of Rational Numbers
1. Q is closed under addition, subtraction and multiplication
2. Q {0} is closed division.
By Gebre Hiluf
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21 Chapter 2. Real and Complex Number system
a
3. If b
is rational number and m is non-zero integer
a a×m a a÷m
= and =
b b×m b b÷m
.
3 3×5 15 36 36 ÷ 12 3
For example: = = = =
4 4×5 20 60 60 ÷ 12 5
.
4. For r ∈ Q and r 6= 0, there exists s ∈ Q such that rs = 1.

This s is called multiplicative inverse of r, i.e, s = 1r
Any rational number ab can be expressed as a decimal by dividing the numerator a

by the denominator b. Here there are two cases.
i: If the division process ends (the remainder is zero). The decimal is called
terminating
ii: If the division process does not terminate (the remainder never become zero )
Examples
Every Terminating decimal d can be expressed as fraction (or rational, i.e a ratio of
two integers) using the formula given below.
10n × d
d=
10n
where n is the number of digits after the decimal point
Example 2.1
Express the decimal number d = 2.128 as a fraction
Solution:
Since n = 3
103 × 2.128 2128 266
d = 2.128 = 3
= =
10 1000 125
By Gebre Hiluf
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Every repeating decimal can also be expressed as fraction using the following formula
d × (10k+p − 10k )
d= ,
10k+p − 10k
where k = no of non repeating and p = no of repeating digits after the decimal point
Example 2.2
Express the decimal number d = 0.375 as a fraction
Solution:
Since k = 1 and p = 2
0.375(101+2 − 101 ) 375.75 − 3.75 372 62

d = 0.375 = = = =
101+2 − 101 990 990 165
Every rational number can be expressed as decimal(terminating or repeating) and

every terminating or repeating decimal represents rational number.
Irrational Numbers
Definition 2.2
A decimal number that is neither terminating nor repeating is called irrational
number.
Example 2.3
The following are some examples irrational numbers
i. π = 3.14159265358 · · ·
ii. 0.1611661116111116 · · ·
iii. e = 2.718281828459 · · ·
√
iv. a if a is not perfect square natural number like 2, 3, 5, 6, . . .
By Gebre Hiluf
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Definition 2.3
The set of real number, denoted by R, can be described as union of rational and
irrational numbers.
R = {x : x is a rational or an irrational number }
2.1.3 Upper bound, lower bound, lub, glb, Completeness

Property of the of real numbers and Archimedian Prop-
erty
Definition 2.4
A non empty subset A of real numbers is said to be:
bounded above if there exists M such that x ≤ M for all x ∈ A

M is called an upper bound of A
bounded below if there exists m such that x ≤ m for all x ∈ A

m is called an lower bound of A
bounded if it is both bounded above and bounded below.
Example 2.4
Decide whether the following sets are bounded above, bounded below or bounded
or none of the these.
a) A = {x : x2 ≤ 1} d) A = {x : x3 < 27}
b) A = {x : x2 > 16} e) A = {x : x2 < 6}
c) A = {x : x3 > 27} f) A = {x : x2 > 2}
Solution:
a) A = {x : x2 ≤ 1} = {x : −1 ≤ x ≤ 1}
√ or [−1, 1]
the upper bounds of this can be 1, 3, 100 etc. and the lower bounds can
be −1, −5, −1000, etc.
By Gebre Hiluf
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b) A = {x : x2 > 16} = {x : x > 4 ∨ x < −4} = (−∞, −4) ∪ (4, ∞)
c) A = {x : x3 > 27} = {x : x > 3} = (3, ∞
d) A = {x : x3 < 27}
e) A = {x : x2 < 6}
f) A = {x : x2 > 2}
Definition 2.5
Let A be a nonempty subset of R
A number M0 is a least upper bound (lub) of A if
1. M0 is an upper bound of A
2. if M is any upper bound of A then M0 ≤ M

A number m0 is a greatest lower upper bound (glb) of A if
1. m0 is a lower bound of A
2. if m is any lower bound of A then M0 ≤ M
The lub of A is also called supremum of A (supA). The glb of A is also called infi-
mum of A (infA).
The maximum of a set A, denoted by max.A, is the largest element if it exists.

Here are the key differences between the maximum and supremum concepts (Anal-
ogous remarks apply for the infimum and minimum)
• If a set has a maximum, then the maximum is also the supremum, but the
converse is not true.
• A finite set always has a maximum (which is also a supremum), but an infinite
set need not have a maximum.
• The supremum of A need not be an element of A it self, but the maximum of

must always an element of A.
By Gebre Hiluf
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Example 2.5
The following can be taken as examples for justifications of the above remarks
a) If A = { n1 : n = 1, 2, 3, . . . }, then 1 is both max and sup of A.
b) If A = {1 − n1 : n = 1, 2, 3, . . . }, then sup A = 1, but 1 ∈

/ A and max of A
doesn’t exist.
c) IF A = {r ∈ Q : r2√≤ 3}, then A does not have maximum, but it has

supremum √, sup A = 3.√ √
Note that 3 ∈ / A (since 3 ∈
/ Q), but 3 ∈ R.
Definition 2.6: Completeness Property

Every nonempty subset of R that is bounded above has a least upper bound
(lub=sup)
2.2 Complex Number System
2.2.1 Definition of Complex Number and the underlying Op-

erations
Consider the equation
x2 + 1 = 0
This can be written as √
x2 = −1 or x = ± −1
But there is no real number which satisfy these equations. i.e, there no real number
whose square is −1.
By Gebre Hiluf
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2.2. Complex Number System 26
By Gebre Hiluf
ADU
Chapter 3
Functions
3.1 Review of Relations and Functions

Ordered Pairs
Definition 3.1
An ordered pair the pair of elements that occur in particular( or fixed) order
and enclosed in brackets.
In an ordered pair (a, b) : a is called the first component and b is called second
component.
Definition 3.2: Equality of Ordered Pairs
Two ordered pairs are equal if and only if the corresponding first components
are equal and corresponding second components are equal. i.e,
(a, b) = (c, d) ⇔ a = c and b = d
Example 3.1
Find the value of x and y if (2x − 3, y + 1) = (x + 5, 7)
3.1. Review of Relations and Functions 28
Solution:
By equality of ordered pairs, we have 2x − 3 = x + 5 and y + 1 = 7
⇒ 2x − x = 5 + 3 ⇒ x = 8 and y = 7 − 1 ⇒ y = 6
Note:
1. Ordered pair is not a set consisting of two elements.
2. Both elements of ordered pair can be the same like (2, 2), (5, 5) etc.
Definition 3.3: Cartesian Product of Two Sets

If A and A are two nonempty sets, then their cartesian product A × B is the
set of all ordered pairs of elements from A and B.
A × B = {(x, y) : x ∈ A and y ∈ B}
Example 3.2
a) If A = {7, 8} and B = {2, 4, 6}, find A × B
Solution:
A × B = {(7, 2); (7, 4); (7, 6); (8, 2); (8, 4); (8, 6)}
b) If A × B = {(p, x); (p, y); (p, z); (q, x); (q, y); (q, z)}, then find A and B.
Solution:
A is the set of all first entries in ordered pairs in A × B. Similarly
B is the set of all second entries in ordered pairs in A × B.
Thus A = {p, q} and B = {x, y, z}
c) If A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {2, 3}, find A × B, B × A, A × A and B × B

