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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to begin my acknowledgement expressing my deep sense of

gratitude and esteem to my thesis supervisor Prof. Vijoy S. Sahay with whom I
started to know the basics of the study. His wonderful guidance, unwavering
support, inspiration, valuable and helpful suggestions, allowed me to complete this
work. Whenever I needed him, he was always present for discussions despite his
very busy schedule. His clear and physically intuitive way of thinking and teaching
always guided me throughout my study.
I am also highly grateful to Prof. A.R.N. Srivastava and Dr. Shubha Ray for
their valuable suggestions regarding the thesis. I would like to especially thank Dr.
Priya Srivastava and Dr. Alka Srivastava for their helping nature, important
suggestions and cooperation. I am also thankful to Dr. Suruchi Tewari, Dr. Neeraj
Thakur for good advices. I acknowledge Govind Ballabh Pant Social Science
Institute, Allahabad, for inviting me in conferences, advanced training programmes
and providing library facility.
I am highly grateful to my parents who nurtured and shaped me in my early

childhood. The unexpressed moral support and regular encouragement of my father
always helped me in this entire journey. The unconditional love and blessings of my
parent-in-laws, brothers, and all family members has accompanied me throughout
the whole work. During this work, I will never forget the effort of my husband Dr.
M. N. Tripathi, who helped me very much with his outstanding helping nature,
intelligence, and constant support. He always gives me right and fruitful suggestions
in the thesis work. I will also never overlook the love and affection given by my
children Anuradha and Vibhu during the entire work.
Lastly I wish to express my deep sense of gratitude to the Almighty God who
paved the way and provided these stairs to achieve my goal.
Shuchita Tripathi
1
Dedicated to my Parents

Dr. Vinay K. Dwivedi
&
Smt. Usha Dwivedi
2
CONTENT

Chapter Page No.

Acknowledgement 1
Content 3-4
List of photographs and maps 5
List of tables 6-10
Map of Allahabad 11
INTRODUCTION 12-19
CHAPTER 01 20-23
Overview of literature
CHAPTER 02 24-33
History of Allahabad (Special Reference to Urbanization)

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Sacred importance of Allahabad
2.3 Allahabad through the ages
CHAPTER 03 34-43
Migration and Urbanization
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Urbanization
3.2 Migration–contributing factor for urbanization
3
CHAPTER 04 44-55
Demographic profile of Allahabad
4.1 Population of Allahabad

4.2 Demographic spectrum of Allahabad
4.3 Housing and civic amenities
CHAPTER 05 56-140
Analysis of Demographic,
Socio-economic and Cultural data

CHAPTER 06 141-148

Summary and Conclusion
6.1 Summary
6.2 Conclusion
APPENDICES 149-160
BIBLIOGRAPHY

4
List of Photographs and Maps
Page No.
Chapter 02
Photo 2.1: The holy Sangam 16
Map 2.1: Map of Allahabad city 17
Chapter 03
Map3.1: The decadal rural to urban migration in India 32
Chapter 04
Map 4.1: Population density of Allahabad 36
Chapter 05
Photo 5.1: The road of village 59
Photo 5.2: Types of houses in village 60
Photo 5.3: Power supply in Sherdih village 62
Photo 5.4: Drinking water problem in Sherdih village 63
Photo 5.5: Urbanization impact on the means of 64
cooking in Sherdih village
Photo 5.6: Touring talkies in Sahason town 65
Photo 5.7: Agricultural land in Medua village 66
Photo 5.8: Wheat grain stock in a house of Sherdih illage 68
Photo 5.9: Local market at Sahasoan near Medua vilage 69
Photo 5.10: Boring for Irrigation 71
Photo 5.11: Members of a family in Sherdih village 75
Photo 5.12: Junior high school in Sherdih village 84
Photo 5.13: Girl giving food to her cattle 94
Photo 5.14: Urban facilities in a village 107
Photo 5.15: Worship place in Medua village 124
5

List of Tables
Page No.
Chapter 03
Table 3.1: Components of urban growth 29
Chapter 04
Table 4.1(a): Urban-rural population distribution in Uttar Pradesh 37
Table 4.1(b): Urban-rural population distribution in Allahabad 37
Table 4.2: Percentage of decadal population growth 38
Table 4.3: Sex ratio 38
Table 4.4: Age group distribution 39
Table 4.5: Work participation rate based on religion 40
Table 4.6: Literacy rate 41
Table 4.7: Literacy rate based on religion 42
Table 4.8: SC/ST distribution of population 42
Table 4.9: Size of households 43
Table 4.10: Type of census houses 44
Chapter 05
Table 5.1(a): Percentage Distribution of Age of the Respondents 47
Table 5.1(b): Percentage Distribution of Age of the Respondents 48
Table 5.1(c): Caste wise frequency distribution 48
Table 5.1(d): Occupation based frequency distribution 49
Table 5.2(a): Duration of residence 50
Table 5.2(b): Types of houses 51
Table 5.3(a): Place of origin 53
Table 5.3(b): Distances of place of origin 54
6
Table 5.3(c): Direction of place of origin 55
Table 5.3(d): Frequency for visit to village 56
Table 5.3(e): Means of village travel 57
Table 5.3(f): Attractions of villages 57
Table 5.3(g): Reasons to dislike village 58
Table 5.3(h): Roads of village 59
Table 5.3(i): Type of houses 61
Table 5.3(j): Facilities of power supply 61
Table 5.3(k): Sources of drinking water in village 63
Table 5.3(m): Sources of entertainment 65
Table 5.4(a): Land for agriculture 66
Table 5.4(b): Land size for agriculture 67
Table 5.4(c): Crops grown at own field 67
Table 5.4(d): Crops buying from market 68
Table 5.4 (e): Vegetables buying from market 69
Table 5.4(f) 1: Type of agricultural practices used 70
Table 5.4(f) 2:Type of fertilizers used 70
Table 5.4(g): Means of irrigation 71
Table 5.4(h): Means of cropping 72
Table 5.4(i) 1: Number of bullocks 73
Table 5.4(i) 2: Number of tractors 73
Table 5.5(a): Type of family 74
Table 5.5(b): Size of family 76
Table 5.5(c): Number of children 76
Table 5.5(d): Live along with 77
Table 5.5(e): Services of both husband and wife 77
Table 5.6(a): Marrying age of girl 78
Table 5.6(b): Type of marriage 79
Table 5.6(c): Place of marriage 80
Table 5.6(d): Marriage rites 80
7
Table 5.6(e): City marriage 81
Table 5.6(f): Arrangement of marriage 81
Table 5.7(a): Educational qualification 82
Table 5.7(b): Literacy level offamily 83
Table 5.7(c): Similar education 84
Table 5.7(d) (i)): Medium of study 85
Table 5.7(d) (ii)):Type of study 85
Table 5.7(d)(iii)): Means to goto school 86
Table 5.7(d)(iv): Places to play 86
Table 5.8(a): Daily food 87
Table 5.8(b): Type of food 87
Table5.8(c): Place of taking meal 88
Table 5.8(d): Number of meals in a day 88
Table 5.8(e): Sitting object 89
Table 5.8(f): Dinner/Lunch 89
Table 5.8(g): Hotel visit 90
Table 5.8(h):Daily intake of tea 90
Table 5.8(I (i)): Juice/Fruits 91
Table 5.8(I(ii): Fruits/Milk 91
Table 5.8(I(iii)):Chocolate/Ice-cream 92
Table 5.8(j): Colddrink/Juice 92
Table 5.8(k): Use of milk 93
Table 5.8(l): Preference for buying milk 93
Table 5.8(m): Daily milk consumption 94
Table 5.8(n): Food during watching TV 95
Table 5.8(o): Drug addiction 95
Table 5.9: Money expenditure 96
Table5.10 (a):Helping household work 97
Table 5.10(b): Servants 97
Table 5.10(c): Cloth washes 98
8
Table 5.10(d):Ironing dress 98
Table 5.11(a): Reasons to wear clothes 99
Table 5.11(b): Dress preference by men 100
Table 5.11(c): Dress preferences by women 100
Table 5.11(d): Number of dresses buyed in a year 101
Table 5.11(e): Occasions to buy dresses 101
Table 5.11(f(i)): Child demand for dress 102
Table 5.11(f(ii)): Child wear dress 102
Table 5.11(g): Sandal type 103
Table 5.11(h): Repairing footwear 103
Table 5.12(a): Newspaper reading 104
Table 5.12(b): Watch 104
Table 5.12(c): Types of telephone 105
Table 5.12(d): Types of televisions 106
Table 5.12(e): Number of TV sets 106
Table 5.12(f): Having noTV 107
Table 5.12(g): Cable connection 108
Table 5.12(h): Watching hours 108
Table 5.12(i): Favorite TV programs 109
Table 5.12(j): Restrictions on watching TV 110
Table 5.12(k): Watching film 110
Table 5.12(l):Visit to cinema hall 111
Table 5.12(m): Variety of films 111
Table 5.12(n): Computer 112
Table 5.12(o): Use of computer 112
Table 5.12(p): Internet facility 113
Table 5.12(q): Summer tours 113
Table 5.13(a): Place of treatment 114
Table 5.13(b):Types of treatment 115
Table 5.13(c(i)):Teeth care 115
9
Table 5.13(c(ii)):Teeth cleaning 116
Table 5.13(c(iii): Oil on hair 116
Table 5.13(c(iv)): Body massage 117
Table 5.13(c)(v): Body soap 117
Table 5.13(c)(vi: Washing hair 118
Table 5.13(c)(vii): Baby care 119
Table 5.13(c)(vii): Teethcare 119
Table5.13(c)(ix) Fitness 120
Table 5.14(a): Women ornaments 121
Table 5.14(b): Sindoor, Bangles, Payal/Bichhiya 121
Table5.14(c): Parlour visit 122
Table 5.15(a): Sanskar 123
Table 5.15(b):Worship of God 123
Table 5.15(c): Worship place 124
Table 5.15(d): Mandir visit 125
Table 5.15(e): Touching grand’s feet 125
Table 5.15(f):Guest visit 126
Table 5.15(g): Janaeu wear 126
Table 5.15(h): Wearing footwear during food or bath 127
10
Map of Allahabad District
(Source: Internet)
11
INTRODUCTION
1. Introduction
2. Statement of Problem
3. Importance of the topic
4. Aims and Objectives
5. Hypothesis
6. Selection of the field area
7. Methodology of Data Collection and limitations
8. Organization of data
12
1. Introduction
In social and cultural anthropology, the most important field of study is the
study of small-scale primitive societies. Up to mid-1930’s socio-cultural
anthropologists tended to view themselves as people who study “primitive peoples
and cultures. In the middle of 1930’s two committees of American Anthropological
Association faced up some of the problems to study. Influential symposia that came
out of these committees permanently changed the old vision. The logical extension of
this new charter opened the door for anthropologists to investigate industrial societies
and so called ‘Modern cultures’. Redfield was the prominent participant of these
committees. Redfield’s Folk–Urban Continuum was one of the first attempts to
justify the new anthropological charter for peasant studies.
However, during 1960’s and 70’s, many Indian anthropologists started the
study of rural and urban communities to understand Indian Civilization. Credit of
beginning this new anthropological approach goes to Chicago School of
Anthropology. The eminent anthropologists of Chicago school of Anthropology were
Robert Redfield, Milton Singer and McKim Marriot. Redfield’s concept of Folk–
Urban Continuum, Little and Great traditions and their studies broadens the scope of
Anthropological Studies of civilization.
In 1926 Robert Redfield, a young American anthropologist, first studied the
village of Tepoztlan and gave us his pioneer work, ‘Tepoztlan-a Mexican Village’.
This book has since become a standard reference and a classic in the field of
community studies. It contains Redfield’s first statement on the nature of folk society.
Folk society is small, isolated, non-literate and homogenous with a strong sense of
group solidarity. Sacred prevails over secular and the economy is one of status, rather
than of market.
In 1930, Redfield along with his associate, Alfousa Villa Rojas, conducted a
study of Peasant village ‘Chankom’, which was published in 1934. He opined that a
peasant society is characterized by excessive love for land. According to Redfield,
Peasant society is, in between the two societies Folk and Urban. It possesses some
13
cultural traits of urban and some traits of folk society. In 1941, He gave the famous
concept of Folk-Urban Continuum in his book ‘Folk Culture of Yukatan’. In this
book, he made comparative study of four communities, namely, Marida (a city
society), Diztas (a town society), Chankom (a peasant society), and Tuski (a folk
society). According to him, Folk-Urban Continuum is a polar-ideal type of
construction. It is a conceptual model, not a descriptive model. It implied that there is
no real society that totally fits folk society model and no real society that totally fits
urban society model.
Any real society falls near one or the other of the two, and of the same poles or
in between. He repeatedly said that apparent dichotomy is the same kind of
distinction others made with such ideas as Gemeinschaft as opposed to Gesellschaft,
Mechanical versus Organic Solidarity etc. According to Redfield, in Folk-Urban
Continuum, Folk society comes in contact with urban society and inherits certain
characteristics of urban, thus it looses its own Folk characteristics. Contact results in
change and disorganization of chief traits of folk-society. It brings heterogeneity,
individualization and secularization. It is not only true with folk-urban societies but
also contact among any two dissimilar societies results in change. Redfield has used
this concept as a device to explain the changes in society and the interaction between
the two polar ends, folk and urban.
Singer's study of Madras, Marriot’s of Wai town near Poona, Martin Oran’s of
Jamshedpur is the Studies of Cultural role of cities. These studies attracted Indian
Anthropologist, because of which, many Indian Anthropologist started doing urban
studies. The study of Calcutta by Bose (1958), of Kanpur by Majumdar (1961), of
Lucknow by Mukherjee and Singh and of Gaya and Ranchi by Vidyarthi (1961,
1969), can be taken in this regard.
In India, the concept of Folk- Urban Continuum assumed a new form and took
the name of Tribe-Caste Continuum. Ghurye's book ‘The scheduled Tribe (1959)’
B.K. Roy Bermon's ‘Tribe Demography’, Majumdar's study of ‘Khasa’, S.K.
Srivastava's study of ‘Tharus of Cis-Himalayan region’, and Sacchidanand's paper on
‘Tribe-Caste Continuum : A study of Gond in Bihar’ can betaken in this regard. Most
14
significant work was done by Surjit Sinha among Bhumij in his paper, ‘State
formation and Rajput myth in Tribal central India’. In his study of Bhumij, he gave
the concept of Tribal-Rajput continuum.
Indian anthropologist took less attention about Folk- Urban continuum. Only a
few anthropologists like G.S. Ghurye and L.P. Vidyarthi can be taken in this context.
Ghurye's book ‘After a Century and a Quarter (1960)’ is based on his study of
village Haweli Taluka in which, he attempted to test the concept of Folk-Urban
continuum. Vidyathi in his book ‘Sacred Complex in Hindu Gaya’ viewed Gaya as
traditionally emerged urban center. In his paper ‘Historical factors of Urbanization
in Ranchi (1964)’ and the book ‘Cultural configurations of Ranchi (1969)’, he
attempted to highlight Ranchi as a city as a link between folk and urban cultures. In
this way, we can say that the concept of Folk- Urban Continuum is not much studied
in India. Therefore, it is a very high time to reexamine or reconsider this concept in
present Indian context. In the present age of Heavy Industrialization and
Urbanization, a folk society when comes in contact with urban, there occurs various
changes in their cultural values and life style. To examine all these changes in their
socio-economic and cultural life, it becomes an important task to study the relevance
of this concept in present context.
2. Statement of Problem
The present study would attempt to examine whether the concept of Folk-
Urban Continuum developed by Robert Redfield during the mid 20th century in the
study of a Mexican villages holds true in case of an Indian context?
3. Importance of the topic
In modern days of large technological development, cities grew more rapidly

with all shorts of civic and basic amenities of life. Attracted by better life condition in
city, village dwellers move towards cities that lead to urbanization. Contact between
15
two societies leads to changes in their life style and behavior. These changes are
brought in both a folk or a rural society and an urban or a city society. Some folk
characters are adopted by urban society and some urban characters are adopted by
rural society, this leads to some time dissolution of their original characteristics.
People of metropolitan cities are very busy in their daily work schedule. Every one is
busy and doing hard work for their progress. They have less time for their family.
Modern younger generation is totally detached from their villages and their people.
They have forgotten their traditional values and sanskars. Therefore, it is a high time
to study folk-urban continuum for exploring broad socio-cultural changes in these
societies.
4. Aims and Objectives
The main aim and objectives in this work are to examine the following:
i. What are the folk and urban characteristics?
ii. What are the various folk characteristics, which urban population is
maintaining?
iii. What are the various urban characteristics, which rural are maintaining?
iv. Which generation is most affected young or old age people?
v. What are the folk's own cultural traditions and values? Is there any loss in their
cultural values?
vi. What are factors or conditions responsible for continuum?
vii. Up to which account their marital and social status is affected?
5. Hypothesis
I. Inspite of large-scale industrialization, urbanization, westernization, and

Modernization, the Folk- Urban Continuum is still very apparently discernible
in the life style of Indian cities and villages.
16
II. The underlying factors for Folk-Urban continuum in Indian life and culture can
be attributed to age old cultural traditions of ancient India.
6. Selection of the Field area
I have selected Allahabad city for my field work. Allahabad has become a
metropolitan city with large population. Earlier it was only known as a great sacred
centre but now it emerges as main centre of education and services. Large number of
people from surrounding villages and neighboring districts came here for education,
business and services. Some new residential localities were developed mostly by
these migrants. Allahapur is one of the best examples of such kind of new colony
established around 35 years ago and therefore I have selected Allahpur and its
surrounding localities also like Alopibagh, Sohbatibagh. I have also made a study of
two neighboring villages of Phulpur tehsil in Allahabad district i.e. Sherdih and
Medua for observing the urban impact on these villages. Village Sherdih, known at
present as Patelnagar, is situated at a distance of 7 km. and another village Medua is
situated at a distance of 17 km. from Allahabad. The population of Sherdih and
Medua are 1500 and 4500 respectively. Agriculture and cattle rearing are the main
occupation of these villages. In this study, three new urban localities and two villages
are universe of my study.
7. Methodology of Data Collection and limitations
The substantial data for this study is collected from a sample population from
Allahpur and nearby urban localities whereas another type of sample is collected
from neighboring villages of Allahabad. In data collection the random sampling
method is used, for this purpose I have selected sample size of two hundred. In my
work, no statistical reasoning is used and I have taken this sample size as this suited
to my time and work. For gathering intensive data, I have prepared detailed
questionnaire containing 126 questions related to demographic profile, family and
marital status, food and dress sense, health awareness, civic amenities, religion and
17
sanskars etc. In spite of questionnaire method, I have also applied observation and
interview techniques for data collection and I extensively used photography during
my field work for supporting the data.
8. Organization of data
Equipped with the above mentioned objectives and the methodologies, the
analyzed data has been organized as follows: The main body of the thesis is divided
in six chapters. Thesis begins with introduction which comprises importance of the
topic, statement of problem, aims and objectives, hypothesis, methodology and the
description of the field.
Chapter One is overview of literature; in this chapter an elaborate account of various

studies that have been done on the folk-urban continuum in India and abroad is
presented.
Chapter Two presents history of Allahabad with special reference to urbanization.
An attempt has been made to find out how small and sacred city of Allahabad
(Prayag) transformed into a highly urbanized metropolitan city.
Chapter Three is migration and urbanization, in which migration is described as
causative factor of urbanization. Migration of unskilled farmers towards cities leads
to various cultural changes in life of rural and urban environment.
Chapter Four is demographic profile of Allahabad. Data related to various factors of
population i.e. population size, population density, sexratio etc.
are described.
Chapter Five is related to analysis of demographic, socio-economic and cultural
data. Each and every variable related to topic is arranged in tabular form and
analyzed. Data related to demographic characters, village profile, family and
marriage, food habits, dress sense, health care, entertainment etc. are analyzed to
furnish a satisfactory conclusion.
Chapter Six is summary and conclusion. Summary of the whole thesis and sound
conclusion is done with some major findings.
18
Bibliography is given after the main text of the thesis. Appendices include
questionaire used for field survey. List of photographs and maps, list of tables, map
of Allahabad and satellite image of Allahpur are listed at the beginning of thesis.
Photographs related to field work are given in the thesis.
19
CHAPTER 01
OVERVIEW
OF
LITERATURE
Up to mid-1930, in the arena of social and cultural anthropology,