Solution:
A × B = {(1, 2); (1, 3); (3, 2); (3, 3); (5, 2); (5, 3)}
B × A = {(2, 1); (2, 3); (2, 5); (3, 2); (3, 3); (3, 5)}
A × A = {(1, 1); (1, 2); (1, 3); (3, 1); (3, 3); (3, 5); (5, 1); (5, 3); (5, 5)}
B × B = {(2, 2); (2, 3); (3, 2); (3, 3)}
By Gebre Hiluf
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29 Chapter 3. Functions
Note
i. A × B 6= B × A
ii. If either A or B are null sets, then A × B will also be an empty set. i.e, if
A = ∅ or B = ∅, then A × B = ∅
Relation
If A and B are two nonempty sets, then the relation R is a subset of A × B.
If (a, b) ∈ R, then we write it aRb and is read as ’a is related to b’.
Representation of Relations
The relation from set A to set B can be expressed in different forms:
i. Roster form: The relation R from A to B is represented as a set of ordered

pairs , where the first components are from A and the second components ar
from B.
ii. Set builder form:
R = {(a, b) : a ∈ A, b ∈ B, a . . . b }
The three dots will be replaced by the rule which associates a and b.
iii. Arrow diagram Draw two circles representing set A and set B.
Example 3.3
(a) Given A = {3, 4, 7, 10} , B = {5, 2, 8, 1} and the relation R from A to B is
defined as ’is less than’, can be represented in roster form as
R = {(3, 5), (3, 8), (4, 5), (4, 8), (7, 8)}
(b) Given sets A = {2, 4, 5, 6, 8} and B = {4, 6, 8, 9, 10}, and
R = {(a, b) : a ∈ A, b ∈ B, a is 2 less than b}
By Gebre Hiluf
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3.1. Review of Relations and Functions 30
= {(2, 4), (4, 6), (6, 8), (8, 10)}
(c) The relation in (b) can be represented in arrow diagram form as follows
Each ordered pair of a relation R has two parts,an x-value and a y- value
Domain of R is the set of x-value( or input or first component ) of R.
Range of R is the set of y-value( or output or second component ) of R.
Example List the domain and range of the following relation
R = {(−3, 1); (0, 2); (3, 3); (6, 4)}
Dom = {−3, 0, 3, 6} and Range = {1, 2, 3, 4}
Function
Definition 3.4: Function
A function from a set A to B, written f : A −→ B, is a relation f ⊂ A × B
such that that every element of A is assigned to exactly one element of B.
In logical notation
1. (∀x ∈ A) (∃y ∈ B)[(x, y) ∈ f ]
( No element of the domain must left unmapped.)
2. (x, y1 ) ∈ f ∧ (x, y2 ) ∈ f =⇒ y1 = y2
(No element of the domain may map to more than one element of )
However, it is allowable for elements of B to be unmapped or have multiple elements

from set A map to single element in set B.
For instance: consider the following function.
By Gebre Hiluf
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The second condition says each x can have only one y, but it CAN be the same y as
another x gets assigned to.
For instance, it can be seen that the following is a function
But the following two relations are not functions
Notation: f (x) read as ’f of x’ describes the out put( function value at x). It tells
us the name of the function f and the variable x.
For example, f (x) = 2x3 − 3x + 6 to find function value replace each instance of x
with the value given inside the parenthesis.
By Gebre Hiluf
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3.2. Real-valued Functions and their properties 32
Domain of a function f (x) is the set of all values of x for which f (x) is defined.
There are two reasons why domains are restricted.
- you can not divide by 0. (denominator 6= 0 )
- you can not take the square( or other even) root of negative number, as the
result will be a real number.
p
n
(for an even natural n, expression ∈ R if expression ≥ 0)
3.2 Real-valued Functions and their properties

Definition 3.5
A function f from set A to set B is defined as
f : A −→ B and f (x) = y
(∀x ∈ A, ∀y ∈ B, y = f (x)) ∧ (∀x1 , x2 ∈ A, f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ) =⇒ x1 6= x2 )
Here
A =Domain of f
B =Codomain of f
y =preimage of x under
x =preimage of y under f
range =subset of B with preimages
By Gebre Hiluf
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Example 3.4
Let f : Z −→ Z, f (x) = x2
Its Domain is Z, its Codomain is Z as well, but its range is {0, 1, 4, 9, 16, . . . }
Definition 3.6
Let A be a set. The mapping
f : A −→ R
is called real-valued function.
Examples
Definition 3.7: : Even and Odd functions
Let f : (A ⊂ R) −→ R. We say f is
even if and only if the following holds true
x ∈ A, ⇒ [−x ∈ A ∧ f (−x) = f (x)]
Its graph is symmetric about the y−axis. i.e, for each point (x, y) on the graph
of f , (−x, y) is also on the graph of f .
odd if and only if the following holds true
x ∈ A, ⇒ [−x ∈ A ∧ f (−x) = −f (x)]
Its graph is symmetric about the origin . i.e, for each point (x, y) on the graph
of f , (−x, −y) is also on the graph of f .
By Gebre Hiluf
ADU
3.2. Real-valued Functions and their properties 34
.
parity if it is either even or odd.
Example 3.5
examples of even and odd functions
Definition 3.8: Periodic Functions
A function f (x) periodic if the function values repeat at regular intervals of the
independent variable x. The regular interval is referred as the period
In other words
Let f : (A ⊂ R) −→ R. We say f is
p-periodic (0 6= p ∈ R) if and only if
x ∈ A ⇒ [x ± p ∈ A ∧ f (x ± p) = f (x)]
Example 3.6
Examples of periodic functions
By Gebre Hiluf
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Definition 3.9
Let f : (A ⊂ R) −→ R, and let M ⊂ A. We say f is

a) increasing on M if and only if x1 , x2 ∈ M, x1 ≤ x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) ≤ f (x2 )
b) decreasing on M if and only if x1 , x2 ∈ M, x1 ≤ x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) ≥ f (x2 )
We call f monotonic on M if it is either increasing or decreasing on M.
Example 3.7
Let f : R −→ R show that
1. f (x) = 2x − 7 is increasing 2. f (x) = −4x + 3 is decreasing
Solution:
jk””
kakaka
kakka
kuku
jjja
3.3 Types of functions (one to one, onto) and in-

verse of a function
3.3.1 One-to- One Functions

Definition 3.10: One-to-One Functions
Let f : A −→ B be a function. We say
f is one-to-one or injective if and only if
For all x1 , x2 ∈ A if x1 6= x2 then f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 )

(All elements in the domain have different images.) Or equivalently
For all x1 , x2 ∈ A f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) implies x1 = x2
By Gebre Hiluf
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3.3. Types of functions (one to one, onto) and inverse of a function 36
• To show f is one-to-one , take arbitrary x1 , x2 ∈ A, suppose that f (x1 ) = f (x2 )

and try to deduce that this implies x1 = x2 .
(∀x1 ∈ A)(∀x2 ∈ A)[x1 6= x2 =⇒ f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 )] Or
(∀x1 ∈ A)(∀x2 ∈ A)[f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) =⇒ x1 = x2 ]
• To show that f is not one-to-one, find specific x1 , x2 ∈ A with x1 6= x2 but

f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) [i.e, provide a counter example.]
¬(∀x1 , x2 ∈ A)((x1 6= x2 ) =⇒ (f (x1 ) = f (x2 )))
≡ (∃x1 ∈ A)(∃x2 ∈ A)[x1 6= x2 =⇒ f (x1 ) = f (x2 )]
We will illustrate these with some examples
Example 3.8
Let the function f : Z −→ Z be defined by f (x) = 2x + 1. Show that f is
one-to-one function.
Solution:
Suppose that x1 and x2 are arbitrary integers and f (x1 ) = f (x2 ). We need to show
that x1 = x2 .
Since f (x1 ) = f (x1 ), it follows that
2x1 + 1 = 2x + 1 definition of f (x)
2x1 = 2x2 added equals to equals are equal

and thus x1 = x2
Example 3.9
Let the function f : Z −→ Z be defined by f (x) = 3x2 + 2. Show that f is not
one-to-one.
Solution:
To show that f is not one-to-one, We need to find x1 6= x2 such that f (x1 ) = f (x2 ).
However, this is straight forward, we can take −1 and , and we get
f (1) = 3(12 ) + 2 = 5 = 3(−1)2 + 2 = f (−1)
By Gebre Hiluf
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Thus f is not one-to-one
Example 3.10
Prove that the function f : N −→ N be defined by f (n) = n2 is one-to-one.
Solution:
Let a, b ∈ N such that f (a) = f (b)
This implies a2 = b 2 definition of f
a2 − b 2 = 0
=⇒ (a − b)(a + b) = 0
=⇒ a = b or a = −b
Since the domain of f is the set of natural numbers, both a and b must be non
negative.
Thus a = b
This shows ∀a∀b[f (a) = f (b) =⇒ a = b] which shows f is injective on N.
3.3.2 Onto Functions

Definition 3.11
Let f : A −→ B be a function. We say f is onto or surjective
if and only if for any y ∈ B, there exists some x ∈ A such that y = f (x).
Symbolically
f : A −→ B is onto ⇐⇒ ∀y ∈ B, ∃x ∈ A, f (x) = y
• To show f is onto, take an arbitrary y ∈ B, and show that there is some

x ∈ A, with f (x) = y
• To show that f is not onto, find some y ∈ B such that for any x ∈ A, we do
not have f (x) = y
We will illustrate these with some examples
By Gebre Hiluf
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Example 3.11
Let the function f : Z −→ Z be defined by f (x) = 2x + 1. Show that f is not
onto.
Solution:
To show that f is not onto, we need to find y ∈ Z such that there does not exist
x ∈ Z with f (x) = y.
But, this straight forward, we can take y = 2.
1
Then if f (x) = 2x + 1 = 2, then x = ∈
/Z
2
Example 3.12
Let the function f : Z −→ Z be defined by f (x) = x + 5. Show that f is onto.
Solution:
Suppose that y ∈ Z is an arbitrary integer. We need to show that there exists
x ∈ Z such that f (x) = y
take x = y − 5 ∈ Z
Then f (x) = x + 5 = (y − 5) + 5 = y
It follows that f is onto
Example 3.13
Is the function f : R −→ R defined by f (x) = x2 + 2x surjective?
Solution:
No, the number y = −2 ∈ R has no pre-image since it can be easily shown
x2 + 2x = −2 has only complex solutions.
Example 3.14
Determine if the function f : R −→ R be defined by f (x) = x3 + 1 is surjection.
Solution:
We want show (WTS) for any y ∈ R there exists an x ∈ R such that x3 + 1 = y.
p
Solving for x gives x= 3 y−1
By Gebre Hiluf
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Hence, for any value y this value x maps into y

p
i.e, f (x) = x3 + 1 = ( 3 y − 1)3 + 1 = y − 1 + 1 = y
Thus f maps R onto R
3.3.3 One-to-One Correspondence
Definition 3.12
A one-to-one correspondence (or bijective) from A to B is a function f : A −→

B which is both one to one and onto.
Example 3.15
Consider the f : R −→ R, f (x) = 4x + +1. Show that f is bijection.
Solution:
one to one (1-1). To show one-to-oneness of f , take x1 , x2 ∈ R.
Suppose f (x1 ) = f (x2 ). So, from the definition of f we have
4x1 + 1 = 4x2 + 1
=⇒ 4x1 = 4x2 =⇒ x1 = x2
Onto. Let y ∈ R such that f (x) = y. That is 4x + 1 = y
y−1
Solving for x we have, x = ∈R
4
y−1
f (x) = 4x + 1 = 4( )+1=y+1−1=y
4
This shows f is R onto R. and therefore, f is bijective.
By Gebre Hiluf
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Example 3.16
Show that f : R −→ A = [0, ∞), f (x) = x2 is not bijection.
Solution:
f is onto because for any y ∈ [0, ∞), ∃x ∈ R such that y = x2
√
Expressing x interms of y yields x = ± y,
√
And f (x) = x2 = (± y)2 = y
But f is not 1 − 1. Because x and x have the same image x2 , in particular
(−3 6= 3) ∧ (f (−3) = (−3)2 = 9 = 32 = f (3))
Example 3.17
Show that f : N −→ N, f (n) = n2 is not bijection.
Solution:
to show f is one to one. We will show m 6= m =⇒ f (m) 6= f (n) by proving its
contra-positive. f (m) = f (n). So
f (m) = f (n) =⇒ m2 = n2
m2 − n2 = 0 =⇒ (m − n)(m + n) = 0 =⇒ m = n or m = −n
By m = −n is not possible since we are assuming m, n are positive numbers.
Hence, we conclude m = n and so f is 1-1 on N
But f is not onto

Because 3 ∈ N has no preimage. That is, there is no n ∈ N such that n2 = 3.
Therefore, f is not 1-1 correspondence(bijection).
Compositions of Functions
Sometimes it is possible to combine functions when the input of( domain ) of one
function is a subset or equal to the range of another function. In this case, the out
put of one function is the input of the subsequent function.
By Gebre Hiluf
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Definition 3.13
Let g : A −→ B and f : B −→ C be functions.
We define a new function f ◦ g : A −→ C by declaring that
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))
We call f ◦ g ”f composed with g”
Example 3.18
Let f, g : R −→ R be functions given by
g(x) = 4x − 3 and f (x) = x2 + 5. Find f ◦ g and g ◦ f
Solution:
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f (4x − 3) = (4x − 3)2 + 5 = 16x2 − 24 + 14