anthropologist study only small scale societies and primitive peoples and their
cultures. It was Robert Redfield who first started the study of peasant and urban
cultures. Redfield’s Folk–urban continuum was one of the first attempts to justify the
new anthropological charter for peasant studies. Redfield has used this concept as a
device to explain the changes in society and the interaction between the two polar
20
ends, folk and urban. Redfield’s concept of Folk–urban continuum, little and great
traditions and their studies broadens the scope of anthropological studies of
civilization.
Influenced by this new approach, many Indian and American anthropologists
started the study of rural and urban communities to understand Indian civilization.
Singer's study of Madras, Marriot’s of Wai town near Poona, Martin Oran’s of
Jamshedpur is the studies of cultural role of cities. Indian anthropologist took less
attention about Folk-urban continuum. Only a few anthropologists like G.S. Ghurye
and L.P. Vidyarthi can be taken in this context. Ghurye's book ‘After a Century and
a Quarter (1960)’ is based on his study of village Haweli taluka in which, he
attempted to test the concept of Folk-urban continuum. Vidyathi in his book ‘Sacred
Complex in Hindu Gaya’ viewed Gaya as traditionally emerged urban center. In his
paper ‘Historical factorsof Urbanization in Ranchi (1964)’ and the book ‘Cultural
configurations of Ranchi (1969)’, he attempted to highlight Ranchi as a city as a link
between folk and urban cultures. Viewing Ranchi both in historical and contemporary
settings, it has appeared to Vidyarthi that Ranchi tends to conform both “orthogenetic
and heterogenetic city”.
The Duncan (1951) accepted size as a objective criteria for the classification of
the communities. Three types of settlements are distinguished by the census
authorities in India based on size and density of population, for example; city, town
and village. A settlement with a population of 100,000 or more is called a city
whereas a town should have a population of 5,000 or more, while the villages are
settlements with less than 5,000 populations. Other important objective criteria for
the classification of the communities could have been the administrative factor. In
India, the states are divided into administrative units called districts that are further
divide into talukas or tehsils. The other dimension of the administrative factor is
manifested in the type of local self-government in a community. In India, three broad
types of local government exits, the city has a corporation, municipalities in towns
and panchayat in villages (T. K. Oommen, 1967). Desai (1964a) pointed out that a
small town might have migrants of different duration of stay, different pattern of
21
house ownership, frequent residential changes and marked differences in
occupational structure, the bulk of population being dependent on non-agricultural
occupations. Yuan (1964) has suggested that both community size and administrative
type should be considered for grouping communities into rural or urban. Louis Wirth
(1938) has emphasized that a sociologically meaningful definition of a city takes
cognizance of those elements of urbanism that made it a distinctive mode of
community life.
Davis and Golden (1954) pointed out size and density of population will not
automatically produce urbanism. The merge of urbanism is not uncontaminated by
the folk influence and that the urban universe is not an altogether separate moral
order. The process of urbanization, industrialization and bureaucratization according
to Stein (1960) has increased the interdependence between the rural and urban system
and decreased local autonomy. Dewey (1960), Benet (1963) and Hauser (1965)
criticized the rural-urban continuum by pointing out that it is relatively unimportant
and dismissed it as western ethnocentrism.
Marriott (1954) maintains that particularize is likely to be lasting feature of
Indian cities. Bopegamage (1957) reports that neighborhood relations in metropolitan
Delhi are similar to those in rural India. Desai (1964b) stated that urbanization is no
found to be changing the institution of joint family. Foster (1953) tries to differentiate
between folk culture and folk society as not 'whole society' or an 'isolate' but a 'half-
society', a part of a large society unit. A folk culture may be thought of as a common
way of life which characterizes some or all of the people many villages, towns and
cities within a given area. Redfield (1956) has accepted the necessity of the
distinguishing different levels of societal structure-tribal, peasant and urban in India
where tribal, peasant and urban in India where tribal life still persist. The village
community studies conducted in India continuously emphasized that Hindu peasant
villages are microcosms within a macrocosm.
Marriott (1955) sees the Indian villages as little communities within a greater
field, as sub-systems of a wider social system. Beas (1938) reported that basis of
advanced culture is agriculture thereby indicating the dependence of urban culture on
22
peasant communities. Odum (1947) stated that the folk quality invariably co-exist
with cultures of the cities. T.K. Oommen (1967) viewed folk society and while
recognizing the possibility of existence of certain elements of folk culture in urban
and primitive societies. The developmental projects and welfare programmes are
designed to change the peasant communities in rural areas of the country by
increasing introduction of industry and progressive mechanization of agriculture. The
importance of land might gradually decrease. Similarly, the tribal communities are
no longer physically, politically and economically isolated from neighboring folk and
urban societies, this means that in the modern world one can speak of isolation only
in a mental and social sense. The pre-literate characteristics of the tribes are also
disappearing as education is being introduced among them. The above noted changes
are brought about through expansion in transportation and communications and the
extension of unknown social welfare measures to the peasants and tribes.
In his book ‘Urbanising poor’, a sociological study of low-income migrants in
the metropolitan city of Delhi , T. K. Majumdar tries to examine how in face of an
economically difficult environment, the low-income migrants uses the social and
cultural resources available to them and adopt a particular pattern of coping with
urban life. Farida Shah in ‘Rural-Urban migration and economic development’ make
a study of evolution of Rural-urban migration stream with the economic development
in the three districts of Udaipur, Bhilwara and Banswara and also to study the impact
of this migratory stream on the economic development of these districts.
Dr.V.K.Tyagi in his book ‘Urban Growth and Urban Villages’ a case study of Delhi,
has made an attempt to find out the recent trends in urban expansion and the results
of rapid urbanization. Today, many anthropologists are doing rural and urban studies
to study the trends of urbanization and its future consequences.
23
CHAPTER 02

HISTORY
OF
ALLAHABAD
(SPECIAL REFERENCE TO URBANIZATION)
2.1 Introduction
24
2.1 Introduction
Urbanization is very complex phenomenon characterized by a phenomenal

growth of large cities. Harappa and Mohanjodaro are the earliest urban centers of
India. History of urbanization begins with history of civilization. Tirthraj prayag is
known as cradle of civilization as various civilizations were established near the bank
of rivers and Allahabad is situated at the famous confluence of holy Ganga, Yamuna
and Saraswati. Allahabad has very old history of urbanization. Tracing the historical
records of Allahabad, it is found that Allahabad is one of the oldest urban centres of
India. Allahabad encountered various stages of urbanization through out its whole
journey of history and still it is passing through the process of urbanization at present.
In census report 2001, Allahabad is mega city and shortly it will be a Metropolitan
city.

It is said that at the very sight of that place or by reciting its name or even by
smearing the clay of the place on the body, a man becomes free from the sins. The
Puranas proclaim that it is the sacred space of ‘Prajapati’. All these suggest the
magico-mystical power of the Prayaga. Like the water of Triveni its culture is also
wonderful. Confluence at Prayaga is the visible symbol of Madhyadesha as depicted
in ‘Varaha cave’ at Udaigiri around C.E.400. Prayaga as a ‘tirth’ is so much
important that some other tirthas were named after it, for example-Deva Prayaga,
Karna Prayaga, Rudra Prayaga, Nanda Prayaga and Vishnu Prayaga. The greatness of
Prayaga is mentioned in the Epics, the Puranas and is attested by epigraphic records.
The Ramayana alludes more definitely to the district. During their self-emposed
exile, Rama, Sita and Lakshaman were welcomed at Singraur by Guha (king of bhils)
and thence they crossed the Ganges by boats, after visiting the famous temple of
Prayaga and Akshaivat. These allusions prove that Prayaga has been recognized as a
holy spot at a very early period. Puranas say that Prayaga or ancient Pratisthan was
25
the original seat of kings of lunar race. According to a verse in ‘Asvalayana
Parishishta’, man in hope of getting salvation used to put an end to their lives at the
sacred confluence. This fact is corroborated by references in Mahabharat, Satpath
Brahmanas and Padma Purana. Brahma is said to have performed the ‘Aswamedha’
and it became a land of great sacrifices and became celebrated as Tirathraj or chiefest
place of pilgrimage. The grace of Prayag is narrated in many Puranas. The Padma
Purana declares, “as the sun is amidst the planets and the moon is amidst the
asterisms, so is prayaga the foremost sacred place in the galaxy of tirthas”. The
Matsya Purana states “as Brahma is worshipped in all the beings, so Prayaga is
adored by the learned in all the worlds. Skanda Purana states that Prayaga is that
great sacred place which fulfils all the desires of the devotees and bestows heaven
and salvation upon them. In the Buddist and Jaina texts, the place is mentioned as
Payaga, Payata. Chinese traveller Hsuan-tsang records it as po-lo-ya-ka.
Nizammuddin ahmad in his ‘Tabakat-I-Akbari’ says that “His majesty
commanded a city and a fort to be built at Payaga (Prayaga) at the confluence of
Ganges and Jamuna, to which the name of Ilahabas was given”. Abul fajal also states
that Ilahabad was distinguished by the emperor by the former name. Many other
records also gave similar evidence. It is also written on the coins minted there by him
and his successors. In epic-puranic times this sacred place is also famous as Ilavasa
after the celebrated king Ila, the founder of Pratisthana. Akbar revived this hindu
name of antiquity by giving it an Islamic colour. Illa is the Sanskrit name of god in
‘Rigveda’. Thus Ilavas in Sanskrit would mean a dwelling place or an ‘abode of
God’. The name ‘Ilahabas’ became Allahabad in the time of emperor Shahjahan. It
has been suggested that the place came to be Allahabad after ‘Alha’ one of the
celebrated banafar twin brothers of the hindu story. Prayaga has remained the great
centre of hindu culture and civilization, and has been the confluence of many ideas
and cultures.
One of the most sacred and biggest fares called ‘Kumbh mela’ at every twelth
year and ‘Magh mela’ regularly every year in the month of ‘Magh’ is organized in
Prayag. Large number of devotees from different parts of India and abroad come at
26
Prayag to take a holy dip at famous ‘Sangam’. This is the soul of sacred culture of
Allahabad.
Photo 2.1: The holy Sangam
Map 2.1: Map of Allahabad city

27
It takes a long time for Allahabad to develop from ancient Prayag to modern
Allahabad. To study this long journey, we classified the history in three periods-
Ancient, Medival and Modern. Allahabad is a much known historical place. Its
history is known from Vedic-Puranic times. There are some evidences or records that
give the clear picture of old Allahabad. The oldest flourishing towns of Allahabad are
– Kaushambi, Singaraur, Jhunsi, Kare-manikpur, Bhita, Arail etc. Kausambi–
Kausambi was one of the great cities of ancient India. In 1600 B.C.There was a
kingdom called ‘Vatsa’, its capital was Kausambi, the remains of which still lie 40
miles south-west of Allahabad. It was the capital of Hindu reigning dynasties.
Kausambi was founded by a descendant of great pandavas, after the destruction of
Hastinapur. It was in the forests of ‘Kosamnagri’ that the pandavas spent twelve
years of their exile. Kausambi is now reduced to an insignificant village Kosam. The
similarity of name with the famous Kausambi of the Ramayana and Mahabharata
induced ‘General Cunningham’ to identify Kosam in pargana ‘Karari’. Cunningham
discovered a large number of Buddhist coins, sculptures and other remains, but the
chief object of interest was a large, though unfortunately damaged, stone pillar of a
design very similar to that of Allahabad. He also found numerous traces of Buddhist
workmanship in the adjoining villages.
Kausambi was one of the principal seats of Buddhism in India. The Buddha
has honored this wealthy city with his three visits. He had preached at Prayag and
Kausambi (in 6th century B.C.) three centuries before Asoka. Kausambi was made
headquarters of one of the provincial governers of Asoka, under whose instruction
two monolithic pillars were erected at Kausambi, one of which later shifted to
Allahabad. The Asoka pillar was first raised at Kausambi. Kausambi is used to be the
temporary capital of Asoka. This is the oldest object in the district to which any
historical certainty attaches. The pillar is a single shaft of polished sandstone 35 ft in
length the diameter decreasing from 2 ft 11inches to 2 ft 2 inches. On the pillar are
inscribed the 6 edicts of Asoka, with an opening address to the rulers of Kausambi.
28
Besides this the pillar bears a long inscription by Samudra Gupta, one by Jahangir,
and a mass of scribbling done by pilgrims at various dates.
It seems that some time after the reign of Asoka, the pillar was thrown down; it
was reerected by Samudra Gupta. Jahangir placed it in the middle of fort where it
remained till it was pulled down by General Kyd in 1798, and it was finally be set up
in its present position in 1838. One of the inscription records the name of Raja Birbal,
who came in Allahabad in 1575 to take part in the magh mela. How it came there if
not lying there has not been ascertained. Though not religiously visited by the
pilgrims, the Asoka pillar standing inside the fort is an object of interest to
archaeologists. It is supposed to have been erected and set up at Kausambi.
Asoka, the great devotee of Buddha had visited Prayaga in the 3rd century B.C.
and raised stupas and held assemblies of learned men, for spreading the religion to
which he had been converted. Prayaga’s as a tirtha must have been great to have
deserved a visit and stay of these historical personages. The district seems to have to
have formed the part of Kosala kingdom in the days of Gautama Buddha who spent
6th and 9th years of his ministry at Kosala kingdom. The remains and antiquities of
Mauryans have been noticed at Bhita, another important site in the district. After
Mauryans Sungas ruled over Vatsa or Allahabad region. After them Kushan came in
power. A seal of Kaniska and an unique image inscription was found at Kausambi.
The Prayaga Mahatmya defines Prayag proper as lying between the Akshaya-
Vata on its west site, the Pratisthanpuri on the east side and the Alarkapuri in the
south. The triangular ground is the holy of holies. Pratisthanpuri is at present known
as ‘Jhunsi’ situated along side the Ganga opposite the Allahabad fort, Akbar’s bund
and Daragunj and the Alarka is the modern Arail, the village on the south side of the
Yamuna and Ganga, opposite to fort. Pratisthan was the capital of the kings of the
lunar race. King Pururva resided there. He was the ancestor of the heroes of the
Mahabharata. The great poet Kalidas lays the scene of his play ‘Vikramoravasi’ in
Pratisthanpuri. There is a curious legend about the name of Jhunsi. A Hindu king
named Harbong was imbecile and foolish. There was neither justice nor law in his
29
kingdom. There was a famous proverb for him ‘Andher nagari chaupat raja, taka ser
bhaji takea ser khaja’. In Jain text, Rishabhadev was considered to be the first who
came to Allahabad in Jhunsi, and after his name ‘Rishbhadev Tapshthali’ is situated
in Jhunsi. In the ancient period, monastries and stupas were built during the Buddha
period and Ashoka laid to the growth of Prayag to some extent.
Gupta period objects have also been found at Kausambi, Bhita,and Jhunsi.
Both Fahiaan and Hsuan Tsiang visited Allahabad in the 5th and 7th century A.D.
respectively. Nothing is known of the history of the district from the days of Asoka to
the time of Guptas. By 326 A.D., when Samudra Gupta ascended the throne of
Magadha, this district seems once more to have been included in the Eastern
Kingdom. Harshwardhan invited Hiuen Tsiang in 644 to accompany him to Prayag.
In 1027 king Trilochanpal was residing at Allahabad shows that Parihar power
already reduced by Mahmood Of Ghazni in 1019 had been further shaken by the
Chandels of Kalinjar. The successor of Trilochanpal was yashpal who apparently
remained at Allahabad is mentioned in the Kara inscription in 1036. About 1090
Parihar power wholly vanished and then the Rajputs maintained their hold on
Allahabad during 7-12 century till the invasion of Qutubuddin Aibak.
‘Kara' appears to have become the capital of a province and it retained the
position till the foundation of Allahabad more than3 centuries later. In 1258, Kara
was usually combined with Manikpur. For over two hundred years Kara was ruled
between Sultans of Jaunpur and Lodhi kings. In 1540, Shershah became the ruler of
all Hindustan. It was probably at this time that the old grand trunk road from Agra to
Kara and then eastwards to Allahabad and Jaunpur was laid out and many of the old
sarais were built along its course. Many of the fiscal and administrative reforms
which were afterwards were due to the sagacity and energy of Shershah Suri. In 1562
Akbar arrived at Kara, where he was met by the governor of Jaunpur. In 1566 Akbar
pounced upon two rebels and one battle at Kara. Badaoni states that in 1575 Akbar
again visited Prayag and laid the foundations of an imperial city ,which he called
“Ilahabas”.the new city soon became a favourite place of pilgrimage under Akbar’s
rule and in 1584, “Akbar commanded a city and a fort to be built at Prayaga” under
30
the name of “Ilahabas”. Jahangir succeded in gaining the throne by good fortune, and
it was sometime before Khusru was defeated and captured. He was sent to custody to
Allahabad where he died in 1622, the general belief being that he was murdered at his
father’s command. During the reign of Jahangir the political importance of Allahabad
declined. When in 1657 Shahjahan became too feeble for the affairs of state,
Allahabad again became the scene of civil strife. After the death of Aurangzeb in
1707 Allahabad was held by Abdullah khan and after him several faujdars were
appointed one after another by the feeble Mugal emperors. Relics of Maratha
influence still exist in the temple of Ahalya Bai and Bhonsla’s Bada in Daraganj and
Baija Bai’s temple in Kothaparcha.
The city of Allahabad is wholly medieval and modern and is known well from
the times of mughal emperor Akbar. Some of the great emperors of Mughal dynasty
latter built roads, sarai, markets and improved trades facilities which added to
thegrowth and importance of the cities. New settlements like Khuldabad was
established by Jahangir, Daraganj by Darashikoh, Katra by Aurangjeb, Rajapur by
Akbar. Rajapur was developed as a commercial market of stone and cotton. Phulpur
was founded by Phul, one of the Sheikh of mughal period. Akbar’s reign was marked
for peaceful administration and economic progress. In Aini-akbari, It is evident that
commerce, trade, handicrafts, cotton cloths wearing, iron making, perfumes and
jewellaries were in flourishing state. In the later periods of Mughal dynasty and
during the period of Oudh rulers, Nawabs and Marathas nothing important happened
from the view point of growth of town.
On the 14th of November 1801 Nawab of Oudh handed over Allahabad to East
India Company. After that Allahabad at once became an important military station
and the headquarters of a civil district .In 1834,Allahabad became the seat of
government for the North –Western provinces and a High court was established but a
year later both were removed to Agra. Nothing further of importance occurred till the
great rebellion of 1857. When the tidings of the Merut outbreak reached Allahabad
on the 12th of May which resulted in collapse of all authority in the city. Describing
the situation of next few days, the author of district gazetteer mentioned names of
31
some places of Allahabad as Daraganj, Muthiganj, Kotwali, Pathan village of
Daryabad and Mewati villages of Sadiabad and Rasulabad, Colonelganj, railway
colony etc. which were affected by rebellions. In January 1858 lord canning formed
the whole of north-western provinces, into a single lieutenant-governorship,
transferring the seat of government from Agra to Allahabad.
In 1867 sir William Muir gave 20 acrs of land to sir Syed Ahmad khan to
construct a kothi in Allahabad. Kothi remained in regular occupation of sir Syed’s
son justice Mahmud while he was a judge of the Allahabad high court. After his
retirement the ‘mahmud manjil’. This was sold to Rai Bahadur Parmanand Pathak of
Muradabad in 1892. The Pathak re-christened the kothi as ‘Pathak Niwas’. The
Pathaks intheir turn sold the kothi to Pandit Moti Lal Nehru in 1898 at a cost of
rs.20,000. Pandit Nehru reconstructed the building adding it entirely new portions to
it and renamed it as ‘Anand Bhawan’
The birth of the Indian National Congress took place in December 1885. Its
first three annual sessions were held in Bombay, Calcutta and Madras respectively.
For the fourth session Allahabad was choosen as its venue. The 8th session was again
held in Allahabad in the year 1892, this time under the presidentship of the father of
the congress, late Shri W.C.Benerji who presided over the first session at Bombay.
The session at Allahabad expressed its great dissatisfaction over the administration of
the police department, the excise department and at the working of public service
commission. Pandit Bishambhar Nath, Pandit Ajodhya Nath, Pandit Madan Mohan
Malviya, Dr.Surendra Nath Sen and to this extent Pandit Moti Lal Nehru were the
budding leaders of the congress at Allahabad. In 1910 after a lapse of 18 yrs the
Indian national congress met again at Allahabad in 25th session, this time under the
presidentship of that English friend of India, Sir William Wedderburn.
Some of the university leaders were Shri Purushottam Das Tandon,Shri
Govind Ballabh Pant,Dr. K.N.Katju,late Baba Shoe Prasad Gupta,and Shri Venktesh
Narain Tewari. Mrs.Annie Besant started Home rule agitation which filled the
country with unprecedented enthusiasm. She paid a visit to Allahabad at the prime of
her glory and addressed a huge meeting under the presidentship of Pandit Moti Lal
32
Nehru. The All-India khilafat conference held a meeting of its general body at
Allahabad and offered its whole-hearted support to Gandhiji. Allahabad soon
became one of the storm centers of non-violent struggle. Out of nearly 52,000
persons arrested all over the country the quota of Alllahabad was 1179. 15th August
1947 saw the liberty of India. The city of Allahabad has contributed remarkably in
the struggle for country’s independence and richly in leadership towards
consolidating that independence.
Studying the history of Alllahabad through different ages, it appeared that
Allahabad tends to cofirm to both orthogenetic and hetrogenetic city. This concept of
orthogenetic and hetrogenetic city is given by Robert Redfield and Singer in their
book ‘The culture role of cities’. From the Ancient days to present, Allahabad retains
its age old tradition and culture and still Allahabad is known as one of the most
religious and sacred centre of India. During the Mughal and colonial rule in
Allahabad, city has encountered the remarkable growth in its size and structure. The
socio-economic status of city had increased. Maximum urbanization of Allahabad
occurs during Britisher’s rule as large number of urban infrastructure like railways,
post-offices, medical facilities, university and colleges, municipal corporation,
bridges, High court etc. were established. This lead to large scale rural urban
migration which results rapid growth to urbanization in Allahabad. In this way the
heterogeneity of the city increased.
33