(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = g(x2 + 5) = 4(x2 + 5) − 3 = 4x2 + 17
The previous example shows that while it is possible to create compositions in both
directions, resulting functions are not necessarily equal. In other words, the commu-
tative law does not hold for the composition of the functions.
In general, f ◦ g 6= g ◦ f
Although ◦ is not commutative, it is associative.
Theorem 3.1
Let h : A −→ B, g : B −→ C, and f : C −→ D are functions, then
(f ◦ (g ◦ h)) = ((f ◦ g) ◦ h)
Example/s
By Gebre Hiluf
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Theorem 3.2
Let g : A −→ B and f : B −→ B be arbitrary bijections. Then f ◦ g is a
bijection.
Proof
It is enough to show that
1. if f and g are both one-t-one, then so is f ◦ g.
2. if f and g are both onto, then so is f ◦ g.
1. Assume that f and g are one-to-one. Let x1 , x2 ∈ A such that (f ◦

g)(x1 ) = (f ◦ g)(x2 ).
Then f (g(x1 )) = f (g(x2 )) by the definition off ◦ g
This implies g(x1 ) = g(x2 ) because f is one-to-one

And since g is also one-to-one, we have x1 = x2
This shows f ◦ g is one-t-one whenever both f and g are one-to-one.
2. Assume that f and g are onto. Let z ∈ C.
Since f is onto, we can find y ∈ B such that f (y) = z.
Since g is also onto, we can find x ∈ A such that g(x) = y.

Hence, (f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f (y) = z. That is,
(∀z ∈ C)(∃x ∈ A)[(f ◦ g)(x) = z], and therefore f ◦ g is onto
However, there are examples of f and g with f ◦ g is both 1-1 and onto but f is not
1-1 and g is not onto.
Definition 3.14
By Gebre Hiluf
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Let A be a set. The identity function on A, IA , is the function
f : A −→ A given by IA (x) = x for all x ∈ A
In other words, IA = {(x, x) : x ∈ A}
Theorem 3.3
Let f : A −→ B be a function. Then IB ◦ f = f = f ◦ IA
3.3.4 Inverse of Functions

Definition 3.15
Suppose f : A −→ B is a bijection. Then inverse of f , denoted by
f −1 : B −→ A
is the function defined by the rule
f −1 (y) = x if and only if f (x) = y
From the definition note that
i. f −1 (f (x)) = x, ∀x ∈ A
ii. f (f −1 (y)) = y, ∀y ∈ B
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Theorem 3.4
Let f : A −→ B is a bijection, and define f −1 : B −→ A by
f −1 (y) = x whenever f (x) = y
The relation f −1 is a well defined function. It is the inverse of f .
Proof
Let y ∈ B. Since f is onto, there is an x such that f (x) = y.

And since f one-to-one, this x is unique. Thus f −1 is a function.
It satisfies the conditions for being an inverse of f .
Theorem 3.5
Let f : A −→ B.be a function. If f has an inverse g, then f must be a
bijection and the inverse is unique.
Proof
To show that f is onto, let y ∈ B . Since f (g(y)) = y, it follows that y must

be the image of f .
To show that f is one-to-one, le x1 , x2 . Suppose f (x1 ) = f (x2 ).
Then g(f (x1 )) = g((f (x2 )).
Since g ◦ f = IA , it follows that x1 = x2
To show that the inverse is unique, suppose g, g 0 are both inverses of f . Let
y ∈ B. Then f (g(x)) = f (g 0 (x))) since g, g 0 are inverses
Hence g(y) = g 0 (y) since f is 1-1.
Example 3.19
x
Suppose f : R − {2} −→ R − {1} defined by f (x) = . Find its inverse.
x−2
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Solution:
The function f −1 (x) = 2x
x−1
Example 3.20
Let f, g ∈ R2 be given by f (x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = 12 x − 12 . Then g is the inverse
of f .
1 1 1 1
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f x− =2 x− +1=x
2 2 2 2
1 1 1
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = g(2x + 1) = (2x + 1) = (2x + 1) − = x
2 2 2
Example 3.21
√
Let f : R −→ [0, ∞) and g : [0, ∞) −→ R be given by f (x) = x2 and g(x) = x.
Then g is not the inverse of f .
Solution: √
Although we have f (g(x)) = (√ x)2 = x, so f ◦ g = I[0,∞) .
When we consider g(f (x)) 2
p= x = x, we always get the positive square root,
for example g(f (−2)) = (−2)2 = 2
3.4 Polynomial and Rational Functions
3.4.1 Polynomial Functions

The most common type of algebraic functions is a polynomial function. A polynomial
in x is a sum of multiples of powers of x. If the highest power( greatest exponent )
of x is n, then the polynomial is described as having degree n in x.
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3.4. Polynomial and Rational Functions 46
Definition 3.16
Let n be a non-negative integer and let an , an−1 , . . . , a2 , a1 , a0 be real numbers
with an 6= 0. Then the function defined by
f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0
is called a polynomial function of degree n.
Ô the numbers an , an−1 , . . . , a2 , a1 , a0 are called coefficients.
Ô a0 is called the constant term( or coefficient), the term independent of x.
Ô an , the coefficient of the variable to the highest power, is called leading

coefficient, and the term an xn is called the leading term or dominant
term.
Example 3.22
Let f (x) = 3x5 + 6x4 − 2x3 + 7x − 6. Then
3, 6, −2, 1, 7, −6 are coefficients
−6 is the constant term
3 is the leading coefficient and 3x5 is the leading term
5 is the degree of the polynomial.
Notice that
ä If the leading coefficient an = 1, then the polynomial is called monic
ä If a polynomial consists of just a single term, then it is called monomial.
ä For small degree polynomial the following names are usually used. Polynomial
of degree 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 are called linear, quadratic, cubic, quartic
and quintic respectively.
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Example 3.23
f (x) = 4x − 7 is linear
f (x) = x2 + x + 23 is monic quadratic
f (x) = x3 is monic cubic monomial
We usually write the terms in the polynomial from the largest to the smallest degree,
sometimes called the standard form of the polynomial.
Example 3.24
Find the degree, leading coefficient, leading term and constant term of the following
polynomial functions
(a) f (x) = 4x5 − 3x2 + 2x − 5 (c) h(x) = 4−x
5
(b) g(x) = 12x + x3 (d) p(x) = (2x − 1)3 (x − 2)2 (3x + 2)
Solution:
(a) f (x) = 4x5 − 3x2 + 2x − 5. The degree of f is 5 , the leading term of f is

4x5 , the leading coefficient of f is 4, and the constant term of f is −5.
(b) g(x) = 12x + x3 = x3 + 12x. The degree of g is 3 , the leading term of g is

x3 , the leading coefficient of g is 1, and the constant term of g is 0.
(c) h(x) = 4−x5