CHAPTER 03
MIGRATION AND URBANIZATION
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Urbanization
34
3.0 Introduction
Migration and urbanization are interrelated to each other. Migration has

played most important role in the process of growth and in the process of
urbanization. Various studies have been done on migration and urbanization. All
these suggest that migration especially rural-urban migration is one of the important
factors responsible for urbanization. Although the volume of movement from farms
to cities varies from place to place and time to time, the importance of rural-urban
migration in the process of urbanization is well documented and appears to be
universal phenomenon.
3.1 Urbanization
Urbanization is a natural consequence of economic change that takes place as
country develops. Urbanization has been characterized by a phenomenal growth of
large cities rural to urban migration has been the major component of this rapid
growth. With increase in per capita income, demand for non-food goods accelerates
and consequently the demand for non-agricultural activity increases, this heightened
demand for labor stimulates urbanization. Urbanization leads to rise in income,
change in life style and superior quality of services and amenities for increasing
number of population. In developed countries, it has been closely linked with
industrialization and economic development however in India; the growth in urban
population (from 62 million in 1951 to 217 million in 1991) is much higher than
industrial and economic growth in urban areas. Consequently, Urban-rural
dichotomy rises (Tiwari, 1997); Migrations from rural to urban areas are brought
about economic and social changes among the people living in urban and rural areas.
The most direct effect has been encroachment and consumption of rural land by
expanding cities (John Fraser, 1976). The increasing contacts of rural people within
urban area affected the style of life and economy of rural areas as well.
Various scholars have conceptualized the process of urbanization from
different perspectives namely the demographic, functional, social and the like.
According to Hauser (1967), Urbanization is the process of population concentration
35
as well as increase in the size of individual concentration. Anderson (1960) studied
the same phenomena from the social point of view as an external process of adopting
urbanized way of life in acquiring physical expansion, economic and material
benefits and urbanism. Thompson (1959) states that ‘Urbanization’ is characterized
by movement of population from small communities, concerned chiefly with
agriculture to other larger communities whose activities are primarily centered in
Govt. Trade, manufacture or allied interest.
Urbanization is an index of transformation from traditional rural economies to
modern industrial one. It is a long term process; Kingsley Davis has explained
urbanization as a process of switch from spread out patter of human settlements to
one of concentration in urban centers (Davis, 1962). It is a finite process- a cycle
through which a nation pass as they evolve from agrarian to industrial society (Davis
and Golden, 1954). He has mentioned three stages in the process of urbanization.
Stage one is the initial stage characterized by rural traditional society with
predominance in agriculture and dispersed patter of settlements. Stage two refers to
acceleration stage where basic restructuring of the economy and investment in social
overhead capital including transportation, communication takes place. Third stage is
known as terminal stage, in which the level of urbanization remains more or less
constant (Davis, 1965).
Historical evidence suggests that urbanization is inevitable and universal.
Currently developed countries are characterized by high level of urbanization and
some of them are in a final stage of urbanization process (Brockerhoff, 1999;
Brockerhoff and Brennam, 1998). A majority of developing countries on the other
hand started experiencing urbanization only since middle of the twentieth centaury.
In India, Low level of urbanization is found. Number of population residing in urban
areas has increased from 2.58 crores in 1901 to 28.53 crores in 2001. Only 28% of
population was living in the urban areas as per 2001 census. Urbanization in India is
termed as pseudo and over urbanization. The big cities attained inordinately large
population size leading to collapse. In the urban services, and followed by basic
problems in the field of housing, slum, water, infrastructure, quality of life etc.
36
urbanization is a product of demographic explosion and poverty induced rural to
urban migration.
There are two factors responsible for migration-“Push and Pull”. The push
factor can be said to those which cause an immigration of a person from place of
origin; while the pull factors are those which attract the person to a particular place.
One factor is complementary to the other. Economic necessity is usually the most
important single factor which has pushed the migrants from their original place of
living to the cities. Economic necessity, lack of educational facility, civic amenities,
office transfer, and famine are the major push factors. Educational facilities, good
climate, offices are major pull factors. Rao in 1974 observed that rural to urban
migration encouraged diversification of agriculture in village economy.
The process of urbanization is now more rapid and massive and affects the
greater part of the world than ever before. Unprecedented rates of overall population
growth are helping along with the rural urban migration to swell the populations of
individual cities more than ever before. Social economic and political problems of
major significance are being created by huge rural-urban population and the rapid rise
of the megapolises in countries whose main orientation until being the agriculture. In
developed countries of west rural to urban migration and urbanization are associated
with a vertical shift in the labor force from the agricultural sector to the urbanized
industrial sector, whereas in the developing regions like India, migration is from rural
agricultural sector to urban informal sector. Mukherjee pointed out that it is typical
manifestation of under developing poverty and spatial disorganization of economy of
under develop sectors of societies which arose partially as a result of past
colonization. These displacements are due to dislocation of uprooted workers and
peagents from marginalized countryside to involutes urban centers; it tends to
compound further underdevelopment (Mukherjee S., 2002).
A report published by Quarterly Economic report of India highlighted that
rural to urban migration in India was responsible for rapid urbanization in country.
The Indian urban population rose from a small figure of 25.60 million in 1901 to
212.80 million in 1991 according to census 2001. The United Nations says that if
37
urbanization continues at present rate then 46% of the total population i.e. 634
million people will be in urban regions of India by 2030 (UN, 1998). If such a exodus
is not checked and corrected it will lead to extreme urban decay and malice. Large
group of land less, unskilled, uneducated, illiterate laborers and petty farmers leave
their villages and go to distant large town or cities like Mumbai, Delhi etc., they don’t
prefer to go to their neighboring smaller towns or districts because these reasons have
already reached their saturation point and fail to provide even to minimum services to
the migrants. Their arrival causes undue stress to the urban system. Urban system
breaks down due to these stresses like water shortage, electricity, transportation,
education, housing, security and other services fail. This causes major drain on
economy. It has been suggested that dual labour markets exit in urban areas of third
world ‘not just between agriculture and manufacturing’ (Tiss dell, 1990). This duality
may have the potential for impeding the development. In recent years, most advanced
economies have become service oriented that being the case, it should not be
surprising that large cities have become service oriented as well. Traditionally, it may
have been the industrial or manufacturing sector which played a larger causative role
in city size than did service activities. However, the later appears to have become
more influential in determining the physical growth patterns of large metropolitan
complexes in advance economies (David McKee,1994). A major focus of
development theory has been on the dualistic nature of developing countries. The
existence of a modern, urban, capitalist sector geared toward capital-intensive, large
scale production and a traditional, rural, subsistence sector geared towards labor-
intensive, small scale production. In recent years, this dualistic analysis has been also
applied to urban economy, which has been decomposed into a formal and informal
sector (Todarro M., 1997). In India, Numbers of million plus cities have been
increased from 05 in 1951 to 23 in 1991 and to 35 in 2001. About 37% of total urban
population lives in these million plus cities. As per 2001 census, the newly added
million plus cities are 12 in numbers and Allahabad is one of them. Population in the
urban areas expands due to the following three factors: natural growth of population,
rural to urban migration and reclassification of rural areas as urban in course of time.
38
However, around one-fifth of the urban growth is accounted by rural to urban net
migration. The following table is showing components of urban growth.
Table 3.1: Components of urban growth
Percent share 1971-81 1981-1991
Natural increase 41.7 59.9
Net migration + 39.4 22.6
changes in municipal
boundaries
Areal reclassification 18.8 17.4
Migration is the movement of people from place of their origin to another

place for fulfilling their socio-economic needs. Migration of population from other
places has been a great significance to a people of a particular place. It affects the
distribution and composition of the population and the structure and the processes of
the society. In the pre-transitional stage of a country where settled living became the
way of life, migratory movements assumed a definite and regular path and migration
of people took place in search of rich pastures and fertile land for cultivation. With
the advent of modern transport and communication the movement of people was
directed from rural to urban areas (in the early transitional stage). This urban ward
migration was in response to the creation of new employment opportunities in service
sectors which tended to be spatially located in cities and towns. In the later
transitional stage of development of a country, rapid growth of industries, transport
and communication and other economic and social overheads in urban areas
encouraged people to migrate in large number from smaller town to big and
specialized metro cities in search of better employment opportunity.
Rural to urban migration is a response to diverse economic opportunities
across space. Historically it has played a significant role in the urbanization process
of several countries and continues to be significant in scale, even though migration
39
rates have slowed down in some countries. As per the first view, the main cause of
rapid urban growth is traced to the increasing pressure of population on farmland in
densely populated agrarian economies. Deficiency of reproducible tangible capital
relative to labor in the face of a high-population density exacerbates the problem of
rural unemployment and underemployment, which in turn fosters the rural-urban
population movement. In the face of limited demand for labor in the formal sector, in
particular the organized industrial sector, excess supplies in the urban labor market
force them to be engaged in the informal service sector. The low rate of growth of
industrial employment and the high rate of rural-to-urban migration make for
excessive, even explosive urbanization involving a transition from rural
unemployment to excessive urban unemployment and underemployment.
In explaining migration across space, income differentials are taken as
motivating factor in moving people from low-income areas to relatively high-income
areas. The fact that most of the high productivity activities are located in the urban
areas, the rural-urban income differentials, particularly for the poor and unemployed,
are enormous. Thus, many of them migrate to the urban areas in search of jobs. Even
when jobs in the high productivity activities are limited in number relative to the
supply, and often they are not accessible, population still flows to the urban areas in
search of opportunities in the ‘informal sector.’ In the face of a high natural growth of
population, rural-urban migration aggravates the situation of excess supplies of labor
in the urban areas. Within the urban informal sector this tends to reduce the level of
earnings and get manifested in a high incidence of urban poverty. Thus in the process
rural poverty gets transformed into urban poverty – the phenomenon is also described
as ‘urbanization of poverty’.
There was a continuous rise in the contribution of net migration to total urban
growth since the sixties though between 1991 and 2001 there has been a slight
decline in the rate compared to the previous decade. According to the data available
in census 2001, Rural-to-Urban Migrants (1991-2001) as a % of urban population in
Uttar Pradesh is 4.44% which is less than the all India 7.32%. The highest percentage
40
contribution comes from Haryana which is 11.45 %. The migration data includes
both types of inter-state and intra-state migration. All BIMARU states, which have
very poor economic growth, have lower percentage of intra-state rural to urban
migration.
Various factors affect migration of male and female both from rural to urban
areas. The association of work participation and incidence of migration has been
extensively reported firstly as the main reason of migration and secondly as the
consequences of migration. At the national level, the questions on reasons for
migration have been canvassed since 1981 census for the migrants by last residence.
In 1981, among the rural-to-urban migrants, ‘employment’ was the most cited reason
by male migrants (47.5%) followed by the reasons ‘family moved’ (23.5%) and
‘education’ (8.1%). The economic motivations of migrants are found to lead to the
higher work participation rate among migrants compared with non-migrant
population in urban centers. To the contrary, as for the female, 1981 census reported
that the half of migrants (51.5%) mentioned ‘marriage’ as the main reasons for urban
migration while second largest reason was ‘family moved’ (29.3%) and
‘employment’ was cited only by 4.2 % of female migrants. ‘Education’ was the
primary reason for 3.00% percent of females. The apparent gender differentials in the
reasons of migration have earlier resulted in focusing only on male migrants as a
sensitive indicator of economic implications of migration as well as development in
general. It should be noted that earlier male pre-dominated in rural-urban migration
but in the 1970s, there was a shift toward greater female participation in urban-ward
flows. On the basis of a large sample survey in Bihar, Kerala and Uttar Pradesh,
reports in all the urban areas of the three states, female migrants’ work participation
rates are generally higher among Christians and Scheduled Castes/Tribe whether
married or unmarried.
41
Map3.1: The decadal rural to urban migration in India
(Source: Internet)
It has been widely observed that the propensity to migrate increases with
education. It is reported that infant mortality rate among the migrant children is
42
usually high because of lack of proper child care facilities and support. The presence
of schedule caste population in urban areas is found to give positive effect on the
migration of schedule caste from rural areas while schedule caste incidence in rural
regions is seen to reduce out-migration rates. The schedule tribes status, however,
was seen not have any effects on rural-to-urban migration.
Higher level of literacy at the place of destination is indicative of better quality
work force at least in terms of awareness which in turn develops greater access to
extensive information in the job market. And this in turn attracts more migrants.
More than a half of migration took place within the district and the incidence of
migration decreases as the distance becomes longer. The social networks, which play
an important role in the context of migration are widespread among the short distance
migrants and tend to lose their significance with a rise in the distance between the
place of origin and destination.
43

CHAPTER 04

DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE
OF
ALLAHABAD

44
Population is defined as ‘Number of persons living in a place having the

capacity of reproduction’. Study of population is very vital for knowing various
factors of the society. According to 2001 census, Uttar Pradesh has a population of
166,197,921, which was 132,061,653 in 1991. The total population of Allahabad in
1991 was 3,898,765 which increase to 4,936,105 in 2001. In terms of the size of
population, out of seventy districts of UP, Allahabad ranks first, As it is the most
populous district of UP state with population of 4,936,105. Kanpur Nagar ranks
second with a population of 4,167,999 persons. The district of Mahoba is least
populous with population of 708,447 persons.
4.1.1 Male and female population
Out of total population of 166,197,921 persons, 87,565,369 are males and

78,632,552 are females in UP. According to 2001 census, out of total population of
Allahabad, there are 2,626,448 males and 2,309,656 females; this represents that
around 53% males and 47% female population.
4.1.2 Population density
Population density is defined as the number of person per square kilometers

(per./km2). With population increase the population density increases. The population
density for 2001 in UP is 690 (per./km2) while the population density in Allahabad is
900 (per./km2) which is higher than the population density of UP. Among the all
districts of UP, Ghaziabad has the highest population density which is recorded as
2,866 (per./km2). The second highest population density is 2,045 (per./km2) in
Varanasi. The Lalitpur district has lowest population density (194 per./km2 ).
45
Map 4.1: Population density of Allahabad
4.2.1 Urban-rural demographic distribution
In Allahabad, out of total population, 3,729,320 persons are living in rural

areas while 1,206,785 persons are in urban areas. In other words 75.60% and 24.40%
of total population lives in rural areas and urban areas respectively. The rural
population has been increased from 1991 to 2001, which was 75.50% in 1991 and
became 75.60% in 2001, resulting in decrease of urban population which was 24.50%
in 1991 and came down at 24.40% in 2001.
Table 4.1(a): Urban-rural population distribution in Uttar Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh 1991 2001
Total 132,061,653 166,197,921
46
Rural 106,089,822 131,658,339
Urban 25,971,831 34,539,582
Table 4.1(b): Urban-rural population distribution in Allahabad

Allahabad 1991 2001
Total 3,898,765 4,936,105
Rural 2,944,158 3,729,320
Urban 954,607 1,206,785
This makes clear that percentage growth of urban population in Allahabad city has
been decreased considering all types of population flow including less migration of
rural population towards city as a major factor. Various developmental plans and
projects formulated by Government for rural areas for the betterment of their socio-
economic status. Large number of small scale industries and educational institutions
were opened for giving them employment and education. Metalled roads were made
in many villages under various Govt. schemes that help in easy transportation and
communication. Various civic amenities including power supply, toilet facilities,
clean drinking water supply and communication facilities are also provided to the
villagers. All these factors resulted in decreasing the rate of migration towards cities.
4.2.2 Decadal population growth
The Decadal population growth rate in UP state, during 1991-2001 (25.85%)

was higher than that for the country as a whole (21.50%). During the decade 1981-
1991, the Decadal population growth rate of state was 25.60% which became 25.80%
during the decade 1991-2001. The Decadal population growth rate of Allahabad
during 1981-1991 was 30.70% which decreased to 26.60% during the decade 1991-
2001. This shows that very slow population growth during 1991-2001 it is in exact
correlation to M. T. Sadler argument ‘higher the density of population, lesser is the
47
growth rate’. The population, its number and growth is directly related to economy or
food production. Malthus 1798 , in his essay ‘Essay on the principle of population’
asserted that man could increase his subsistence only in arithmetical progression,
whereas population tended to increase in geometrical progression. There are many
factors which keep the population down to the subsistence level by preventive checks
such as scarcity of basic facilities, famines, epidemics, differing of marriage etc. The
highest decadal population growth during decade 1991-2001 is seen in Ghaziabad
which was 47.20% and second highest is 41.50% in Gautam Buddha nagar. The
lowest decadal population growth is observed in Bagpat district that is 13.00%.
Table 4.2: Percentage of decadal population growth

1981-1991 (%) 1991-2001 (%)
India 21.10 21.50
Uttar Pradesh 25.60 25.80
Allahabad 30.70 26.60
4.2.3 Sex ratio

Sex ratio is measured as the number of females per thousands male. In 1991, the sex
ratio of the UP was 876 which increases to 898 in 2001 while the sex ratio of country
was 933 in 2001. The sex ratio of Allahabad was 873 in 1991which increases 879 in
2001. It shows that sex ratio of Allahabad is very low in comparison to other cities.
Highest sex ratio in the state is recorded in Azamgarh district i.e.1,020 in 2001 which
was 1,007 in 1991.
Table 4.3: Sex ratio
1991 2001
India ------- 933
Uttar Pradesh 876 898
Allahabad 873 879
48
Sex ratio of (0-6) age group population- Sex ratio of (0-6) age group population of
India is 927, which are 916 in Uttar Pradesh. In Allahabad, sex ratio of (0-6) age
group population is recorded as 917.
Sex ratio of SC and ST population- Sex ratio of SC population in India in year 2001
is recorded as 936 while that of ST population 978. In Uttar Pradesh, sex ratio of SC
and ST population in 2001 are 900 and 934 respectively. In Allahabad, sex ratio of
SC and ST population in 2001 is recorded as 898 and 828 respectively.
4.2.4 Age Composition

Of total population in India, (0-6) age group population is163, 819,614 of
which 84,999,203 are males and 78,820,411 are females. In Uttar Pradesh, (0-6) age
group population is recorded as 31, 624, 628, of which 16,509,033 are males and
15,115,595 are females. In Allahabad, (0-6) age group population is recorded as
899,583, of which 469,206 are males and 430,377 are females. If we consider the
percentage of different age groups in Uttar Pradesh, we found that maximum
percentage is of five to nine age group i.e. 15%. 13.40% population belongs 10-14
age groups and 12.50% belongs to 0-4 age group. Lowest percentage is of age more
than 80 years nearly 0.8%. In Allahabad, the maximum parentage belongs to 5-9 age
groups i.e. 14.50%. 13.40 % belongs to 10-14 age groups. Lowest percentage is
0.70% of 80 plus age group.
Table 4.4: Age group distribution

Age group (years) Uttar Pradesh (%) Allahabad (%)
0-4 12.50 11.90
5-9 15 14.50
10-14 13.40 13.40
80-more 0.80 0.70
This shows that the maximum percentage of population (~ 40 %) belongs to younger

generation (0-14 years). This indicates the high fertility rate and low mortality rate.
49
4.2.5 Work participation rate (WPR)
In India, the 39.10% are main workers, of which male and females are 51.7%
and 25.6% respectively. In case of Uttar Pradesh, there are 32.50% are main workers
comprising 46.80% of male and 16.5% of female workers. The data shows that there
is wide gender difference in work participation rate. In Allahabad district, out of total
population, 33.90% are main workers, in which 43.40% are male and 23.00% are
female workers. In rural areas of Allahabad district, 36.40% are main workers of
which male participation is 44.40% and female participation is 27.50%. In urban
areas of Allahabad, 26% are main workers, in which 40.30% male workers and
08.50% female workers.
This is obvious that urban female work participation is less than rural female
work participation. Rural females participates in most of the activities related to
agriculture and labor activities while urban females have participation in house holds
and service sector activities. The work participation rate based on religion in
Allahabad city shows that Christians have highest WPR (37.30%) and lowest for
Jains (26.80%).
Table 4.5: Work participation rate based on religion

Religion Hindu Muslim Sikhs Christians Buddhists Jains others
WPR 34.10 31.90 29.50 37.30 36.70 26.80 40.70
(%)
4.2.6 Literacy rate:
Education appears to be on of the most important factor affecting the

demographic profile of a country or state. The important vital event like fertility and
mortality vary with the educational attainments of a community. Literacy rate of
India is 64.80%, of which 75.30% and 53.70% are male and female literates
50
respectively. In Uttar Pradesh, 68.80% and 42.20% are male and female literates out
of total literacy 56.30%.
Table 4.6: Literacy rate

Total Male
Female
1991 2001 1991 2001 1991 2001
UP 40.70 56.30 54.80 68.80 24.40 42.20
Allahabad 46.10 62.10 62.80 75.80 26.60 46.40
The data above clearly shows that the literacy rate has been continuously
increased during the year 1991 to 2001. In Allahabad, the total literacy rate increased
from 46.10% (1991) to 62.10% (2001). Male literacy rate has been increased from
62.80% to 75.80% while the female literacy rate has been increased from 26.60% to
46.40% during 1991 to 2001. It represents the large increase of literacy rate of both
male and female in Allahabad yet it is lower to the average national literacy rate.
Government has started various educational plans and policies for free and equal
education to both boys and girls. Special stress is taken by government for female
education, as a well educated and literate woman can enhance the socio-economic
status of society. Free education to the poor and SC/ST, girls and adults are given
priority in governments educational plans and programmes. According to the
religion based status of literacy rate, Jain community has highest percentage of
literacy rate (93.20%) among all the religious communities and lowest is of muslims
around 47.80%.
In Allahabad perspective, the literacy rate of Christians is lowest instead of
Muslims literacy rate at national level and the Jains have highest literacy rate. The
Christian community has highest work participation whereas Jains have less WPR
instead of higher literacy rates.
51
Table 4.7: Literacy rate based on religion
Religion Hindu Muslim Sikhs Christians Buddhists Jains others
Literacy 61.80 63.30 68.90 53.60 61.10 84.30 73.30

Rate
4.2.7 Religion based composition of population

The Indian population is composed of different religions like Hindu, Muslims,
Sikhs, Christians, Jains, Buddhists and other religions. In Uttar Pradesh, out of total
population 80.60% Hindu, 18.50% Muslims, 0.40% Sikhs, 0.20% Buddhists, 0.10%
Christians and 0.10% are Jains. In Allahabad reference, 86.80% Hindus are largest
community, 0.10% Sikhs and 12 % are Muslims.
4.2.8 SC/ST based population

According to 1991 census the total number of schedule caste in UP were
28,044,139 which increased to 35,148,377 in 2001. This shows that SC population is
21.10% of total population in 2001. Total schedule tribes in 2001 are 107,963
(76,037 in 1991) which are 0.10% of total population. The sex ratio of SC in
Allahabad district is 898 which is greater than the total sex ratio of Allahabad (879).
In Allahabad, total number of SC is 1,065,097 which are 21.60% of total population,
while the total number of ST is 4,273.
Table 4.8: SC/ST distribution of population

Uttar Pradesh Allahabad
Schedule Schedule Schedule Schedule
Caste Tribes Caste Tribes
Male 18,502,838 55,834 561,115 2,337
Female 16,645,539 52,129 503,982 1,936
52
In Uttar Pradesh, rural population of SC is 30,816,596 which is 23.40% while
the rural population of ST is 95, 828 which is 0.10% of total rural population. The
urban SC’s 4,331,781 (12.50%) and urban ST’s are 12,135 (0.01%) of total urban
population. In Allahabad, rural population of SC is 909,877 which is 24.40% while
the rural population of ST is 3,715 which is 0.01% of total rural population. The
urban SC’s 155,220 (12.90%) and urban ST’s are 558 (0.001%) of total urban
population.
4.2.9 Number and size of Households
Total number of households recorded in India is 193,579,954 whereas it is

25,757, 640 in Uttar Pradesh. In Allahabad, total numbers of households 740,941
which is the highest number in the whole state of Uttar Pradesh. Next one in this
regard is Kanpur district with 714, 380 households and the lowest one is Mahoba
district with 118,970 households.
The household size provides “the number of persons living in a house”. The
household size of Uttar Pradesh is 6.5 and of Allahabad rating is 6.7 which is greater
than the household size of UP. It reflects joint family occurrence and high fertility
rate. The highest household size recorded in Sant Ravi Das Nagar with 8.4. Other
cities with large household size are Mau, Balia, Azamgarh, Varanasi, Jaunpur,
Gazipur etc. which are the cities of eastern Uttar Pradesh.
Table 4.9: Size of households

Urban Rural Urban Rural
6.4 6.5 6.5 6.7
53
4.3.1 Type of census houses
Three types of census houses are recorded in 2001 classified as permanent,

temporary and semi-permanent. A permanent house is, in which walls and roofs are
made of permanent materials like asbestos sheets, stones, metal sheets, tiles etc..
When both walls and roofs are made of materials which have to be replaced
frequently, are called temporary houses. These temporary houses are made of grass,
bamboo, wood, thatch, mud, polythene etc..The semi-permanent houses are in which
either the wall or roof is made of permanent materials or other is made of temporary
materials. Temporary houses are of two types named as serviceable (mud or wood
walls) and non-serviceable (grass or bamboo walls).
The data reflects that in Allahabad the percentage of permanent houses is less
than the average of Uttar Pradesh. House is one of the prime indicator of economic
status of family and it is interesting fact that percentage of permanent and semi-
permanent is close which reflects less economic disparity in classes of society in
Allahabad.
Table 4.10: Type of census houses

Type Permanent Temporary Semi- Permanent Temporary Semi-
of permanent permanent
houses
% of 53.40 21.00 25.60 50.70 3.80 45.50
total
houses
54
4.3.2 Sources of drinking water, electricity and toilet facility
The collected data shows eight types of drinking water sources are available:
tap water, hand pump, tube well, well, tank/pond/lake, river/canal, spring and other
sources. In Uttar Pradesh, drinking water sources are tap 23.7%, hand pump and tube
well 64.10%, 11.60% well, 0.10% rivers/canals and 0.60% other sources. In
Allahabad, drinking water sources are tap 28.10%, hand pump and tube well 39.00%,
32.20% well, 0.30% rivers/canals and 0.30% other sources. 31.90% electricity and
31.40% toilet facilities are available in UP whereas in Allahabad 43.10% electricity
and 30.90% toilet facilities are available.
4.3.3 Distribution of source of cooking

In the census 2001, following type of fuels are recorded for cooking: fire
wood, crock residue, cow dung cake, coal/lignite/charcoal, Kerosene, LPG,
electricity, biogas and other sources. In Uttar Pradesh, 44.30% fire wood, 13.70%
crock residue, 27.30% cow dung cake, 2.30% Kerosene, 11.30% LPG, 0.90% any
other sources are used as cooking fuel. In Allahabad, 32.00% fire wood, 6.20% crock
residue, 38.70% cow dung cake, 5.20% Kerosene, 16.70% LPG, and 0.90% any other
sources are used as cooking fuel.
4.3.4 Number of dwelling rooms

A room is treated as a dwelling room if it has walls with a door way and a roof
and should be wide and long enough for a person to sleep in (Length not less than 2.0
meters and breadth at least 1.5 meters with a height of 2.0 meters) and is used for
multipurpose. In Uttar Pradesh 29.60% one room houses, 31.20% two rooms ,
16.80% three room, 09.60% four rooms, 10.50% are five and above room houses. No
exclusive room houses are 2.30% in numbers. In Allahabad 19.00% one room
houses, 30.90% two rooms, 19.30% three room, 12.70% four rooms and 16.20% are
five and above room houses. No exclusive room houses are 1.80% in numbers.
55
CHAPTER 05

ANALYSIS
OF
DEMOGRAPHIC,
SOCIO-ECONOMIC & CULTURAL
DATA
56
The outputs of the advanced software SPSS (Special package for social
sciences) are arranged in tabulated form and analyzed in order to find out various
patterns of social behavior for the study of the folk-urban continuum. We have
arranged various results in fifteen sections.
5.1 Age, gender, caste and occupation of respondents
(a) Age of respondent

The sample of the study belongs to different age groups. Data related to
percentage distribution of age of the respondent revealed that majority of the
respondent belong to 20-30 yrs.of age groups i.e. 40.5% of total sample. 25.5% of the
respondents belong to 30-40 yrs. of age group .23% respondents belong to 40-60 yrs.
age group. 6% belong to 15-20 yrs. and 5% respondents
belongs to 60 yrs and more.
Table 5.1(a): Percentage distribution of age of the respondents
Age Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent
15-20 yrs. 12 6.0 6.0 6.0
20-30 yrs. 81 40.5 40.5 46.5
30-40 yrs. 51 25.5 25.5 72.0
40-60 yrs. 46 23.0 23.0 95.0
>60 yrs 10 5.0 5.0 100.00
Total 200 100.0 100.0
(b) Sex distribution of respondents
Out of total sample of 200, it is found that male percentage is more than
females. Of the following data, 78% are males and 22% are females
57
Table 5.1(b): Percentage distribution of age of the respondents
Gender Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent
Male 156 78.0 78.0 78.0
Female 44 22.0 22.0 100.0
Total 200 100.0 100.0
(c) Caste of respondents
Sample of the study belongs to different castes. Studying the following table, it
becomes clear, that brahmins are largest in no. i.e. 110 (55%). Next comes ahir 24
(12%) folowed by thakur 21(10%) and kayastha 16(8%). Patel are 10(5%) and kevat
are 3(1.5%). In very small percentage comes pasi 1(.5%), punjabi 1(.5%) pal 1
(.5%), muslim 1(.5%) respectively.
Table 5.1(c): Caste wise frequency distribution
Caste Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent
Valid Brahmin 110 55.0 55.0 55.0
Thakur 21 10.5 10.5 65.5
Ahir 24 12.0 12.0 77.5
Vaishya 12 6.0 6.0 83.5
Patel 10 5.0 5.0 88.5
Kayastha 16 8.0 8.0 96.5
Kevat 3 1.5 1.5 98.0
Pasi 1 .5 .5 98.5
Punjabi 1 .5 .5 99.0
Pal 1 .5 .5 99.5
Muslim 1 .5 .5 100.0
Total 200 100.0 100.0
58
(d) Occupation of respondents
It becomes evident from the following table that a large percentage of people
i.e. 73(36.5%) are engaged in business as their occupation, 44(22%) are students,
24(12%) do agriculture, 23(11.5%) are housewives and 15(7.5%) are working in
private services. 8 (4%) are retired persons and 8 (4%) are unemployed. A very
small % i.e. 1(.5%) do job in government services. 4(2%) give no response. It shows
that majority of the people are engaged in business, agriculture, study and private
practices. Government jobs are not in their hand.
Table 5.1(d): Occupation based frequency distribution
Occupation Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent
Valid Agriculture 24 12.0 12.1 12.1
Government service 1 .5 .5 12.6
Business
Private practice 73 36.5 36.9 49.5
Student 15 7.5 7.6 57.1
Housewife 44 22.0 22.2 79.3
Retired persons 23 11.5 11.6 90.9
Unemployed 8 4.0 4.0 94.9
Total 8 4.0 4.0 99.0
System 198 99.0 1.0 100.0
Missing 2 1.0 100.0
Total 200 100.0
59
5.2 Urban settlement of respondents
(a) Duration of residence in Allahabad
In search of better employment opportunities and higher education, people

from rural areas, migrate towards urban areas. Data related to the percentage
distribution of duration of residence of respondents reveals, that majority of people
reside in Allahabad from 1 to 5 yrs. i.e. 45 (22.5%).Next category of great percentage
comes of those people, who live in Allahabad for more than 30 yrs. This percentage
is 21% (42). 14.5% (29) reside in Allahabad from 20-25 yrs, 13% (26) from 15-20
yrs. and 13% (26) reside in city from 5 to 10 yrs. 7% (14) from 25-30 yrs. and 6.5%
(13) from 10-15 yrs. 2.5% (5) no response. The above data gives 2 types of
population- first those who settled down here for 1-15 yrs. and second those who
settled down in city for 20-30 yrs. or more than 30 yrs. People belonging to first
category are mostly students and private practicenors and govt. servant, second
category belongs to mostly businessmen, housewives and those who do agriculture in
village and come for their children's better education and civic amenities in city.
Table 5.2 (a): Duration of residence
Duration of residence Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent
Valid 1-5yrs 45 22.5 23.1 23.1
5-10 yrs 26 13.0 13.3 36.4
10-15yrs 13 6.5 6.7 43.1
15-20yrs 26 13.0 13.3 56.4
20-25yrs 29 14.5 14.9 71.3
25-30yrs 14 7.0 7.2 78.5
>30yrs 42 21.0 21.5 100.0
Total 195 97.5 100.0
Missing System 5 2.5
Total 200 100.0
60
(b) Types of houses in city-
Three types of houses are found in city- self made, rented apartments and
slums. Those who belong to high income groups and reside in the city for 20 to 30
yrs. or more have their own houses (self-made). Second category belongs to those
who belong to middle class or have medium income in hand or students, who came
from other cities or villages here for higher education and employment. These people
live in rented houses or apartments and lodges. Third category belongs to very low
income groups in which comes craftsmen, labours, rickshaw pullers and beggars,
servants etc. They live in slums or juggi-jhopadis or jhopar-pattis. These are also
called as squatter settlements our data basically belongs to upper two categories who
lives in self made houses or rented houses/ apartments. Data related to types of house
shows that 65.5% (131) have their own (self-made) houses in the city while 23% (46)
live in rented houses, 11.5% (23) gave no response.
Table 5.2 (b): Types of houses
Types of houses Frequency Percent Valid Cumulativ

Percent e Percent
Valid Self 131 65.5 75.3 75.3
Rented 46 23 24.7 100.0
Total 177 88.5 100.0
Missing System 23 115
Total 200 100.0
5.3 About respondent’s villages
The rural migrants who migrate from their villages towards city for
employment, education and other civic or basic amenities of life settled down in the
city for 1-20 yrs. or 30 yrs. Male migrants are more than female migrant males
percentage of migration is more than females because males are mostly heads of the
Indian family. Basic liabilities of family and decision making rely in the hands of
males. Thus, it becomes their duty to fulfill the requirement f their family. Therefore,
in quest of better employment, jobs and higher education, for better family conditions
61
and basic requirements and facilities for their child and family, they migrate towards
cities. Some of them migrate alone while some migrate with their families. Males’
migration is basically for economic reasons i.e. to better their economic conditions.
While females migration is for non-economic reasons i.e. for the reasons for
association or marriage purposes. Very small percentages of Women or girls migrate
for education or job purposes. Migrants came from the villages from different
directions and distance some of them made contact with their villages while some
have no contact with their villages. The following data is about their villages.
(a) Place of Origin
The people who migrate from other cities and villages basically belongs
neighboring villages of Allahabad and neighboring cities of Jaunpur, Pratapgarh,
Sultanpur, Gorakhpur etc.. Percentage distribution of people related to their place of
origin clearly gives a picture that highest percentage of migrants is 41.5% (83)
belongs to Allahabad and its surrounding villages like Phulpur, Kaushami, Soraon,
Jhunsi etc.
Next major percentage comes from Pratapgarh, form where 14% (28) people
belongs. Jaunpur is the place of origin of 9.5% (19). 4.5% (9) people came from
Gorakhpur and 3.5(7) from Sultanpur 3% (6), 5.3% people belong to Kanpur, Balia,
Bhadohi, Mau, Devaria regions. A very small % of 1 to 5% belongs to Ghazipur,
Mirzapur, Fatehpur, Banda, Raibareli, Varanasi, Faizabad etc. Allahabad is the center
of various government offices, High court, banks, higher educational institutes,
university, college, school, medical and engineering college, coaching institutes,
hospitals, nursing homes, dispensaries, big shopping and markets all are found here.
Due to all these institutional facilities, rural migrate towards urban settings of
Allahabad.
Table 5.3 (a): Place of origin
62
Place of Origin Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative
Percent Percent
Valid Allahabad and
Surrounding 83 41.5 42.0 42.8
villages
Jaunpur 19 9.5 9.8 52.6
Pratapgarh 28 14.0 14.4 67.0
Sultanpur 7 3.5 3.6 70.6
Azamgarh 5 2.5 2.6 73.2
Gorakhpur 9 4.5 4.6 77.8
Devaria 3 1.5 1.5 79.4
Balia 6 3.0 3.1 82.5
Banda 1 .5 .5 83.0
Bhadohi 5 2.5 2.6 85.6
Patehpur 2 1.0 1.0 86.6
Mirjapur 2 1.0 1.0 87.6
Kanpur 6 3.0 3.1 90.7
Shivani, MP 1 .5 .5 91.2
Gajipur 2 1.0 1.0 92.3
Khaga 1 .5 .5 92.8
Nathaupur 1 .5 .5 93.3
Mau 3 1.5 1.5 94.8
Raibareli 2 1.0 1.0 95.9
Chapra, Bihar 1 .5 .5 96.4
Akbarpur 1 .5 .5 96.9
Faizabad 1 .5 .5 97.4
Chitrakoot 1 .5 .5 97.9
Bhilai,MP 1 .5 .5 98.5
Varanasi 2 1.0 1.0 99.5
Agra 1 .5 .5 100.0
Total 194 97.0 100.0
Missing
System 6 3.0
Total
200 100.0
(b) Distances form Allahabad
63
People from different villages and other cities migrate towards Allahabad. The
distance of their villages from the city varies from 5Km. to 400 Km. or more. Data is
the following table represents that, 29% (58) migrant came from villages located at
the distance of 5-40 km., i.e. the region of Allahabad's surrounding villages. 28% (56)
migrants came from 40 to 80 km. distant villages, mostly from Jaunur, Pratapgarh
etc. 26.5% (53) came from 120-400 Km. or more distances, while 12.5% (25) came
from the villages at the distance of 80-120 Km.
Table 5.3 (b): Distances of place of origin
Distances Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent
Valid 5-40 km 58 29 30.2 30.2
40-80km 56 28 29.1 59.4
80-120km 25 12.5 13.1 72.4
120-400km 50 25 26 98.4
>400k 3 1.5 1.6 100.0
Total 192 96.0 100
Total 200 100.0
(c) Direction of place of origin
Migrants came from the villages located at different directions. It is found