= − 15 x + 45 . The degree of h is 1 , the leading term of h is − 15 x
, the leading coefficient of h is − 15 , and the constant term of h is 54 .
(d) It may seem that we have some work a head of us to get p(x) in the form of the
definition. However it is possible to glean the information requested about
k(x) with out multiplying out the entire expression (2x − 1)3 (x − 2)2 (3x + 2).
The leading term is the product of the leading terms of the factors of k(x)
(2x)3 x2 (3x) = 24x6 . So the degree of p is 6 , the leading coefficient of p is
24, and the constant term of f is obtained by multiplying the constant terms
from each factor (−1)3 (−2)2 (2) = −8.
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Combining Polynomial Functions
Many functions in mathematics are constructed out of simpler ’building block’ func-
tions. In this section we consider some of the ways polynomial functions can be
combined to obtain new function.
If f and g are two polynomial functions and c is a fixed number, then we can construct
new functions using f + g, f − g, cf, f.g, fg .
1. Addition and Subtraction of Polynomial Functions
To add or subtract two polynomials, we collect like term. That is, we add or subtract
the coefficients of the corresponding like terms. Like terms are terms that have the
same power of the variable.
Example 3.25
(a) If f (x) = 3x2 + x3 − x − 2 and g(x) = x3 − 2x2 + 1, then find f (x) + g(x)
(b) If p(t) = 2t3 − 5t2 + t − 7 and q(t) = 6t2 − t3 + 8t + 9, then find p(t) − q(t)
Solution
(a) Write f (x) in standard form f (x) = x3 − 3x2 − x − 2 and then operate
f (x) + g(x) =(x3 + 3x2 − x − 2) + (x3 − 2x2 + 1)

=(1 + 1)x3 + (3 − 2)x2 + (−x) + (−2 + 1)
=2x3 + x2 − x − 1
(b) In a similar way
p(t) − q(t) =(2t3 − 5t2 + t − 7) − (6t2 − t3 + 8t + 9)

=2t3 − 5t2 + t − 7 − 6t2 + t3 − 8t − 9) . . . removing brackets
=(2 + 1)t3 + (−5 − 6)t2 + (1 − 8)t + (−7 − 9)
. . . (adding coefficients of like terms)
=3t − 11t2 − 7t − 16
3
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2. (Scalar) Multiples
When a polynomial is multiplied by a number or a constant, each term is multiplied

by that number ( sometimes called scalar).
Example 3.26
If f (x) = 2x3 + x − 3, then 10f (x) = 20x3 + 10x − 30
3. Multiplication of Polynomial Functions
To multiply a polynomial by another polynomial, multiply each term of one by each

term of the other, and collect like terms.
Example 3.27
If f (x) = 2x2 + x − 3 and g(x) = −x2 + 4x + 5, then
f (x)g(x) =(2x2 + x − 3)(−x2 + 4x + 5)

=2x2 (−x2 + 4x + 5) + x(−x2 + 4x + 5) − 3(−x2 + 4x + 5)
=(−2x4 + 8x3 + 10x2 ) + (−x3 + 4x2 + 5x) + (3x2 − 12x − 15)
= − 2x4 + (8 − 1)x3 + (10 + 4 + 3)x2 + (5 − 12)x − 15
= − 2x4 + 7x3 + 17x2 − 7x − 15
4. Division of Polynomial Functions
When we divide 47 by 5 we get ”9 with 2 left over ” and we write in various forms
47 2
5
=9+ 5
47 ÷ 5 equal 9 remainder 2
47 ÷ 5 = 9 25
47 = 9 × 5 + 2
In the statement 47 ÷ 5 equal 9 remainder 2
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æ The number 5 that are dividing by is called divisor

æ The number 47 that are dividing into is called dividen
æ The number 9 is called quotient
æ The number 2 is called remainder
We will use the same terminology when discussing polynomial division. The division
of the polynomial f (x) by the polynomial d(x) also produces a quotient q(x) and a
remainder r(x) and so we can write as
f (x) = d(x)q(x) + r(x)
+ The key idea in performing the division polynomial functions is to keep work-
ing with leading terms as in the following example
Example 3.28
Divide the polynomial f (x)5x4 − 7x3 + 2x − 4 by d(x) = x − 2 and the express the
division in the form f (x) = d(x)q(x) + r(x)
Solution:3
5x + 3x2 + 6x + 14 quotient
x − 2 )5x − 7x + 0.x + 2x − 4 (divide x2 into 5x4 , giving 5x3 )
4 3 2
5x4 − 10x3 (multiply (x − 2) by 5x3 & then subtract )

3x3 + 0.x2 + 2x − 4 (divide x into 3x3 , giving 3x2 )
3 2
3x − 6x (multiply (x − 2) by 3x2 & then subtract)
6x2 + 2x − 4 (divide x into 6x2 , giving 6x )
6x2 − 12x (multiply (x − 2) by 6x & then subtract)
14x − 4 (divide x into 14x, giving 14 )
14x − 28 (multiply (x − 2) by 14 & then subtract)
24 remainder
5x4 − 7x3 + 2x − 4 = (x − 2)(5x3 + 3x2 + 6x + 15) + 24
The degree of the remainder is less than the degree of the divisor, since otherwise,
we would continue the division process.
In general, we can now write as
f (x) = d(x)q(x) + r(x)
where r(x) = 0 or 0 ≤ degree(r(x)) < degree(d(x))
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Example 3.29
Divide the polynomial f (x)5x4 − 7x3 + 2x − 4 by d(x) = x2 − 2 and the express
the division in the form f (x) = d(x)q(x) + r(x)
Solution:
Arrange the dividen and the divisor
5x2 + 3x2 + 6x + 14
in descending powers of x
x2 − 2 ) 5x4 − 7x3 + 0.x2 + 2x − 4
Insert (with 0 coefficient) missing terms
5x4 + 0x3 − 5x2
Divide the first term of the dividen by
− 7x3 + 5x2 + 2x − 4
the first term of the divisor
−7x3 + 0.x2 + 14x
Multiply the divisor by 5x2 , line up
5x2 − 16x − 4
liketerms and then subtract
5x2 + 0.x − 10
Repeat the process until the degree of the
− 16x + 8
remainder is less than that of the divisor.
Theorem 3.6: The Remainder Theorem

Let f (x) be a polynomial of degree greater than or equal to 1 and let a be a
number. If f (x) is divided by the linear factor (x − a), then the remainder is
f (a).
Proof
When f (x) is divided by (x − a), the remainder is always constant.

0 ≤ degree(r(x)) < degree(x − a) = 1 =⇒ degree(r(x))=0
f (x) = (x − a)q(x) + r where r is constant
substituting x = a into both sides, we have
f (a) = (a − a)q(x) + r ⇒ r = f (a)
+ We should keep in mind that Remainder Theorem says nothing at all about
the quotient q(x) and works when we are dividing by a linear factor (x − a).
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Example 3.30
Find the remainder when f (x) = x4 − 3x2 − 10x + 2 is dividing by
(a) (x − 3) (b) (x + 4) (c) (2x − 1)
Solution:
(a) The remainder is f (3) = 34 − 3(32 ) − 10(3) + 2 = 81 − 27 − 30 + 2 = 26
(b) Since (x + 4) = (x − (−4)) =⇒ a = −4. So the remainder is
f (−4) = (−4)4 − 3(−4)2 − 10(−4) + 2 = 256 − 48 + 40 + 2 = 250
(c) Write in f (x) = (2x − 1)q(x) + r form, so we can obtain r by substituting

x = 21 in both sides
4 2
1 1 1 1 −59
f = −3 − 10 + 2 = 0 + r =⇒ r =
2 2 2 2 16
Example 3.31
The polynomial f (x) = x5 −7x3 +ax+1 has remainder 13 after dividing by (x−1).
Find the value of the coefficient a .
Solution:
The remainder is
f (1) = 15 − 7(13 ) + a(1) + 1 = 13 =⇒ 1 − 7 + a + 1 = 13 =⇒ a = 13 + 5 = 18
Theorem 3.7: The Factor Theorem

Let f (x) be a polynomial of degree greater than or equal to 1, and let a be a
real number, then
(i) (x − a) is a factor of f (x), if f (a) = 0, and
(ii) f (a) = 0, if (x − a) is a factor of f (x)
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Proof
(i) f (x) = (x − a)q(x) + r
(ii) f (x) = (x − a)q(x) + r
Note that
ä If f (a) 6= 0, then (x − a) is not a factor of f (x)
ä The number a which gives f (a) = 0 is called a zero of the polynomial.
Example 3.32
Which of the following are factors of f (x) = x3 − 6x2 + 11x − 6?
(a) (x − 2) (b) (x + 1) (c) (x − 1)
Solution:
(a) Since f (2) = 8 − 24 + 22 − 6 = 0 and so (x − 2) is a factor of f (x).
(b) Since f (−1) = −1 − 6 − 11 − 6 6= 0 and so (x + 1) is not a factor of f (x).
(c) Since f (1) = 1 − 6 + 11 − 6 = 0 and so (x − 1) is a factor of f (x).
Notice that since (x − 2) & (x − 1) are both factors f (x) then so is their product
(x − 2)(x − 1) = x2 − 3x + 2. We could thus find the third factor by long division.
x−3
2
x − 3x + 2 ) x − 6x2 + 11x − 6
3
x3 − 3x2 + 2x
− 3x2 + 9x − 6
−3x2 + 9x − 6
0
3 2
So we have f (x) = x − 6x + 11x − 6 = (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3)
Alternative method
Since f (2) = 0 & f (1) = 0, and f (x) has degree 3, we can write
f (x) = (x − 1)(x − 1)(x − a)
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. Since f (0) = −6, so we have −2a = −6 =⇒ a = 3
Example 3.33
The polynomial f (x) = 3x6 − 5x3 + ax2 + bx + 10 is divisible by x + 1 and x − 2.
Find the values of the coefficients a and b.
Solution:
f (x) is divisible by x + 1 is a factor of f (x) which implies f (−1) = 0
f (−1) = 0 =⇒ 3(−1)6 − 5(−1)3 + a(−1)2 + b(−1) + 10 = 0

=⇒ a − b = −18 . . . i
Similarly (x − 2) is a factor of f (x)
f (2) = 0 =⇒ 3(2)6 − 5(2)3 + a(2)2 + b(2) + 10 = 0

=⇒ 2a − b = −21 . . . ii
Add equations i & ii, we have 3a = −39 =⇒ a = −13

substitute this in equation i we get b = 5
Example 3.34
Factorize the polynomial f (x) = x3 + 4x2 − 7x − 10
Solution:
Search for one linear, by checking the numbers a = 1, −1, 2, −2 . . . until we find
an integer a such that f (a) = 0.
f (1) = −12 6= 0, f (−1) = 0 so (x + 1) is a factor
Next we use long division to divide f (x) by (x + 1) and to obtain f (x) = (x+)(x2 +
3x − 10)
Now the quadratic q(x) = x2 + 3x − 10 can be factored, using our knowledge of
quadratics as (x + 5)(x − 2). (That is two number whose sum is 3 and product
−10 are 5 and −2.)
Therefore, the complete factorization of f (x) is f (x) = (x + 1)(x + 5)(x − 2)
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Example 3.35
By firstly removing the obvious common factor, factorize the polynomial
f (x) = 2x6 − 22x5 + 78x4 − 90x3
Solution:
f (x) = 2x6 − 22x5 + 78x4 − 90x3 = 2x3 (x3 − 11x2 + 39x − 45).
So the quotient q(x) = x3 − 22x2 + 39x − 45
q(1) = 1 − 11 + 39 − 45 = −16 ≤ 0, q(−1) = −1 − 11 − 39 − 45 6= 0,
q(3) = 27 − 99 + 117 − 45 = 0 =⇒ (x − 3) is a factor of q(x)
x2 − 8x + 15
x − 3 |x3 − 11x2 + 39x − 45
x3 − 3x2
− 8x2 + 39x − 45
−8x2 + 24x
15x − 45
15x − 45
0
Zeros of Polynomial Function

Definition 3.17
For a polynomial function f and a real number a, if f (a) = 0, then a is called a

zero of f
One of the main methods of solving quadratic equations was the method of factoring.
Similarly, one of the main application of factoring polynomials is to solve polynomial
equations.
Example 3.36
Find the zeros of f (x) = x3 + 4x2 − 7x − 10
Solution:
We factored this in the earlier example f (x) = x3 + 4x2 − 7x − 10 as (x + 1)(x +
5)(x − 2)
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Since (x + 1), (x + 5) and (x − 2) are factors of f (x), −1, −5, 2 are zeros of f (x).
Example 3.37
Find the the zeros of the polynomial f (x) = x4 + 7x3 − 2x2 − 7x + 1
Solution:
The polynomial f (x) = x4 + 7x3 − 2x2 − 7x + 1 has factorization f (x) = (x − 1)(x +
1)(x2 + 7x − 1)
f (x) = 0 =⇒ (x − 1)(x + 1)(x2 + 7x − 1) = 0

√ √
−7 + 53 −7 − 53
x = 1, x = −1, and x = x=
2 2
+ A polynomial function can not have more zeros than its degree( n degree poly-
nomial has at most n zeros.)
Zeros and Their Multiplicities
When a polynomial function f (x) is factored completely, the same factor (x−a) may
occur more than once. In this case a is called a repeated or a multiple zero of f (x).
Definition 3.18
If (x − a)k is a factor of f (x), but (x − a)k+1 is not a factor of f (x), then a is

said to be a zero of multiplicity k of f (x).
Example 3.38
Given the polynomial function f (x) = (x − 1)3 (x + 3)( x − 4), which is factorized
completely.
Thus 1 is a zero of multiplicity 3, −3 is a zero of multiplicity 2
and 4 is a zero of multiplicity 1.
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Rational Zero Test (or Rational Root Theorem)