33.5% (67) respondent's villages are situated in north direction, 31% in east direction.
9% (18) have their villages in west direction while 8% (16) and 6% (12) respondent's
village direction is south and north-east respectively. 2.5% (5) belongs to village in
north-west direction and 1% (2) in south-east direction. Very small percentage i.e.
5% (1) belongs to south-west direction. 8.5% (17) gave no response.
Table 5.3 (c): Direction of place of origin

64
Direction Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative
Percent Percent
Valid North 67 33.5 36.6 36.6
South 16 8.0 8.7 45.4
East 62 31.0 33.9 79.2
West 18 9.0 9.8 89.1
North-east 12 6.0 6.6 95.6
North-west 5 2.5 2.7 98.4
South-east 2 1.0 1.1 99.5
South-west 1 .5 .5 100.0
Total 183 91.5 100.0
Total 200 100.0
(d) Visit to village
Those who live in the city made visit to their village. Some are daily or weekly
visitors. Some visit monthly and some annually, some of them visit their village
rarely or they never visit their village. Data in the following table related to visit to
village clearly shows that majority of the respondents are monthly visitors i.e. 39%
(78) of the total sample. 16% (32) respondents visit village six monthly and another
16% (32) visit village rarely, 12.5% (25) visit village weekly while 7.5% (15) visit
their village annually, 5% (10) visit village daily. There are only 1% (2) people who
never visit their village. The following data clearly depicts that a large percentage of
people made regular contact with their village or native place.
Table 5.3 (d): Frequency for visit to village
65
Visit to Village Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative
Percent Percent
Valid Daily 10 5.0 5.2 5.2
Weekly 25 12.5 12.9 18.0
Monthly 78 39.0 40.2 58.2
Six monthly 32 16.0 16.5 74.7
Annually 15 7.5 7.7 82.5
Rarely 32 16.0 16.5 99.0
Never 2 1.0 1.0 100.0
Total 194 97.0 100.0
Total 200 100.0
(e) Means of village travel-
There are various means of travel and transport. The people whose villages are
at a distance of 5 to 10 km. from the city, they travel by means of bicycle only or
scooter / moped. Those who are living at far distances, they travel by bus or train.
Some of them use their own vehicle. Data in the table reveals that 41.5% (83) travel
by bus, 37.5 (75) travel their villages by train, 13.5% (27) people uses their own
vehicle. Only 2.5% travel by bicycle, next 2.5% (5) are those who travel by all the
above means of transport, remaining 2.5% (5) gave no response. It becomes clear
from the above data that most of the respondents use bus and train for traveling their
villages.
66
Means Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative
Percent Percent
Valid Bicycle 5 2.5 2.6 2.6
Bus 83 41.5 42.6 45.1
Train 75 37.5 38.5 83.6
Own vehicle 27 13.5 13.8 97.4
Bus, train & own 5 2.5 2.6 100.0
Total 195 97.5 100.0
Total 200 100.0
Table 5.3(e): Means of village travel
(f) Attractions of village
Fresh and clean environment, Social and religious life, fresh food and
entertainment, all these are the qualities of village, which attract the peoples of urban
environment. Going through the following table, it was found that 58% (116) are
attracted towards village due to its social life. 22% (44) like climate of the village.
6% (12) are attracted towards village due to religious environment. 5% (10) like
entertainment in village, 2.5% (5) like food, drink and next 2.5% like above all
qualities of village like 1.55 (3) are those who like booth climate (environment) and
food of village while 1% (2) like both social life and food of village.
Table 5.3(f): Attractions of villages
Attractions Freq Percent Valid Cumulative

ueny Percent Percent
Valid Climate 44 22.0 22.2 22.2
Social life 116 58.0 58.6 80.8
Religious life 12 6.0 6.1 86.9
Food and drink 5 2.5 2.5 89.4
Entertainment 10 5.0 5.1 94.4
All 5 2.5 2.5 97.0
Climate & food 3 1.5 1.5 98.5
Social life & food 2 1.0 1.0 99.5
Social 1 .5 .5
67
life&entertainment
Total 198 99.0 100.0 100.0
Missin System 2 1.0
g 200 100.0
Total
(g) Reasons to dislike village
In spite of various qualities of village life, there are several reasons, for which
most of the people don't like to go to village. In most of the villages, sadak is mostly
kacchi, there is absence of power supply, poor facility of toilet, drinking water
unavailability and various other problems, due to which villages are disliked by
many. Going through the table of reasons of village dislike, we found that most basic
problem is absence of power supply, due to which water supply and other things are
also effected. 44.5% (89) people dislike village because of the absence of power
supply. 11% (22) dislike village due to poor facility of bathroom and toilet, 10% said
that there is problem of entertainment. As power supply is cut they can't watch TV.
Cinema hall is also found very rare in villages.4.5% (9) give the reason for village
dislike. 5% (1) give reason of problem of unemployment in village. 18% (36) gave
no response.
Table 5.3(g): Reasons to dislike village
Reasons to dislike village Freq Percent Valid Cumul.

Percent Percent
Valid Kacchi sadak 17 8.5 10.4 10.4
Absence of power supply 89 44.5 54.3 64.6
Drinking water problem 9 4.5 5.5 70.1
Poor facility of toilet and 22 11.0 13.4 83.5
Bathroom
Problem of entertainment 20 10.0 12.2 95.7
Problem of employment 1 .5 .6 96.3
All the above 6 3 3.7 100.0
Total 164 82.0 100.0
68
Missin System 36 18.0
g 200 100.0
Total
(h) Road of village
There are 2 types of road in the villages- kacchi and pakki. Data in the present
table shows that most of the villages have pakki roads nowadays. Due to various
government sadak yojana, roads of various villages were made paved and metalled
62.5% (125) people have pakki sadak in their village while 34.5% (69) have kacchi
sadak in their village.
Table 5.3(h): Roads of village
Roads Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Per.
Valid kacchi 69 34.5 35.6 35.6
pakki 125 62.5 64.4 100.0
Total 194 97.0 100.0
Missin System 6 3.0
g 200 100.0
Total
69
Photo 5.1: The road of village
(i) Type of houses in the Village-
Houses in the village are basically of three types- kaccha with mud floor, semi-
pucca with bricked floor and pucca with cemented floor. Most of the houses in the
villages are semi- pucca type i.e. 85 (42.5%) have semi-pucca type found in pucca
type are 60 (30%) while kaccha houses are found in 25 (12.5%) families.
70
Photo 5.2: Types of houses in village
Table 5.3(i): Type of houses
Type of houses Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent
Valid Kaccha with mud floor 25 12.5 14.7 14.7
Semi- pucca with 85 42.5 50 64.7
cemented floor
Pucca with bricked 60 30 35.3 100
floor
Total 170 85 100
Missing system 30 15
Total 200
(j) Facility of power supply-
In the villages, there is very poor facility of power supply. Data clearly shows
that maximum power supply in most villages is for 6-8 hours i.e. 54 %( 108)
respondents told. 22.5% (45) gain 4-6 hrs power supply, while 10% (20) gain 2-4 hrs.
supply. 2.5% (5) said that there is no power supply in their village. 2% (4) said that
there is full time power supply in their village.
71
Table 5.3(j): Facilities of power supply
Time duration Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent percent
Valid 2-4hrs 20 10.0 11.0 11.0
4-6hrs 45 22.5 24.7 35.7
6-8hrs 108 54.0 59.3 95.1
All time 4 2.0 2.2 97.3
No 5 2.5 2.7 100.0
supply 182 91.0 100.0
Missing Total 18 9.0
Total System 200 100.0
Photo 5.3: Power supply in Sherdih village
(k) Sources of drinking water in village-
There are various means of drinking water in the village. Kuan is the oldest
source of drinking water in the village. Nowadays, tube wells and handpumps are the
72
major source of drinking water, government has provided handpump in most of the
villages. The following data reveals that majority of the people have handpump as
source. In many villages, there is shortage of water supply keeping this in mind;
government has provided many tubewells, handpumps and nals for the comfort of
drinking water i.e. 2% (84) while 15% (30) have kuan as source of drinking water.
11% (22) have nal as source while 9% (18) have all the above 3 i.e. nal, hand pump,
kuan as source of drinking water in their village. 6% (12) have all the above means
of drinking water including tubewell 4.5% (9) have Tube well while 5.5 have
handpump, tubewell and kuan as source of drinking water 2.5% have only nal and
tube well as source of water, while 1.5% have nal and kuan as sources of drinking
water.
Photo 5.4: Drinking water problem in Sherdih village
73
Table 5.3(k): Sources of drinking water in village
Sources Freq. Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent
Valid Nal 22 11.0 11.3 11.3
Tube well 9 4.5 4.6 16.0
Hand pump 84 42.0 43.3 59.3
Kuan 30 15.0 15.5 74.7
Nal, Tube well 5 2.5 2.6 77.3
Nal, Hand pump 18 9.0 9.3 86.6
&Kuan 12 6.0 6.2 92.8
All the above 11 5.5 5.7 98.5
Hand pump, 3 1.5 1.5 100.0
Tubewell & Kuan 194 97.0 100.0
Missin Nal & Kuan 6
g Total 200
Total System
(l) Means of cooking-
In the villages, 90% population uses chulha (hearth) for cooking food. Yet,
LPG gas is available to the villagers, but they mostly use chulha and stove for
cooking as these are cheap and easily available means of cooking .Leaves and woods
of trees and kerosene oil are used as cooking fuel. Only a small percentage of
population that are economically strong uses LPG gas for cooking. In the city, large
percentage i.e.75-80% population uses LPG gas for cooking.
74
Photo 5.5: Impact of urbanization on the means of cooking in Sherdih village
(m) Sources of entertainment-
There are various sources of entertainment in the village. Nowadays, villagers also
have television, radio for entertainment. They also go to cinema. 33% (66)
respondents have both radio and television in their village, 23% (46) have all radio,
television, cinema in their villages. 21.5(43) have only TV, 2% (4) have only cinema
hall in the village for entertainment
Table 5.3(m): Sources of entertainment
Sources of Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Entertainment Percent Percent
Valid Radio 35 17.5 18.0 18.0
TV 43 21.5 22.2 40.2
Radio &TVBoth 66 33.0 34.0 74.2
Cinema 4 2.0 2.1 76.3
All the above 46 23.0 23.7 100.0
Total 194 97.0 100.0
75
Total 200 100.0
Photo 5.6: Touring talkies in Sahsoan town
5.4 Agriculture in the village

(a) Land for agriculture
Agriculture land is very useful and stable property of villagers. They consider
land as their ‘Mother’ who gives them food. Their whole economy is based on
agriculture and related activities. Therefore land is most precious gift of god for
them. Data in the above table shows that 85.5% respondents have agricultural land in
their village while 9% (18) have no land with them.
Table 5.4(a): Land for agriculture
Land for Agriculture Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent
Valid have 171 85.5 90.5 90.5
have not 18 9.0 9.5 100.0
total 189 94.5 100.0
Total 200 100.0
76
Photo 5.7: Agricultural land in Medua village
(b) Land size-
Many rich farmers and villagers have several bigha or acre land in their
villages while some poor families have small part of land. Data in the table clearly
shows that 20.5% (41) have 11-20 bigha and more land, 18% (36) have 3-5 bigha
land, while 16.5% (33) have 5-9 bigha land for agriculture.
77
Table 5.4 (b): Land size for agriculture
Land size Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent
Valid 1-3 bigha 14 7.0 12.7 12.7
3-5 bigha 12 6.0 10.9 23.6
5-7 bigha 12 6.0 10.9 34.5
7-9 bigha 5 2.5 4.5 39.1
9-11 14 7.0 12.7 51.8
bigha 25 12.5 22.7 74.5
11-12 26 13.0 23.6 98.2
bigha 2 1.0 1.8 100.0
1-5 acre 110 55.0 100.0
5-10 acre 90 45.0
Total Total 200 100.0
Missing
system
(c) Crop grown at own field
Land of Allahabad and surrounding regions is very productive. Mainly crops like
wheat, rice and pulses are grown in the field some villages also grew vegetables at
large scale. 49.5% (99) of the respondents grow both cereals and vegetables in their
field. 38% (76) grow only cereals at their field and 4.5% (9) grow only vegetables.
8% (16) gave no response.
Table 5.4 (c): Crops grown at own field
Crops at own field Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent
Valid Vegetables 9 4.5 4.9 4.9
Cereals 76 38.0 41.3 46.2
Both 99 49.5 53.8 100.0
78
Total 184 92.0 100.0
g 200 100.0
Total
Photo 5.8: Wheat grain stock in a house of Sherdih village
(d) Crops buying from market
Many of the respondents who don't grow much crops and vegetables, they buy
them from market, while those who have good production of crops and have regular
contacts with their village, consume their own production in the city. Of the
respondents who buy crops from market, 55% (110) are those who buy only
vegetables from market and use cereals of their village. 40% (80) buy both cereals
and vegetables, while a very small i.e.1 %( 2) buy only cereals from market.
Table 5.4 (d): Crops buying from market
Crops buying from Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative
market Percent Percent
Valid Vegetables 110 55.0 57.3 57.3
Cereals 2 1.0 1.0 58.3
Both 80 40.0 41.7 100.0
79
Missi Total 192 96.0 100.0
ng System 8 4.0
Total
200 100.0
Photo 5.9: Local market at Sahsoan near Medua village

(e) Vegetable buying
Those who buy, vegetables either buy it at their door in their street or buy
vegetables from market. Majority of the respondents i.e.177 (88.5%) buy vegetables
from market, as in the market they get vegetables at very reasonable prices. While,
7% (14) buy vegetables at door. Mainly women buy at door, as most of the husbands
are busy in their jobs. A small percentage i.e. 1.5% (3) buys vegetables both from
market and at door, according to their conditions. 3% (6) gave no response.
Table 5.4 (e): Vegetables buying from market
Vegetable buying Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative
Percent Percent
Valid At door 14 7.0 7.2 7.2
From market 177 88.5 91.2 98.5
Both the above 3 1.5 1.5 100.0
Total 194 97.0 100.0
80
system 6 3.0
Missing 200 100.0
Total
(f) Type of agricultural practice and fertilizer used
Those who live in the village or those who live in the city and made regular
contacts with village, they do agricultural work by themselves. Many wives from the
city go to the village in alternate periods for agricultural work in their village. But, a
large population is also of them, who have no time for agricultural activities as they
are busy in their services or jobs. These people give the land on adhia, on whom all
the agricultural work is done by another man and of whole production, half is given
to him. From the above table, it is evident that 42.5% (85) give their land on adhia,
while 41.5% do agricultural work by themselves or by their relatives.16% (32) gave
on response. Most of the respondents use chemical fertilizer in their fields (40.5%),
while 21% of the respondent use bio-fertilizer and other 21% use both bio- and
chemical fertilizers.
Table 5.4 (f) 1: Agricultural practices used

Agricultural practice Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative
Percent Percent
Valid Self doing 83 41.5 49.4 49.4
On adhia 85 42.5 50.6 100.0
Total 168 84.0 100.0
Total 200 100.0
Table 5.4 (f) 2: Type of fertilizer used
81
Fertilizer used Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative
Percent Percent
Valid Bio fertilizer 42 21.0 25.5 25.5
Chemical 81 40.5 49.1 74.5
Fertilizer 42 21.0 25.5 100.0
Both bio- 165 82.5 100.0
Missin chemical 35 17.5
g Total 200 100.0
Total System
(g) Means of Irrigation
There are various means of irrigation like tube well, river, canal etc. Tube well
is mostly used for irrigating land. In the following data, it comes clear that 63.5%
(127) of the respondents use tube wells for irrigation. 14% (28) use canals, while only
1% (2) use river as means of irrigation. 6% (12) use both tube well and canal, while
1% (2) uses all the above means of irrigation .14% (29) gave no response.
Table 5.4 (g): Means of Irrigation
Means of Irrigation Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative
Percent Percent
Valid Tubewell 127 63.5 73.8 73.8
Canal 28 14.0 16.3 90.1
River 2 1.0 1.2 91.3
Both tubewell 12 6.0 7.0 98.3
& canal
All the above 2 1.0 1.2 99.4
No response 1 .5 .6
Total 172 86.0 100.0 100.0
g 200 100.0
Total
82
Photo 5.10: Boaring for irrigation
(h) Means of cropping
For cropping the field, villagers use tractors and bullocks. Nowadays, most of
the farmers use tractors in place of bullocks as tractors do fast work. 67% (134) use
tractor for cropping field, while 13.5% (27) use bullocks, 1.5% (3) uses both bullocks
and tractors.
Table 5.4 (h): Means of cropping
Means of cropping Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent
Valid Tractor 134 67.0 81.7 81.7
Bullock 27 13.5 16.5 98.2
Both 3 1.5 1.8 100.0
Total 164 82.0 100.0
g 200 100.0
Total
83
(i) Number of bullocks and tractors
Of the total respondents, 55% (110) have no bullocks .13 % (26) have 2-3
bullocks, 8% and 7% have one and four bullocks respectively. 17% (34) have no
response. This shows that majority of the villagers have no bullocks with them, as
bullocks need special food and care, and their work is slow in comparison to tractors.
20.5% (41) have 1 tractor 2% (4) have 2 tractors for agriculture. A huge number i.e.
60.5% (121) have no tractors. These people take tractors in rent for cropping
purposes.
Table 5.4 (i) 1: Number of bullocks
Number of Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

bullocks Percent Percent
Valid one 16 8.0 9.6 9.6
two-three 26 13.0 15.7 25.3
four 14 7.0 8.4 33.7
none 110 55.0 66.3 100.0
Total 166 83.0 100.0
g
Total 200 100.0
Table 5.4 (i) 2: Number of tractors
Number of Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

tractors Percent Percent
Valid one 41 20.5 24.7 24.7
two 4 2.0 2.4 27.1
none 121 60.5 72.9 100.0
Total 166 83.0 100.0
g 200 100.0
84
Total
5.5 Family
Family is the primary social unit of society. Interpersonal relationships within

the family make family an endurable social unit. Family serves the function of
procreation and sexual gratification. In rural society, family plays a decisive role in
material and cultural life. The Indian village still remains a cluster of joint families.
But, nowadays due to fast urban life and economic reasons, joint families show
disintegration in their structure.
New opportunities to earn money in the city and also in the villages surrounded
by industrial and commercial buildings and urbanization encouraged the younger
generation to live an independent life from their larger families that caused more
family splits. That is why, in city, most people have nuclear families. Inspite of
urbanization and modernization, family has the power to withstand social changes. It
is the family that unites all members together by making sexual and emotional bond.
Older generations still bound by their traditions and lives in joint traditions and
live in joint families. Some new generations also bound by their traditions live in
joint families but due to services jobs in other cities and busy time schedule, they
don't give much time to their parents and other family members and live an
independent life of their own and gives rise to nuclear familiar. For better jobs and
carrier people always left their villages, this resulted in breakdown of large extended
or joint families.
(a) Type of family
There are two types of family in the city- nuclear and joint family. Data in the
following table clearly suggests that 66% (132) have joint families while 30.5% (61)
live in nuclear families. This shows that joint families are still dominant in our
society. Existing joint family is very different from its traditional type in respect of
structure, function and interpersonal relationships.
85
Table 5.5 (a): Type of family
Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Type of family
Percent Percent
Valid Joint 132 66.0 67.7 67.7

Nuclear 61 30.5 31.3 100.0
Total 195 97.5 100.0
Missin System 5 2.5
g 200 100.0
Total
(b) Size of family
Size of the family varies in every family. It may vary from 2 to 4 to 15-20
members. In a nuclear family, size of family remains 2-5, while in large extended or
joint families, size goes up to 20 or more. Some people live in city alone and their
whole family lives in their village. Some of them live with their relatives or friends,
while some live with their nuclear or joint families. Above data reveals that majority
of families have 5-8 members in their family i.e. 36.5% (73) have 5-8 member.
20.5% (41) have 9-12 members, 16% (32) live with 1-4 member in their family. 12%
(24) have 13-16 members in their family, 4.5% (9) have more than 16 members in
their family. 10.5% (21) gave no response. Education and family planning programs
have made great impact on peoples. As a result of which most of the peoples have
only one to two child.
86
Photo 5.11: Members of a family in Sherdih village
Table 5.5 (b): Size of family
Size of Freq. Percent Valid Cumulative

Family Percent Percent
Valid 1-4 32 16.0 16.2 16.2
5-8 73 36.0 37 53.2
9-12 41 20.0 20.2 73.4
13-16 24 12 12.3 85.7
No response 18 9.0 9.3 95.0
>16 9 4.5 5.0 100.0
Total 197 98.5 100.0
Missing
3 1.5
system
Total 200
(c) Number of children

Of the total sample, 29% (58) have two children, 14.5% (29) have three
children, 8% (16) have four children, and 8% (16) have no child while 6.5% (13)
have one child. Next 6.5% have 5 children, while 5.5% (11) have more than five
87
children. 22% (44) gave no response, of them many are unmarried. It shows that
younger generation has mostly 2-3 children.
Table 5.5 (c): Number of children
Number of children Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative
Percent Percent
Valid No child 16 8.0 10.1 10.1
One child 13 6.5 8.2 18.4
Two 58 29.0 36.7 55.1
Three 29 14.5 18.4 73.5
Four 16 8.0 11.2 84.7
>Five 13 6.5 8.2 92.9
No response 11 5.5 7.0 100.0
Total 158 79.0 100.0
Total
200 100.0
(d) Live along with in the city
Of the total respondents, some live with their parents, some lives with their
relatives or friends, while some live independently. Majority of them live with their
parents i.e. 63.5% (127). 24% (48) live separate or independently, 6% (12) lives with
friends, 2.5% (5) lives with relatives etc.
88
Table 5.5 (d): Live along with
Live along with Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative Percent

Percent
Valid Parents 127 63.5 66.1 66.1
Separates 48 24.0 25.0 91.1
Friends 12 6.0 6.3 97.4
Other relatives 5 2.5 2.6 100.0
Total 192 96.0 100.0
Total 200 100.0
(e) Service of both husband and wife
Due to some economic and career related reasons, most of the housewives also
do service with their husbands. Some families allow women to do service while
some still don't allow their wives to do service. As it becomes clear from the above
table, that majority of people said that their wives don't i.e. 79.5% (159) while 7.5%
(15) families are where both husband and wife do services, 13% (26) gave no answer.
Table 5.5 (e): Services of both husband and wife
Service of both Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Husband and Wife Percent Percent
Valid Yes 15 5.5 8.6 6.3
No 159 77.5 91.3 100.0
Total 174 87.0 100.0
g 200 100.0
Total
5.6 Marriage
Family appears as a result of marriage and it continues through marriage.

Therefore, marriage is an important institution. Marriage is permanent legal union
between man and women. Marriage enables a child to get a socially recognize father
and a mother.
89
(a) Marrying age of girl
In olden days, girls were married at very early age ranging from 13 to 16 yrs.
But nowadays, due to impact of education and other government rules, girls are
married at later age. Marrying age of girl nowadays varies from 20 to 35 yrs. or
more. Data in the table clearly suggests that majority of girls are married at the age
of 20-24 yrs. 42% (84) respondents said that in their family, girls are married at the
age of 20-24 yrs. In 28.5% (57) families, girls are married at age of 17-20 yrs. of age
12.5% (25) respondents said that marrying age of girl in their family is 24-28 yrs.
1% (2) said marrying age of girl is 28-32 yrs. Higher education and career
consciousness among girls increases the marrying age of girls.
Table 5.6 (a): Marrying age of girl
Marrying age of girl Frequenc Percent Valid Cumulative

y Percent Percent
Valid 17-20yrs 57 28.5 33.9 33.9
20-24 84 42.0 50.0 83.9
24-28 yrs 25 12.5 14.9 98.8
28-32yrs 2 1.0 1.2 100.0
Total 168 84.0 100.0
Missing 32 16.0
Total system 200 100.0
(b) Type of marriage
There were seven types of marriages in ancient India but at present only two
types of marriage in our society- arranged marriage and love marriage. Among the
total respondents, 67.5% (135) have done arranged marriages, while a small
percentage of 3.5% (7) have done love marriage. It reflects that our society is still
conservative society, in spite of development in so many areas.
90
Table 5.6 (b): Type of marriage
Type of marriage Freque Percent Valid Cumulativ
ncy Percent e Percent
Valid Arranged 135 67.5 95.1 95.1
marriage 7 3.5 4.9 100.0
Love marriage 142 71.0 100.0
Total 58 29.0
Total Missing system 200 100.0
(c) Place of marriage
The people who live in the city but still cling or bound to their village like to
perform marriages from their paternal villages, while others like to perform in the
city. Table related to data of place of marriage reveals, that 57% (114) perform
marriage ceremonies from their paternal villages, while 39% (78) perform from city,
where they live. Large number of respondents prefer paternal village for marriage,
because they feel that they have their roots, relationships and cooperation. They can
perform it by expending less money than city. The respondents who like city are not
very small, it means they feel comfort in city rather than village. It is assumed that
this number will increase in future.
Table 5.6 (c): Place of marriage

Place of marriage Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative
Percent Percent
Valid Paternal village 114 57.0 59.4 59.4
City 78 39.0 40.6 100.0
Total 192 96.0 100.0
Missing system 8 4.0
Total 200 100.0
91
(d) Marriage rites
In spite of modernization and urbanization, there are many people who like
their traditions and follow them. They follow their age old traditions and rites and
rituals with slight variations. From the following data, it becomes clear that majority
of respondents i.e. 85% (170) perform marriage by Vedic rites, while only 11% (22)
perform marriages by modern rites. They believe that marriage has some religious
aspect and they follow muhurt and lagna for avoiding all kinds of obstacles. These
beliefs have deep root in our social mind set.
Table 5.6 (d): Marriage rites
Marriage rites Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent
Valid Vedic rites 170 85.0 88.5 88.5
Modern rites 22 11.0 11.5 100.0
Total 192 96.0 100.0
Missing 8 4.0
(e) City marriage
In city, there are various marriage homes, hotels, where marriage ceremonies
take place. Data in the following table clearly indicates that a large percentage 44%
(88) now a day want to arrange marriages from marriage homes. Very close to that
percentage i.e. 42.5% (85) organize marriage parties from their homes. Very small
percentage i.e. 5.5% (11) Organize marriage from grand hotels. It reflects that most
of the respondents belong to medium class.
92
Table 5.6 (e): City marriage
City marriage Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent
Valid Grand hotel 11 5.5 6.0 6.0
Marriage home 88 44.0 47.8 53.8
Home 85 42.5 46.2 100.0
Total 184 92.0 100.0
Total
200 100.0
(f) Arrangement of marriage-
Table shows that 70% (140) like to arrange simple marriage, while 26% (52)
like to arrange marriage with heavy decoration, with variety of food items, with
modern audio-video systems etc.
Table 5.6 (f): Arrangement of marriage
Arrangement of Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

marriage Percent Percent
Valid Simple marriage 140 70.0 72.9 72.9
Heavy decoration 52 26.0 27.1 100.0
Total 192 96.0 100.0
Total 200 100.0
5.7 Educational status
Education is very necessary for development and progress of a society city or

country as a whole. Education makes a man civilized. High education is necessary
for betterment of socio-economic status of society. Government has started various
93
educational schemes, plans and developmental programs, to educate the people
mostly in villages. Government has also opened various schools and colleges for both
boys and girls and also for elder people in both villages and cities to educate more
and more people. Nowadays, everyone wants to be educated. Literacy levels of most
of the villages and cities have increased.
(a) Educational qualification-

Various Government schemes and plans have made great impact on
educational status of population. In earlier days, most of the people were mostly
matriculate or intermediate pass, many were illiterates. But nowadays, every one
wants to achieve higher education or degree, whether boys or girls. Data in the
following table clearly suggests that a large population of sample is postgraduate i.e.
44.5% (89) of total sample. 39% (78) are graduates. 10.5% (21) belongs to
matriculate and non-matriculate respectively. This shows that majority of peoples are
graduates and post graduates i.e. 83% of total sample.
Table 5.7 (a): Educational qualification
Educational qualification Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent
Valid Non-matriculate 3 1.5 1.5 1.5
Matriculate 8 4.0 4.0 5.5
Intermediate 21 10.5 10.6 16.1
Graduate 78 39.0 39.2 55.3
Postgraduate 89 44.5 44.7 100.0
Total 199 99.5 100.0
Missin System 1 .5
g 200 100.0
Total
94
(b) Literacy level of family
Education has increased the literacy level of most of the cities and villages.
From the following table, related to literacy level, it becomes clear that a large
percentage i.e. 71.5(143) shows that in their family all members are literates. In 10%
(20) and 7% (14) families, 5 to 6 and 9-10 members are literates. In 5% (10) families
respectively literates are 7-8. In 3% (6) and 1.5% (3) families, number of literates are
3-4 and 2 respectively.
Table 5.7 (b): Literacy level of family
Number of literates Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent
Valid 2 3 1.5 1.5 1.5
3-4 6 3.0 3.1 4.6
5-6 20 10.0 10.2 14.8
7-8 10 5.0 5.1 19.9
9-10 14 7.0 7.1 27.0
All 143 71.5 73.0 100.0
Total 196 98.0 100.0
System 4 2.0
Missing
Total 200 100.0
(c) Similar education

Similar education to both boys and girls- Government through their plans has
made great emphasis on girls’ education. Due to their worse condition in the society,
and lesser rights in comparison to man, government paid great attention on girls’
education. Modern parents also help in this motive. They give their girls higher
education and make them employed. This is shown by the following table that most
of the parents give their children similar education whether boy or girl. They make
no difference between a girl child and boy child, and provide them same care,
attention and love. Table shows that 75.5% (151) gave their girl child and boys
95
similar education, while a very small percentage of 1% (2) gives no similar
education. 23.5% (47) gave no response.
Photo 5.12: Junior high school in Sherdih village
Table 5.7 (c): Similar education
Similar education Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent
Valid Yes 151 75.5 98.7 98.7

No 2 1.0 1.3 100.0
Total 153 76.5 100.0
System 47 23.5
Missing
200 100.0
Total
(d) Child education and entertainment

(i) Medium of Study
Most of parents send their child to english medium schools. English is
necessary for a child to learn as most of the books, competitions and interview were
held in english. English also effects social status of a person.But due to high fees of
english medium schools and their love for hindi and indian culture, most of the
96
parents send their child to hindi medium school from the table, it comes clear that
34.5% (69) send their child to english medium school while 32.5 (65) send child to
hindi medium school.
Table 5.7 (d (i)): Medium of study
Medium of Study Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent
Valid English medium 69 34.5 51.5 51.5

Hindi medium 65 32.5 48.5 100.0
Total 134 67.0 100.0
System 66 33.0
Missin
g 200 100.0
Total
(ii) Type of Study
Earlier, students did only self study but with increasing competition and due to
tough and lengthy syllabus, nowadays, mot of the parents send their children to
coaching institutes and for tuitions etc. 44% (88) said that their children do self study,
while 20% (40) said that their children take the help of coaching institutes and
tuition.
Table 5.7 (d (ii)): Type of study
Type of Study Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent
Valid Self study 88 44.0 68.8 68.8
Coaching /tuition 40 20.0 31.3 100.0
Total 128 64.0 100.0
Total 200 100.0
97
(iii) Means to go to school
There are various means of transport through which children go to school.

Those whom school is near to home go on foot while others go by cycle, trolley,
school bus or with their parents. Of the total sample, 16% go to school by on foot;
other 16% by cycle, 14.5% (29) go to school by trolley or rickshaw. 9.5% (19) go to
school by school bus, while 5% go with parents. 3.5% go by moped. This shows that
majority of children go to school on foot, by bicycle and trolley or rickshaw.
Table 5.7 (d (iii)): Means to go to school
Means to go to school Freque Percent Valid Cumulative

ncy Percent Percent
Valid On foot 32 16.0 24.8 24.8
Trolley or rickshaw 29 14.5 22.5 47.3
School bus 19 9.5 14.7 62.0
Bicycle 32 16.0 24.8 86.8
Moped 7 3.5 5.4 92.2
With parents 10 5.0 7.8 100.0
Total 129 64.5 100.0
Total 200 100.0
(iv)Places to play
Due to increasing crime and other factors children mostly play in their home.
In their home, most of time, they play video games in computer, carom, ludo and
other games or they watch television. As it is clear from the data that 37% (74) play
at their homes while 16.5% play at playing ground 7.5% play in streets and 6% in
parks and other places.
Table 5.7 (d (iv)): Places to play
98
Places to play Frequen Percent Valid Cumulative
cy Percent Percent
Valid Playing ground 33 16.5 24.6 2 4.6
Park 12 6.0 9.0 33.6
Street 15 7.5 11.2 44.8
Home 74 37.0 55.2 100.0
Total 134 67.0 100.0
Total 200 100.0
5.8 Food habits
There are varieties of food available in region considered and every people
have its own choice and taste regarding food.
(a) Preferred daily food
In daily food items, many peoples like simple food diet. Most preferred daily
food is dal, chawal, roti, sabzi which is eaten by all people daily and in 12 months.
Table clearly suggests that 94.5% (189) preferred chawal-dal, roti-sabzi daily in their
diet 2.5% preferred puri, paratha sabzi, next 2.5% like dal chawal and fruit juice etc.
5% gave no response.
Table 5.8 (a): Daily food
Daily food Freq. Perce Valid Cumulative

. Percent Percent
Valid Dal-chawal,roti-sabzi 189 94.5 95.0 95.0
Puri, Paratha-sabzi 54 2.5 2.0 97.0
Dal-chawalfruit,juice 5 2.5 2.5 99.5
Total 199 99.5 .5 100.0
Missing system 1 0.5 100.0
Total 200 100.0
(b) Type of food
99
There are 2 types of food- simple and oily, fried food. Of total number of
respondents and 89.5% take simple food, while 9.5% like to eat oily, fried, food.
This shows that majority of people like simple food.
Table 5.8 (b): Type of food

Type of food Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative
Percent Percent
Valid Oily, fried food 19 9.5 9.6 9.6
Simple food 179 89.5 90.4 100.0
Total 198 99.0 100.0
Total 200 100.0
(c) Place of taking meal
Home is the place where people take rests, take meal and do other works with
their family. Majority of people almost all take meal at their home. Only those
people live alone or without their family take meal outside or in hotel. Data shows
that 100% people take meal at their home.
Table 5.8 (c): Place of taking meal
Place of taking meal Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent
valid Home 200 100.0 100.0 100.0
(d) Number of meal in a day
Generally meals are taken 2-3 times day, i.e., at the time of breakfast, lunch
and dinner. But it varies among population. As it is clearly shown in the table that
86.5% (173) take meal 2 times a day, 8.5% take meal 3 times and day while only
4.5% take meal once a day, 5% (1) take meal more than 3 times day.
100
Table 5.8 (d): Number of meals in a day
Number of meal in a day Freque Percent Valid Cumulative

ncy Percent Percent
Valid one time 9 4.5 4.5 4.5
two times 173 86.5 86.5 91.0
three times 17 8.5 8.5 99.5
>three times 1 0.5 0.5 100.0
Total 200 100.0 100.0
(e) Sitting object for taking meal-
Chatai or Peedha is the oldest object for sitting during meal's intake. Dining
table is the sitting object of modern generation Data shows that majority of people
still uses chatai or peedha as sitting object for taking meal.
Table 5.8 (e): Sitting object
Sitting on Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent
Valid Dining table 45 22.5 23.1 23.1
Chatai or 150 75.0 76.9 100.0
Peedha 195 97.5 100.0
Missing Total 5 2.5
(f) Presence at Dinner/Lunch-
Data in the table shows that 61.5% (123) take dinner/lunch together while 28.5
% (57) do not take dinner/lunch together. Due to busy work schedule, all members of
family are not present together at the time of meal.
101
Table 5.8 (f): Dinner/ Lunch
Presence at Dinner/Lunch Frequenc Percent Valid Cumulative

y Percent Percent
Valid Together 123 61.5 68.3 68.3
Not together 57 28.5 31.7 100.0
Total 180 90.0 100.0
Total 200 100.0
(g) Hotel visit
Generally, people go to hotel on special occasions with their family or friends.

Some people visit hotel 5-6 times or more in a year, while some visit hotel only 1 or
2 times, in a years. There are also populations of people who never go to hotel. Data
related to the hotel visit clearly shows that a large population i.e. 43% (86) never visit
hotel. 26.5% visit hotel in a yr. (once in a yr.) 19.5% are those who visit hotel
monthly. 7.5 visit hotel weekly while only 1% visit hotel everyday.
This shows that majority of population don't visit hotel or visit rarely probably due to
economic or healthy related matters.
Table 5.8 (g): Hotel visit
Hotel visit Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent
Valid Every day 2 1.0 1.0 1.0
Weekly 15 7.5 7.7 8.7
Monthly 39 19.5 20.0 28.7
Yearly 53 26.5 27.2 55.9
Never 86 43.0 44.1 100.0
Total 195 97.5 100.0
Total 200 100.0
102
(h) Daily intake of tea
Tea is most popular and important beverage of India. Generally people take tea 2-
3 times in a day but many of the students, officers and housewives take tea 7-8 times
in a day. Majority of population i.e. 65% (128) take 2-3 cups of tea in day while
21.5% take more than 3 cups tea in a day and 0.5% (1) are those who don't take tea.
Table 5.8 (h): Daily intake of tea
Daily intake of tea Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent
Valid One cup 25 12.5 12.7 12.7
Two or three cup 128 64.0 65.0 77.7
> Three cup 43 21.5 21.8 99.5
No tea 1 .5 .5 100.0
Total 197 98.5 100.0
Total
200 100.0
(i) Intake of juice /fruits, milk and chocolate / ice cream
(i) Data related to table of intake of juice/fruits shows that majority of people i.e.
82.5% (165) take juice and fruits occasionally, while only 12% who take daily, juice
and fruits.
Table 5.8 (I (i)): Juice/ Fruits
In take of juice/fruits Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent
Valid Daily 24 12.0 12.6 12.6
Occasionaly 165 82.5 86.4 99.0
rarely 2 1.0 1.0 100.0
Total 191 95.5 100.0
Total 200 100.0
103
(ii) In the table related to intake of fruits/ milk, it is shown that 72.5% (145) take milk
daily and 9.5% do not take milk daily.
Table 5.8 (I (ii)): Fruits/ Milk
Fruits/ milk Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent
Valid Yes 145 72.5 87.9 87.9
No 19 9.5 11.5 99.4
Rarely 1 .5 .6 100.0
Total 165 82.5 100.0
Total 200 100.0
(iii) In the table related to intake of chocolate and ice cream, it is shown that these
items are taken occasionally. 72.5% (145) take these items daily. All these data
shows that milk and fruits are taken mostly by the people daily while other item
juice/ chocolate, ice cream are taken occasionally.
Table 5.8 (I (iii)): Chocolate/ Ice cream
Chocolate / Ice Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

cream Percent Percent
Valid Daily 5 2.5 3.2 3.2
Occasionally 145 72.5 91.8 94.9
Never 8 4.0 5.1 100.0
Total 158 79.0 100.0
Total 200 100.0
104
(j) Preference to cold drink and juice
Now a days large no.of people become more health conscious while there are same
who don't care of their diets. Data shown in the table represents that majority of
people i.e. 85% (170) prefer juice/ lassi inspite of cold drink while only 10% who
like to drink cold drinks and lassi / juice. Only 3.5% like to drink Cold drink.
Table 5.8 (j): Cold drink/ Juice
Preference to Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent
Valid Cold drink 7 3.5 3.6 3.6
Juice/lassi 170 85.0 86.3 89.8
Both 20 10.0 10.2 100.0
Total 197 98.5 100.0
Total 200 100.0
(k) Use of milk
Milk is very nutritious for health. Mostly people use milk for drinking purpose
both for children and adults while a small percentage use milk only for making tea/
coffee etc. 11.5% (23) use milk only for drinking while 5% (10) use milk for making
tea. But a large population is of those who use milk for both purposes i.e. both for
drinking and for making tea/ coffee etc. i.e. 76.5% of the sample.
Table 5.8 (k): Use of milk
Use of milk Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent
Valid For making tea 10 5.0 5.4 5.4
For drinking milk 23 11.5 12.4 17.7
Both 153 76.5 82.3 100.0
Total 186 93.0 100.0
105
Missi 14 7.0
ng System 200 100.0
Total
(l) Preference for buying milk
The 44.5% population goes to dairy daily for buying milk, while 38% are those
who buy milk from milkman, who comes to their home daily. There is a small
percentage i.e. 5% of those people, who use only packet milk and buy it from shops.
Table 5.8 (l): Preference for buying milk
Preference for buying milk Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent
Valid To go to dairy 89 44.5 52.4 52.4