Let f be a polynomial with only integer coefficients in standard form:
an xn + an+1 xn+1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 (ai ∈ Z; an 6= 0; a0 6= 0; n ∈ Z)

p
If f (x) has rational zeros, they must be in the list of ± q
candidates where: p
is a factor of a0 and q is a factor of an .
Example 3.39
Factor f (x) = 4x3 − 5x2 − 7x + 2 completely, and find all its zeros.
Solution:
p (factors of 2): ±1, ±2 q (factors of 4): ±1, ±2, ±4
p 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 1
= ± , ± , ± , ± , ± , ± = 1, −1, 2, −2, , − , , −
q 1 2 4 1 2 4 2 2 4 4
Let’s Try 1: f (1) = −6 6= 0 , x − 1 is not a factor of f (x)

Let’s try 2: f (2) = 0 , x − 2 is a factor of f (x) by Factor Theorem
We can find the other( quadratic) factor by using long division.
f (x) = (x − 2)(4x2 + 3x − 1), factor q(x) completely over reals we have
f (x) = (x − 2)(4x − 1)(x + 1), and hence the zeros are 2, −1, 41
Finding Zeros Using Quadratic Techniques
In some cases, you can rewrite a polynomial in x in the form au2 +bu+c. For example,
by letting u = x2 the expression x4 − 16x2 + 60 can be written as (x2 )2 − 16x2 + 60
or u2 − 16u + 60 . This new, but equivalent, expression is said to be in quadratic
form.
Example 3.40
Write each of the following expressions in quadratic form, if possible
(a) x4 +13x2 +36 x4 +13x2 +36 = (x2 )2 +13x2 +36 (x2 )2 = x4
(b) 16x6 − 625

16x6 − 625 = (4x3 )2 − 625 (x3 )2 = x6
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(c) 12x8 − x2 + 10
This cannot be written in quadratic form since (x8 ) 6= (x2 )2
Example 3.41
Solve the following polynomial equation x4 − 13x2 + 36 = 0
Solution:
4 2
x − 13x + 36 = 0 Original equation
(x2 )2 − 13(x2 ) + 36 = 0 Quadratic form
(x2 − 9)(x2 − 4) = 0 Factor the trinomial
(x − 3)(x + 3)(x − 2)(x + 2) = 0 Factor the difference of squares
x = 3, x = −3, x = 2, or x = −2 the Zero Product Property
Graphs of Polynomial Functions

The graph of polynomials of degree 0 or 1 are lines, and of degree 2 are parabolas.
The greater the degree of polynomial, the more complicated its graph can be.
However, the graph of a polynomial function is continuous. This means that the
graph has no breaks or holes. Moreover, the graph of a polynomial function is a
smooth curve , that is, it has no corners, no sharp points (curps).
The simplest polynomial functions are the monomials f (x) = xn
As the figure suggests, the graph of f (x) = xn has the same general shape as the
graph of y = x2 when n is even and the same general shape as the graph of y = x3
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when n is odd.
However, as the degree n becomes larger, the graphs become flatter around the
origin and steeper elsewhere.
Graphing Polynomials Transformation of Monomials
The graph of a polynomial function of the form f (x) = a(x − h)n + k is obtained
by applying transformation to the graph of the monomial y = xn
Parameter Transformation
k • Vertical translation up or down (if k > 0 or k < 0 respectively )
• (x, y) → (x, y + k)
h • Horizontal translation left or right (if h > 0 or h < 0 respectively )
• (x, y) → (x + h, y)
a • Vertical strecth about x-axis by a factor of |a|
• For a > 0, the graph is also reflected in x-axis
• (x, y) → (x, ay)
n
X n(n + 1)
i= . (3.1)
i=1
2
Example 3.42
Sketch the graphs of the following functions (a) q(x) = x2 − 3
(b) p(x) = (x − 1)3 (c) g(x) = 3x4 (d) r(x) = −x5
Solution:
The graph of
q(x) = x2 − 3 is the
(a) graph of y = x2 shifted
downward 3 units, as shown in
the figure.
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The graph of
p(x) = (x − 1)3 is the
(b) graph of y = x3 shifted to the
right 1 unit, as shown in the fig-
ure.
The graph of g(x) = 3x4 is obtained

by stretching vertically
(c) and the graph of h(x) = 13 x4 by
shrinking vertically, as shown in the
figure.
The graph of
r(x) = −x5 is the reflection of
(d)
graph of y = x5 in the x-axis, as
shown in the figure.
End Behavior of Polynomial Functions
The end behavior of a polynomial is a description of what happens as x becomes

large in the positive or negative direction. We use the following notation to describe:
x → ∞ means x becomes large in the positive direction
x → −∞ means x becomes large in the negative direction
For any polynomial the end behavior is determined by the term that contains the
highest power of x, because when x is large, the other terms are relatively insignifi-
cant in size.
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Theorem 3.8: End Behavior
The end behavior of a polynomial f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 · · · + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0

with an 6= 0 matches the end behavior of y = an xn .
Proof
Factoring outthe leading term leaves

n an−1 a2 a1 a0
f (x) = an x 1 + + ··· + + +
an x an xn−2 an xn−1 an xn
As x → ±∞, any term with an x in the denominator becomes closer and closer
to 0, and we have f (x) ≈ an xn .
Geometrically, the Theorem says that if we graph y = f (x) using a graphing cal-
culator, and continue to ‘zoom out’, the graph of it and its leading term become
indistinguishable. Below are the graphs of y = 4x3 − x + 5 and y = 4x3 in two
different windows.
A ’zoom out’ view

A view ’close’ to the origin
For polynomials the degree determines the end behavior of the graph. If the degree
is an even number the graph will begin and end in the same location, either both up
or both down (depending on the leading coefficient). If the degree is an odd number,
the graph will begin and end in different locations, either starting down and ending
up or starting up and ending down (depending on the leading coefficient).
The following box shows the four possible types of end behavior, based on the highest
power and the sign of its coefficient.
By Gebre Hiluf
ADU
Using Zeros to Graph Polynomials
Real Zeros of Polynomials

If f is a polynomial and c is a real number, then the following are equivalent
(i) c is a zero of f
(ii) x = c is a solution of the equation f (x) = 0.
(iii) x − c is a factor f (x).
(iv) x = c is an x-intercept of the graph f (x)
Theorem 3.9: Intermediate Value Theorem for Polynomials
If f (x) is a polynomial and f (a) and f (b) have opposite signs, then there exits
at least one value c between a and b for which f (c) = 0.
One important consequence of this theorem is

that between any two successive zeros, the val-
ues of a polynomial are either all positive or all
negative. This observation allows us to use the
following guidelines to graph polynomial func-
tions.
By Gebre Hiluf
ADU
Guidelines for Graphing Polynomial Functions
1. Zeros. Factor the polynomial to find all its real zeros; these are the
x-intercepts of the graph.
2. Test Points. Make a table of test points to determine whether the