Home delivery 76 38.0 44.7 97.1
Packet milkbyshop 5 2.5 2.9 100.0
Total 170 85.0 100.0
g 200 100.0
total
(m) Daily milk consumption
It varies in every family. Data in the table shows that 43.5% consume 1-2 litres
of milk daily, while 22% use 1/2 to 1 litre daily .16.5% use 2-4 litres of milk while a
small % i.e. 1.5% use more than 4 litres of milk daily.
Table 5.8 (m): Daily milk consumption
Daily milk Frequenc Percent Valid Cumulative

consumption y Percent Percent
Valid 1/2- litre 44 22.0 26.3 26.3
106
1-2 litre 87 43.5 52.1 78.4
2-4 litre 33 16.5 19.8 98.2
>4 litre 3 1.5 1.8 100.0
Total 167 83.5 100.0
Total 200 100.0
Photo 5.13: Girl giving food to her cattle
(n) Food during watching television-
Nowadays, it becomes a habit of mostly children and also of some adults to

take food during television watching. It is clearly evident from the table that 57%
(114) take food during watching TV while 36% don't take food during TV.
Table 5.8 (n): Food during watching TV
Food during watching Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

TV Percent Percent
Valid Yes 114 57.0 60.6 60.6
No 72 36.0 38.3 98.9
Both 2 1.0 1.1 100.0
107
Total 188 94.0 100.0
Total 200 100.0
(o) Drug addiction-
Drug addiction is very bad habit of some people, mostly young generation. In
the table, it is evident that 83.5% don't take drugs while 5.5 % are drug addicted, 11%
gave no response.
Table 5.8 (o): Drug addiction
Drug addiction Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent
Valid yes 11 5.5 6.2 6.2
no 167 83.5 93.8 100.0
Total 178 89.0 100.0
Total 200 100.0
5.9 Money expenditure
There are varieties of items, on which people doe’s daily, monthly or yearly
expenditures. Food items are consumed daily. Without food no one can live
therefore, most of the expenditures are done on food items. Next expenditure is
mostly done for children, for their daily diet, clothes, medicine and mostly for their
education. Other expenditures are done on clothes, entertainment and skin care items.
As it is clear from the table that, 56.5% people said that most money is
expended for food items. 27.5% (54) expended money for children, 6% done money
expenditures on clothes, while a small percentage of 4% do expenditures on
entertainment. Only 1% said that their money is expended for ornaments and
beautifying products.
Table 5.9: Money expenditure
108
Expenditure on Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative
Percent Percent
Valid Food 102 56.5 54.0 54.0
Clothe 9 6 4.8 58.7
Entertainment 8 4 3.7 62.4
Children 54 27 24.9 87.3
Ornaments, 2 1.0 1.1 88.4
Cosmetics 189 94.5 2.6 91.0
Missin Total 11 5.5 .5 91.5
g System 200 100.0 8.5 100.0
Total 100.0
5.10 Household work
In a house, there are variety of household works like cleaning the rooms and
house daily, cooking food, washing and ironing clothes, washing utensils etc. Most of
all these works are done by housewives in every family. But in many families, all
members or some of them help them in household works.
(a) Help in household work
In the table, it is shown that in majority of families, all of them share the work
between them i.e. in 85% families, every one doe’s household work while in 12.5%
families, only housewives or younger daughters do these works.
Table 5.10 (a): Help in household work
Help in household work Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent
Valid Everyone does 170 85.0 87.2 87.2
Not does 25 12.5 12.8 100.0
Total 195 97.5 100.0
Missin System 5 2.5
g 200 100.0
total
109
(b) Servants
Some of the families have servant for household works. In the following table,
78% have no servant, while 19% have servant in their house for household works.
Table 5.10 (b): Servants
Servants Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent
Valid Have 38 19.0 19.6 19.6
Have not 156 78.0 80.4 100.0
Total 194 97.0 100.0
Missin System 6 3.0
g 200 100.0
Total
(c) Cloth washes
Oldest and most popular method of clothe washing is hand wash. But
nowadays, many of the housewives use washing machines for washing clothes. Some
of them give the clothes to dhobi for washing. 79% (158) wash clothes by hands,
15% use washing machines for washing clothes, 2.5% give the clothes to dhobi for
washing. 1% washes clothes both by hands and washing machine while next 1% use
hand wash and take help of dhobi also.
Table 5.10 (c): Cloth wash
Cloth wash Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent
Valid By hands 158 79.0 80.2 80.2
Washing machine 30 15.0 15.2 95.4
Dhobi 5 2.5 2.5 98.0
Hand & washing
machine both 2 1.0 1.0 99.0
Hand & Dhobi 2 1.0 1.0 100.0
Total 197 98.5 100.0
Total 200 100.0
110
(d) Ironing dress-
Data in the table clearly shows that majority of people self iron their dresses
i.e. 59% of total sample, while 27.5% give the clothes to dhobi for ironing. 2.5% take
the help of the servants, and 2% are those who either give the clothes to dhobi for
ironing or them self iron clothes, according to their conditions.
Table 5.10 (d): Ironing dress
Ironing dress Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent
Valid Yourself 118 59.0 64.8 64.8
Servant 5 2.5 2.7 67.6
Dhobi 55 27.5 30.2 97.8
Dhobi & self 4 2.0 2.2 100.0
Total 182 91.0 100.0
g 200 100.0
Total
5.11: Dress
Dress (clothes) is used to cover the body. Early men were lived naked but with
process of civilization, they used to cover their body with leaves and barks of the
trees. With this, started the development of clothes and dresses to cover the body.
Nowadays, clothes are designed by fashion designers and are weared by people,
according to the fashion trend and style.
(a) Why wears clothes?
There are different reasons behind wearing clothes. Each person has its own
idea. But one big reason is to cover the body. Other reasons are to protect the body
from bad evil, bad weather or to attract others. Of the total data, 40% (8) said that
they wear clothes to cover their body, 29.5% give reason behind wearing clothes is
that to protect body from bad weather. 19% wear clothes to attract others, while 6.5%
wear clothes to protect body from bad evil etc.
Table 5.11 (a): Reasons to wear clothes
111
Why wears clothes Freque Percent Valid Cumulative
ncy Percent Percent
Vali To cover body 80 40.0 42.1 42.1
d
To protect from bad evil 13 6.5 6.8 48.9
To protect from bad 59 29.5 31.1 80.0
weather 38 19.0 20.0 100.0
To attract others 190 95.0 100.0
Total 10 5.0
Total
(b) Dress preference by men
Among men, majority of people i.e. 55.5% prefer pant-shirt, 9.5% prefer dhoti-
kurta. Another 9.5% prefer pant-shirt, jeans-t-shirt and kurta-paizama. 6.5% prefer
jeans- t-shirt only, 1.5% prefers kurta- paizama.
Table 5.11 (b): Dress preference by men
Dress preference by men Freque Percent Valid Cumulative

ncy Percent Percent
Valid Pant-shirt 111 55.5 67.3 67.3
Kurta-paijama 3 1.5 1.8 69.1
Jeans-tshirt 13 6.5 7.9 77.0
Dhoti-kurta 19 9.5 11.5 88.5
Pant-shirt,T-shirt 19 9.5 11.5 100.0
& kurta-paizama
Total 165 82.5 100.0
Total 200 100.0
(c) Dress preference by women
Among women, most preferred and used dress is sari i.e. 33% of women prefer
sari as their daily dress. 7.5% wear salwar-kurta, 4.5 prefer both sari and salwar-
112
kurta, while 2.5% like to wear only jeans-top etc. This shows that most preferred
dress among men and women is pant-shirt and sari respectively.
Table 5.11 (c): Dress preferences by women
Dress preference by Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

women Percent Percent
Valid Sari 66 33.0 68.8 68.8
Salwar-kurta 15 7.5 15.6 84.4
Jeans/top 5 2.5 5.2 89.6
Skirt-top 1 .5 1.0 90.6
Sari & salwar 9 4.5 9.4 100.0
kurta 96 48.0 100.0
Missin Total 104 52.0
g
System 200 100.0
Total
(d) Number of dresses buys in a year
Generally 2-3 dresses are buys in a year, especially on festive occasions. A

large percentage i.e. 48.5% buys 1-2 dress in a year. 36.5% buy 3-5 dress in year,
while only 13.5% buy more than 5 dresses in a year.
Table 5.11 (d): Number of dresses buys in a year
Number of dresses buy Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

in a year Percent Percent
Valid 1-2 97 48.5 49.2 49.2
3-5 73 36.5 37.1 86.3
>5 27 13.5 13.7 100.0
Total 197 98.5 100.0
Missin System 3 1.5
g
200 100
Total
113
(e) Occasion on your buy dress
Generally people buy dress on special or festive occasions, while there are also
a large percentage of people who buy dress on non-festive occasions. If we infer our
data, we found that 49.5% (99) buy dress without any occasion, while 47% (94) buy
dress on festive occasions. A small percentage of only 5% (1) buy dress according to
their need.
Table 5.11 (e): Occasions to buy dresses
Occasion you buy dress Freque Percent Valid Cumulative
ncy Percent Percent
Valid Festive occasion 94 47.0 48.5 48.5
Without any 99 49.5 51.0 99.5
occasion 1 .5 .5 100.0
According to need 194 97.0 100.0
Missin Total 6 3.0
g
System 200 100.0
Total
(f) Children dress
(i) Child demand for dress
According to 51.5% parents, their child not often demands for dress, while
25.5% parents told that their children often demand for a new dress.
Table 5.11 (f (i)): Child demand for dress
Child demand for dress Frequen Percent Valid Cumulative

cy Percent Percent
Valid Often demand 51 25.5 33.1 33.1
Not often 103 51.5 66.9 100.0
demand 154 77.0 100.0
Total 46 23.0
Total Missing system 200 100.0
114
(ii) Children wear dress
In modern times, children wear dress according to their own likes and dislikes.
This is cleared from the data that 41.5% people said that their children wear dress,
what they like, while 34% said that their children wear dress according to their
parents likes and dislikes.
Table 5.11 (f (ii)): Child wear dress
Children wear dress Frequen Percent Valid Cumulative

cy Perce Percent
nt
Valid What you like 68 34.0 45.0 45.0
What they like 83 41.5 55.0 100.0
Total 151 75.5 100.0
Total 200 100.0
(g) Sandal type
There is fashion of high heel among most of the modern age younger women
or girl. But, due to some health problems, huge work schedule, nowadays, large
numbers of 42% (84) women like to wear flat heel chappal / sandal, while 9.5% wear
high heel sandals.
Table 5.11 (g): Sandal type
Sandal type Frequenc Percent Valid Cumulative

y Percent Percent
Valid Flat heel 84 42.0 81.6 81.6
High heel 19 9.5 18.4 100.0
Total 103 51.5 100.0
g 200 100.0
Total
115
(h) Repairing footwear
A large population i.e. 71% (142) gives their old or broken shoes or sandal for
repairing, while 17.5% (3.5) buy new shoe/ sandal in place of old /broken one.
Table 5.11 (h): Repairing footwear
Repairing footwear Freque Percent Valid Cumulative

ncy Percent Percent
Valid Repair shoes 142 71.0 80.2 80.2
Buy new one 35 17.5 19.8 100.0
Total 177 88.5 100.0
g 200 100.0
Total
5.12 Information, communication and entertainment
There are various sources of information and entertainment. These are

necessary for every one for their overall developments of personality.
(a) Newspaper reading (man/ women)
Newspapers are the oldest source of information. They give information

related to various evident take places in villages, city country and also abroad. In
villages, newspapers are not available to everyone, but in cities, almost all read
newspapers. Mostly men read more newspapers in comparison to women. In the
table, it is shown that 89.5% population read newspaper daily, while 8% (16) don't
read newspaper.
Table 5.12 (a): Newspaper reading
Newspaper reading Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative
Percent Percent
Valid yes 179 89.5 91.8 91.8
no 16 8.0 8.2 100.0
116
Total 195 97.5 100.0
Missin System 5 2.5
g 200 100.0
Total
(b) Watch
Watches are very useful for everyone as all the works are done according to
time. Data in the following table shows that 94% (188) have watch with them, while
4.5% have no watch with them.
Table 5.12 (b): Watch
Watch Frequency Percent Valid Cumulativ
Percent e Percent
Valid have 188 94.0 95.4 95.4
have not 9 4.5 4.6 100.0
Total 197 98.5 100.0
Missin System 3 1.5
g 200 100.0
Total
(c) Types of telephone
Telephones are important means of telecommunication, with the help of which,

one can talk with his/ her relative living in India an abroad. These help in decreasing
distances between two persons. There are varieties of telephone sets like fixed phone,
cordless and mobile phones. Nowadays, most preferred telephone is mobile phone, as
these are easy to handle and one can carry them from one to another place easily.
Data in the table clears that 32.5% use mobile phones, 27% use both mobile
and fixed phones, 14% have no telephones. 7.5% have all types of telephones with
them. 1% has only cordless phone, 4.5% gave no response.
117
Table 5.12 (c): Types of telephone
Types of telephone Frequenc Percent Valid Cumulative

y Percent Percent
Valid Fixed hone 26 13.0 13.6 13.6
Cordless 2 1.0 1.0 14.7
Mobile 65 32.5 34.0 48.7
Fixed, mobile 54 27.0 28.3 77.0
All the above 15 7.5 7.9 84.8
None 29 14.5 15.2 100.0
Total 191 95.5 100.0
Missing 9 4.5
(d) Types of televisions:
Television is very important source of information and entertainment.

Television shows variety of programs related to news, sports, TV serials, films and
informative programmes. These are also an important man of communication. One
can easily get news of evident taken place in different part of country related to every
field with them.
Table 5.12 (d): Types of televisions
Types of televisions Frequenc Percent Valid Cumulative

y Percent Percent
Valid Color 131 65.5 66.8 66.8
Black &white 43 21.5 21.9 88.8
Both 11 5.5 5.6 94.4
None 11 5.5 5.6 100.0
Total 196 98.0 100.0
Missin System 4 2.0
g 200 100.0
118
Total
(e) Number of TV Sets
Most of the families have one TV set with them while some have two so three
TV sets. Data is the following table shows that 64.5%, families have only one set of
TV while 15% have two TV sets. 5% have three TV sets 3.5%, have more than three
sets of T.V. In large families, number of TV sets is more in comparison to nuclear
families.
Table 5.12 (e): Number of TV sets
Number of TV sets Frequency Percent Valid Cumulativ

Percent e Percent
Valid 1 129 64.5 73.3 73.3
2 30 15.0 17.0 90.3
3 10 5.0 5.7 96.0
>3 7 3.5 4.0 100.0
Total 176 88.0 100.0
g 200 100.0
Total
119
Photo 5.14: Urban facilities in village
(f) Those having no TV
There are also a population which has no TV, of these peoples, many of them
i.e. 56% (112) don't go to neighbor’s house to watch TV, while 6.5% (13) go to
neighbor’s house to watch TV.
Table 5.12 (f): Having no TV
Those who have no TV Frequenc Percen Valid Cumulative

y t Percent Percent
Valid Go neighbor’s 13 6.5 10.4
house 10.4
Don't watchTV 112 56.0 89.6
Total 125 62.5 100.0 100.0
g 200 100.0
Total
(g) Cable connection
Cable channel have wide network in India. These are spread over a large
population. Nowadays most of the TV owners have cable connection in their TV
while some have no cable connection. Of the total sample, 47.5% (95) have cable
connection in their TV sets, while 44% (88) have no cable connection.
Table 5.12 (g): Cable connection
Cable connection Freque Percent Valid Cumul.

ncy Percent Percent
Valid Have cable 95 47.5 51.9 51.9
connection 88 44.0 48.1 100.0
No connection 183 91.5 100.0
Missin Total 17 8.5
120
g System 200 100.0
Total
(h) Watching hours of TV
Watching hours of TV varies from 1 hr. to 2 or more hrs. Some people watch
TV for 4-6 hrs or more. In the following table, it is shown that majority of people
watch TV for 2 hrs. 24% (48) watch TV for 1 hr. daily, while 16% watch TV for
more than 2 hrs.
Table 5.12 (h): Watching hours
Watching hours of Frequency Percent Valid Cumulativ

TV Percent e Percent
Valid 1 hour 48 24.0 27.9 27.9
2 hour 92 46.0 53.5 81.4
>2 hour 32 16.0 18.6 100.0
Total 172 86.0 100.0
g 200 100.0
Total
(i) Favorites TV programs
There are variety of channel and programs in TV. In news channels, only news
and related programs are shown, while in informative like discovery and national
geographic channels, various scientific and historical programs are shown. Other
channels show serials, films, sports etc. Of these various TV programs, 25%
population watch only news programs, 18.5 watch informative programs, another
18.5% watch news, informative and sports related programs. 13% watch only TV
serials while 7.5% watch movies, 4% watch sports and 8.5% watch all types of above
mentioned programs.
121
Table 5.12 (i): Favorite programs
Favorites TV programs Frequen Percent Valid Cumulative

cy Percent Percent
Valid News 50 25.0 26.3 26.3
Movie 15 7.5 7.9 34.2
TV serials 26 13.0 13.7 47.9
Informative 37 18.5 19.5 67.4
Sports 8 4.0 4.2 71.6
News,informative & 29 14.5 15.3 86.8
sports 8 4.0 4.2 91.1
News & sports 17 8.5 8.9 100.0
All 190 95.0 100.0
Missin Total 10 5.0
g System 200 100.0
Total
(j) Restriction for TV watching
There are many parents, who make restriction on their children for TV
watching, 56.5% (113) make restriction for TV watching while 30.5% (61) make no
restrictions.
Table 5.12 (j): Restrictions on watching TV
Restriction for TV Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

watching Percent Percent
Valid Yes 113 56.5 64.9 64.9
No 61 30.5 35.1 100.0
Total 174 87.0 100.0
g 200 100.0
122
Total
(k) Watching film
Watching movie in cinema hall is a different experience and there is a craze

among younger generation to watch movie in cinema hall. But due to various movie
channels in TV and film CD's in market, a large population watch films in their TV
or in computer and CD player. 53.5% (107) watch film at home on CD player,
computer and TV; while 19.5% (39) go to cinema hall to see movie, 2% watch films
both on TV and cinema hall. 6.5% never see films.
Table 5.12 (k): Watching film
Watching film Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent
Valid Go to cinema hall 39 19.5 23.9 23.9
Home on CD /TV 107 53.5 65.6 89.6
Never see films 13 6.5 8.0 975
Both 4 2.0 2.5 100.0
Total 163 81.5 100.0
Total 200 100.0
(l) Visit to cinema hall
Those who watch films in cinema hall, visit cinema hall 2-3 times in a year,
while some of them visit cinema hall weekly or monthly. Table clearly shows that
majority of viewers visit cinema hall 2-3 time in year, while 36.5% (73) never visit
cinema hall. 8% go to cinema hall every week, while 1% every day visit cinema hall.
Table 5.12 (l): Visit to cinema hall
Visit to Cinema hall Frequenc Percent Valid Cumulative

y Percent Percent
Valid Every day 2 1.0 1.1 1.1
Every week 16 8.0 8.5 9.5
2-3 time in a 98 49.0 51.9 61.4
year 73 36.5 38.6 100.0
123
never 189 94.5 100.0
Missin Total 11 5.5
g System 200 100.0
Total
(m) Variety of films
There are varieties of films like films based on family drama, violent films
comedy films, love triangles, moral and religious films etc. Above data in the table
clearly shows that a large percentage i.e. 46.5% like to watch family drama films
2.5% like to watch comedy films 10% like both comedy and family drama films. 5%
watch love triangles, 4.5% watch violent films and 2.5% like to watch moral and
religious films.
Table 5.12 (m): Variety of films
Film Variety Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent
Valid Family drama 93 46.5 49.7 49.7
Violent films 9 4.5 4.8 54.5
Comedy films 50 25.0 26.7 81.3
Love triangles 10 5.0 5.3 86.6
Family & comedy 20 10.0 10.7 97.3
films 5 2.5 2.7 100.0
Moral & religious 187 93.5 100.0
Missin films 13 6.5
g Total 200 100.0
Total System
(n) Computer
Computer is an electro mathematical device used mainly for calculation, data