graph of the polynomial lie above or below the x-axis on the intervals
determined by the zeros.
3. End Behavior. Determine the end behavior of the polynomial.
4. Graph. Plot the intercepts and other points found in the table. Sketch
a smooth cure that passes through these points and exhibits the required
end behavior.
Example 3.43
Sketch the graph of the polynomial function f (x) = (x + 2)(x − 1)(x − 3).
Solution:
The zeros are x = −2, 1 and 3. These determine the intervals (−∞, −2), (−2, 1), (1, 3), and (3, ∞).
Using test points in these intervals, we get the information in the following sign
diagram.
The polynomial f has degree 3 and leading coefficient 1. Thus, f has odd degree
and positive leading coefficient, so the end behavior of P is similar to x3 :
y → −∞ as x → −∞ and y → ∞ as x → ∞
Downward ( left ) Upward( Right )
Plotting a few additional points and connecting them with a smooth curve helps
us to complete the graph.
By Gebre Hiluf
ADU
Shape of the Graph Near a Zero
Shape of the graph near a zero with multiplicity k
Multiplicity c Shape of the graph of f near the x-intercept c
(a) k odd, k > 1
(b) k even, k > 1
By Gebre Hiluf
ADU
Example 3.44
Sketch the graph of the polynomial function f (x) = x2 (x − 1)3 (x + 2)4 (x + 1)
Solution:
The zeros of f are −2, −1, 0,and1, with multiplicities 4, 1, 2 and 3, respectively.
The zeros 1 and −1 have odd multiplicities, so the graph crosses the x-axis at the
x-intercepts −1 and 1. But the zeros 0 and −2 have even multiplicities, so the
graph does not cross the x-axis at the x-intercepts 0 and −2.
The polynomial f has degree 10 and leading coefficient 1. Thus, f has even de-
gree and positive leading coefficient, so the end behavior of f is similar to x2 :
y → ∞ as x → −∞ and y → ∞ as x → ∞
Upward ( left ) Upward( Right )
With this information and a table of values, we sketch the graph.
x f (x)
−3 1152
−2 0
−1.5 1.099
−1 0
−0.5 −8.543
0 0
0.5 1.831
1 0
2 3072
3.4.2 Rational Functions

A quotient of two algebraic expressions is called a fractional expression. Here are
some examples: √
2x x+3 y−2
, , 2
x−1 x+1 y +4
A rational expression is a fractional expression where both the numerator and de-
nominator are polynomials.
Just as rational numbers are defined in terms of quotients of integers, rational ex-
By Gebre Hiluf
ADU
pressions are defined in terms of quotients of polynomials.

Definition 3.19: Rational Expression
p(x)
A quotient of two polynomials p(x) and q(x), for which q(x) is not zero, is
q(x)
called a rational expression.
The top ,p(x), is called numerator and the bottom, q(x), is called denominator.
Example 3.45
Which one of the following is rational expression. √
x−2 1 x2 − 5x + 6 4 − x2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2x2 − 12x x4 − 16 4 x+2
Solution:
All except (d) are rational expressions
Domain of Rational Expression
In general, an algebraic expression may not be defined for all values of the variable.
The domain of an expression is the set of real numbers that the variable is permitted
to have.
Finding the Domain of Rational Expression
1.
Fundamental Principle of Rational Expressions
P ·R P P P ·R
= and = where R 6= 0
Q·R Q Q Q·R
So, the Fundamental Principle tells us two things. First, it tells us that if we have
the same thing multiplied on top and bottom of a fraction, we are allowed to cancel
it out. The second thing it tells us is that we can multiply top and bottom of a
fraction by any non-zero thing that we want.
To Reduce a Rational Expression to Lowest Terms
Factor the numerator and denominator completely.
By Gebre Hiluf
ADU
Use the Fundamental Principle to cancel out

Even though this seems very simple, we need to be very careful. We can ONLY
cancel when a factor is multiplied on both the top and bottom. No other operation
allows for canceling.
Definition 3.20
We say a rational expression is in simplified form when its numerator and
denominator have no common factors (other than ±1).
By Gebre Hiluf
ADU

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College of Natural and Computational Sciences

Teaching Material of the Course

1 Logic and Set Theory 1

2 Real and Complex Number system 19

2.2 Complex Number System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Logic and Set Theory

- a well-defined proof theory.

æ The semantics of a logic associate each formula with meaning.

æ The proof theory is concerned with manipulating formulae according certain

1.1 Definition and Examples of Proposition

(b). 2 + 2 = 3. is a statement. An easy way to tell is to read it and see if it?s

(c). ”Is Ethiopia in Africa?” is not a statement ? it?s a question.

(d). ”Give me a cafe mocha!” is not a statement - it?s an imperative sentence,

(f). ”Calvin Butterball is a math major.” is a statement. You?d need to know

A proposition is a sentence that may be asserted or denied. Proposition in this way

to stand for propositions.

1.2 Logical Connectives

Example: Let p: Aksum is the capital city of Tigray.

and will be true if both p and q are true, otherwise false.

Example: 1. Consider p: ”Daniel is dancing” and q: ”Jemila is singing”.

We can summarize the operation of conjunction( ∧ ) in a truth table.

Example: Consider p: ”Daniel is dancing” and q: ”Jemila is singing”.

In the implication p ⇒ q, the proposition p is called hypothesis or antecedent and

”If it is not raining, then Ribka is riding her bike.”

We can represent this conditional statement as p ⇒ q where p is the statement,

In p ⇒ q there may not be any connection between p and q

Examples of valid but counterintuitive implications:

Some other common ways of expressing the implication p ⇒ q are:

Sufficient Versus Necessary

From p =⇒ q we can form new conditional statements namely:

1.2.5 Bi-implication / Bi-conditional ( ⇐⇒ )

2. q and q are both false.

• p is sufficient and necessary for q

• True if you do both or neither

• Doing only one or the other makes the proposition false

1.3 Compound(or Complex) Proposition

ä All logical operations can be applied to build up arbitrarily complex com-

Operator Precedence • p ∨ q ∧ r means: p ∨ (q ∧ r)

Translating English sentence to compound Statements

One way to determine equivalence is to use truth tables. To show non-equivalence

From the above truth table we can conclude p ⇒ q ≡ ¬p ∨ q and

From the above truth table we can conclude p ⇒ q 6≡ ¬p ∨ q and

Truth tables with many propositional variables become cumbersome

Idempotent p∨p≡p p∧p≡p

1.4 Tautology and Contradiction

(a) A tautology is a proposition that is always true.

(b) A contradiction is a proposition that is always false.

(c) A contingency is a proposition that is neither a tautoloy nor contra-

and column 8 shows ¬p ∧ (q ⇒ p) is contingency.

1.5 Open Proposition and Quantifiers

1.6 The Concept of a Set and the Underlying Set

1.6.1 Sets and elements

Similar (but informal) words: collection, group, aggregate.

Real and Complex Number system

2.1 The Real Number System

2.1.1 The Natural Numbers, The Principle of Mathematical

2.1.2 The Integers, Rational numbers and Irrational num-

The elements of the set of Integers

Z = {· · · , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, · · · }

consists three types of numbers

• The positive integers {1, 2, 3, · · · }

The ordering on N extends to an ordering of Z

· · · < −3 < −2 < −1 < 0 < 1 < 2 < 3 < · · ·