storage, and web designing for various other purposes. Main purpose of computer is
study and official works. It is used in various offices, banks and academic
institutions, hospitals etc. Nowadays computer knowledge is required for everyone.
Other uses of computer are for entertainment purposes .Of the total data, 74% (148)
have no computer while 19.5% have computer.
124
Table 5.12 (n): Computer
Computer Frequenc Percent Valid Cumulative

y Percent Percent
Valid Have 39 19.5 20.3 20.3
Have not 148 74.0 79.1 99.5
Total 187 93.5 0.5 100.0
Missin System 13 6.5 100.0
g 200 100.0
Total
(o) Use of computer
Computers are used mainly for study and official purpose. As it is shown in the table
that 15.5% people use computer for study purposes. 2.5% use computer for official
works only 1% use computer for entertainment only.
Table 5.12 (o): Use of computer
Use of computer Frequenc Percent Valid Cumulative

y Percent Percent
Valid Study 31 15.5 81.6 81.6
Entertainmet 2 1.0 5.3 86.8
Officialpurpose 5 2.5 13.2 100.0
Total 38 19.0 100.0
g 200 100.0
Total
(p) Internet facility
Internet is web of information. Many computer are connected to internet for

gathering information related to all fields whether education literature, business,
films, TV etc. But all of them have no internet connection in their computer. 69%
(138) have no internet facility in their computer while 6% (12) have internet
connection in their computes.
125
Table 5.12 (p): Internet facility
Internet facility Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent
Valid Yes 12 6.0 8.0 8.0
No 138 69.0 92.0 100.0
Total 150 75.0 100.0
Total 200 100.0
(q) Summer tour
There are many people who plan to spend their holiday in hill stations or other
tourist places. But due to economic reasons and busy life, some people don't go for
summer tour. In the following table, it is shown that majority of people don't go for
summer tour i.e. 51% of total sample while 45.5% (91) go for summer tour.
Table 5.12 (q): Summer tours
Summer tour Frequenc Percent Valid Cumulative

y Percent Percent
Valid Yes 91 45.5 472 47.2
No 102 51.0 52.8 100.0
Total 193 96.5 100.0
Total 200 100.0
5.13 Health: Treatment, body care and fitness
For a good looking and healthy body, people make special attention for their
body care, fitness and treatment from diseases.
(a) Place of treatment in the City
A number of hospitals and nursing homes are present in the city for treatment
of diseases. Table shows that 49.5% go to nursing homes for treatment while 44% go
126
to government hospitals for treatment of diseases 1.5% go to both the places like
nursing homes and hospitals.
Table 5.13 (a): Place of treatment
Place of treatment Freq Perce Valid Cumulati

uenc nt Percent ve
y Percent
Valid Government hospital 88 44.0 46.3 46.3
Nursing home 99 49.5 52.1 98.4
Both 3 1.5 1.6 100.0
Total 190 95.0 100.0
Total 200 100.0
(b) Types of treatment
There are generally three types of medicinal treatment in the city, which are
allopathic, ayurvedic and homeopathic. In the following table, it is found that 63.5%
(127) people prefer allopathic treatment only while 14% take homeopathic and 12.5%
take ayurvedic treatment respectively. Next 3% use both allopathic and homeopathic
treatment, 2.5% both ayurvedic and homeopathic while 1.5% take allopathic and
ayurvedic treatment.
127
Table 5.13 (b): Types of treatment
Type of treatment Frequ Percen Valid Cumul

ency t Perce ative
nt Percent
Valid Allopathic 127 63.5 65.5 65.5
Homeopathic 28 14.0 14.4 79.9
Ayurvedic 25 12.5 12.9 92.8
Alopathic &ayurvedic 3 1.5 1.5 94.3
Allopathic,homeopathic 6 3.0 3.1 97.4
Ayurvedic,homeopathic 5 2.5 2.6 100.0
Total 194 97.0 100.0
Missin System 6 3.0
g 200 100.
Total 0
(c) Body Care
Body care includes body massage, cleaning teeth, body and hair. Baby's body
needs specials care and attention.
(i) Means of cleaning teeth: Teeth are cleaned in olden days by fingers and datoon
of neem trees. Nowadays, most of the people use toothbrush for cleaning teeth. As it
is clear from the data, that 82.5% use toothbrush for cleaning teeth while 9% use
datoons for cleaning their teeths. 3.5% use fingers and 2% use both fingers and
toothbrush for cleaning their teeth.
Table 5.13 (c (i)): Teeth care
Means of cleaning teeth Freq Perc Valid Cumulative
uenc enta Percentage Percentge
y ge
Valid Datoon 18 9.0 9.3 9.3
Fingers 7 3.5 3.6 12.9
Toothbrush 165 82.5 85.1 97.9
128
Datoon&toothbrus 4 2.0 2.1 100.0
Total 194 97.0 100.0
Total 200 100.
0
(ii) Items for teeth cleaning
Salt and oil are used from olden times to clean teeth but nowadays toothpastes
take their place and are used in large percentage. 78% of total population use colgate
and other toothpastes for their teeth while 16% use dabur red toothpaste i.e.
ayurvedic toothpaste only 3% use salt and oil for cleaning their teeths.
Table 5.13 (c (ii)): Teeth cleaning
Items for teeth cleaning Freq Percent Valid Cumul.
uenc Percent Percent
y
Valid Salt & oil 3 1.5 1.6 1.6
Dabur red toothpaste 32 16.0 16.8 18.3
Colgate & other 156 78.0 81.7 100.0
Toothpaste 191 95.5 100.0
Total 9 4.5
Total
(iii) Oil on hair

Hair oils are very necessary for growth of healthy and shiny hairs. Some
people use oil daily on their hairs, while same use weekly or monthly. The data in
the following table reveals that a large percentage i.e. 50% use oil daily on their hairs,
35% use oil weekly on hairs. 3% use no oil on hair while 1.5% uses hair cream in
place of oils on hair.
129
Table 5.13 (c (iii)): Oil on hair
Oil on hair Freque Percent Valid Cumulative
ncy Percent Percent
Valid Daily 100 50.0 55.9 55.9
Weekly 70 35.0 39.1 95.0
Hair cream 3 1.5 1.7 96.6
No oil on hair 6 3.0 3.4 100.0
Total 179 89.5 100.0
Total 200 100.0
(iv) Body massage
Massage is very good for body. It makes blood circulation in whole body and makes
them strong. 63.5% people massage their body daily while 28% don't massage their
body.
Table 5.13 (c (iv)): Body massage
Body massage Frequenc Percent Valid Cumul

y Percent ative
Percent
Valid Yes 127 63.5 69.4 69.4
No 56 28.0 30.6 100.0
Total 183 91.5 100.0
Total 200 100.0
(v) Body soap
Soaps are used during bath for cleaning body. The data in the table shows that
63.5% use soap daily, 17.5% use soap weekly, 14% use soaps rarely and 5% use no
soaps.
Table 5.13 (c (v)): Body soap
130
Body Soap Frequency Percent Valid Cumulati
Percent ve
Percent
Valid Daily 127 63.5 66.5 66.5
Weekly 35 17.5 18.3 84.8
Rarely 28 14.0 14.7 99.5
None 1 .5 .5 100.0
Total 191 95.5 100.0
Total 200 100.0
(vi) Hair washing item
There are varieties of items/ for washing hair. Data in the table clearly
represents that most of the respondents use shampoos for washing their hair i.e. 37%
of total sample, 29% use chemical shampoo for washing hair, 13.5% use amla, reetha
and shikakai on their hairs while 6.5% use kali mathi to wash their hair only 3% use
soaps for washing hair.
Table 5.13 (c (vi)): Washing hair
Washing hair item Frequenc Perce Valid Cumu.

y ntage per. per.
Valid Kali mitti 13 6.5 7.3 7.3
Awla, reetha, 27 13.5 15.1 22.3
Shikakai 74 37.0 41.3 63.7
Herbal shampoo 59 29.5 33.0 96.6
Chemical 6 3.0 3.4 100.0
shampoo 179 89.5 100.0
Missing Soap 21 10.5
Total Total 200 100.0
System
(vii) Baby Care

131
It includes baby massage and baby feeding etc. In the table related to milk
feeding to baby, it is showing that 36% feed their baby their own milk while 4 don't
feed their own milk to baby. The table related to data of baby milk shows that
most used milk among babies is cow milk as it is easily digested and very nutritious
for baby. In the table, it is shown that 37.5% of total sample give there babies, cow
milk to drink, while a very small percentage gives powder milk and other milks to
babies. In the table related to baby massage oil, it is clearly evident that most used
baby massage oil us mustard oil ie. used among 41.5 % population 8 % use dabur red
and other oil for their babies massage, 7.5 % use olive oil for there babies body.
Table 5.13 (c (vii)): Baby care
Baby Care Frequ Percent Valid Cumulati

ency Percent ve
Percent
Valid Mustard oil 83 41.5 72.8 72.8
Olive oil 15 7.5 13.2 86.0
Dabur red & other 16 8.0 14.0 100.0
oil 114 57.0 100.0
(viii) Time for body fitness
There are large numbers of people who make time for body fitness out of their
daily routine works. 79.5 % make time for body fitness while 17.5 % have no time
for body fitness, thus shows that a large population is conscious for their fitness.
Table 5.13 (c (viii)): Teeth care
Time for body fitness Frequenc Percent Valid Cumulative

y Percent Percent
Valid Yes 159 79.5 82.0 82.0
No 35 17.5 18.0 100.0
Total 194 97.0 100.0
132
Total 200 100.0
(ix) What to do for fitness?
For making body fit and strong, people do various exercises, yoga, cycling,
swimming etc.. Walking and yoga are mostly used for body fitness. Data in the table
reveals that 33 % of total sample do walking and 25 % do yoga daily for their health,
8 % do cycling and 6 % do jhhadu for making their body fit, other exercise used for
fitness are swimming etc. Dieting is also used for making body slim and fit.
Table5.13 (c (ix)): Fitness
What to do for fitness Freque Percent Valid Cumul

ncy Percent ative
Percent
Valid Walking 66 33.0 34.7 34.7
Yoga 50 25.0 26.3 61.1
Cycling 16 8.0 8.4 69.5
Swimming 2 1.0 1.1 70.5
Jhhadu-pochha 12 6.0 6.3 76.8
Other exercises 7 3.5 3.7 80.5
Dieting 6 3.0 3.2 83.7
Walking & yoga 11 5.5 5.8 89.5
Walking, yoga & 5 2.5 2.6 92.1
Dieting 4 2.0 2.1 94.2
No exercise 6 3.0 3.2 97.4
Walking &cycling 5 2.5 2.6 100.0
Walking,yoga &
swimming 190 95.0 100.0
Total 10 5.0
Total Missing System 200 100.0
133
5.14 Women ornaments and makeup
(a) Ornaments: Ornaments very important for a woman and they increase the beauty
of women. Most of the women use golden ornament. 47.5% people said that women
use golden ornaments while 5.5% use artificial ornaments. There are also 35 %
people, who don't wear ornament while 1 % uses both golden and artificial
ornaments.
Table 5.14 (a): women ornaments
Women ornaments Frequ Percent Valid Cumulative
ency Percent Percent
Valid Artificial 11 5.5 6.2 6.2
Golden 95 47.5 53.4 59.6
None 70 35.0 39.3 98.9
Both 2 1.0 1.1 100.0
Total 178 89.0 100.0
g 200 100.0
Total
(b) Makeup: Sindoor, bangles, payal bichia are the ornament of married women. Of
the total sample, 38.5 % use sindoor, while 4 % use no sindoor on their mang.
Bangles are wered by 37 % of the population, 2 % don’t wear bangles. Payal and
bichia are used by 36 % women while 1 % doesn’t wear payal and bichia on their
134
feet. Women are famous for makeup, it is found that 25.5 % do makeup occasionally,
11.5 % do makeup daily, and 7.5 % do no makeup.
Table 5.14 (b): Sindoor, Bangles, Payal / Bichhiya

Sindoor Frequenc Percent Valid Cumulativ
y Percent e Percent
Valid Yes 77 38.5 90.6 94.9
No 8 4.0 9.4 100.0
Total 85 42.5 100.0
Total 200 100.0
Bangles Frequenc Percent Valid Cumulativ

y Percent e Percent
Valid Yes 74 37.0 94.9 94.9
No 4 2.0 5.1 100.0
Total 78 39.0 100.0
Total 200 100.0
Payal, Bichia Frequenc Percent Valid Cumulativ

y Percent e Percent
Valid Yes 72 36.0 97.3 97.3
No 2 1.0 2.7 100.0
Total 74 37.0 100.0
Total 200 100.0
135
(c) Visit to Beauty parlor
In the table, it is shown that 42 % don’t visit to beauty parlor, 14.5% visit
occasionally, 9.5 % visit parlor monthly while only 2 % visit parlor every week. This
shows that there is very small percentage of women among medium class families
who visit beauty parlor.
Table 5.14 (c): Parlour visit
Visit to Beauty parlour Frequenc Percent Valid Cumulative

y Percent Percent
Valid Daily 23 11.5 25.8 25.8
Occasionall 51 25.5 57.3 83.1
y 15 7.5 16.9 100.0
No makeup 89 44.5 100.0
5.15 Sanskar
Sanskar are certain rituals which are performed from birth to death, some
follow then while some don’t follow them. These are the building and ordering force
of a society.
(a) Sanskar:
In the table related to sanskar performance, it is shown that 86 % of total

percentage performs sanskar, while 8.5 % don’t perform sanskars.
Table 5.15 (a): Sanskar
Perform sanskars Frequen Percen Valid Cumulative

cy t Percen Percent
t
Valid Yes 172 86.0 91.0 91.0
No 17 8.5 9.0 100.0
Total 189 94.5 100.0
136
Total 200 100.0
(b) Worship of God
In the table related to worship of God; it is evident that 91.5% worship God
daily while 6% do not worship God. During worship, many of the devotees touch
their head on the feet of the God and also touch God feet by their hands. In the table
it is clearly shown that 73% touch their head and hand to the God's feet during
worshipping God while 24.5% don't touch God's feet.
Table 5.15 (b): Worship of God
Worship Frequenc Percent Valid Cumulative

y Percent Percent
Valid Yes 183 91.5 93.8 93.8
No 12 6.0 6.2 100.0
Total 195 97.5 100.0
Total 200 100.0
(c) Worship place
In every house, there is a place for worship. It is shown in the table that 94.5%
have a worship place in their house. Only 2.5% have no place for worship.
Table 5.15 (c): Worship place
Worship place Frequenc Percent Valid Cumulative

y Percent Percent
Valid Yes 189 94.5 97.4 97.4
No 5 2.5 2.6 100.0
Total 194 97.0 100.0
Total 200 100.0
137
Photo 5.15: Worship place in Medua village
(d) Mandir Visit
Mandir is the place where people worship God. Some visit mandir daily, while some
visit occasionally. In the following table it is shown that 36% visit mandir
occasionally, 32.5% visit mandir every week, 23.5%, visit mandir every week, 4.5%
don't visit mandir.
Table 5.15 (d): Mandir visit
Mandir Visit Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent
Valid Everyday 47 23.5 24.4 24.4
Every week 65 32.5 33.7 58.0
Occasionally 72 36.0 37.3 95.3
None 9 4.5 4.7 100.0
Total 193 96.5 100.0
Missin System 7 3.5
g 200 100.0
Total
138
(e) Touching grand's feet
In many families, grand peoples are respected by their younger and they touch
their grand's feet 51.5% touch their grand's feet daily while 42% don't touch their
grand's feet.
Table 5.15 (e): Touching grand’s feet
Touching grand's feet Freque Percent Valid Cumulativ

ncy Percent e Percent
Valid Yes 103 51.5 55.1 55.1
No 84 42.0 44.9 100.0
Total 187 93.5 100.0
Total 200 100.0
(f) On guest visit
On guest visit, generally people welcome their guests. Data in the table shows
that 97% welcome their guests.
Table 5.15 (f): Guest visit
On guest visit Frequ Percent Valid Cumulati

ency Percent ve
Percent
Valid Welcome & give 194 97.0 100.0 100.0
tea to them
Total 200 100.0
(g) Janaeu wears
Data shows that 42% wear janaeu and 49.5% don't wear janaeu.
Table 5.15 (g): Janaeu wear
Janaeu wear Freque Percent Valid Cumulati

ncy Percent ve
Percent
139
Valid Yes 84 42.0 45.9 45.9
No 99 49.5 54.1 100.0
Total 183 91.5 100.0
Total 200 100.0
(h) Wearing footwear during food and bath
In Hindu’s mostly in brahmins, it is thought that chappal / shoes should not be

weared in kitchen, but many people wear chappal during food preparation and also
during bath. Table related to chappal wearing during food and bath suggests that 55%
wear chappal during bath and 38% don't wear chappal during bath. During food
preparation and eating, 62% don't wear chappal, only 29.5% wear chappal that time.
Table 5.15 (h): Wearing footwear during food or bath
Freque Percent Valid Cumulative

During bath ncy Percent Percent
Valid Yes 110 55.0 59.1 59.1
No 76 38.0 40.9 100.0
Total 186 93.0 100.0
Total 200 100.0
During food Freque Percent Valid Cumulative

ncy Percent Percent
Valid Yes 59 29.5 31.9 31.9
No 126 63.0 68.1 100.0
Total 185 92.5 100.0
Total 200 100.0
140
CHAPTER 06
SUMMARY
AND
CONCLUSION
6.1 Summary
6.2 Conclusion
141
6.1 Summary
The title of the thesis is ‘Folk Urban Continuum Reconsidered: A case study of
Allahabad city’. The main body of the thesis is divided in six chapters.
The Thesis begins with introduction. Introduction comprises importance of the
topic, statement of problem, aims and objectives, hypothesis, methodology and the
description of the field. Chapter One is overview of literature; in this chapter an
elaborate account of various studies that have been done on the folk-urban continuum
in India and abroad is presented. Chapter Two presents history of Allahabad with
special reference to urbanization. An attempt has been made to find out how small
and sacred city of Allahabad (Prayag) transformed into a highly urbanized
metropolitan city. Chapter Three is migration and urbanization, in which migration
is described as causative factor of urbanization. Migration of unskilled farmers
towards cities leads to various cultural changes in life of rural and urban
environment. Chapter Four is demographic profile of Allahabad. Data related to
various factors of population i.e. population size, population density, sex ratio etc.
are described. Chapter Five is related to analysis of demographic, socio-economic
and cultural data. Each and every variable related to topic is arranged in tabular form
and analyzed. Data related to demographic characters, village profile, family and
marriage, food habits, dress sense, health care, entertainment etc. are analyzed to
furnish a satisfactory conclusion. Chapter Six is summary and conclusion.
Summary of the whole thesis and sound conclusion is done with some major
findings. Bibliography is given after the main text of the thesis. Appendix includes
questionnaire used for field survey. List of maps, tables and graphs are listed at the
beginning of the thesis. Photographs related to field are given in the thesis.
6.2 Conclusion
The findings of the thesis suggests that inspite of unprecedented developments

that have taken place the world over with respect to technologies and various means
of communications, “Folk-urban continuum” in India, in general, and the Allahabad
142
district, in particular, is very much discernible in the lifestyle of urban and folk
people of the district. The reasons are very understandable. India is a country, where
cultural elements and traditions have been perpetuated for several thousands of years.
With regard to the genesis of Indian culture and the lifestyle, we have no
historical evidence. However, it would be no exaggeration to say that Indian culture
is at least, older than any of the ancient cultures of the world. In cases of ancient
Greece and ancient Rome, we discover that with the change of the ruler, the entire
social fabric also changed, as the society completely disintegrated. In India, society
has never disintegrated inspite of repeated physical and cultural onslaughts.
The war was to be fought by the ‘kshatriyas’ only. The caste bound Hindu
social system did not allow any other caste men to hold swords to combat the
enemies, whereas these factors have been responsible for the subjugation of the
Indian population by the foreign powers repeatedly. This has also played significant
role in perpetuating the culture and the tradition of the Indian society. Caste system
has also played as a mechanism for cultural continuity in the sub continent.
Besides the above factors, from the time immemorial, Indian society has been
largely subsisted on the agricultural economy whereas, today we are only a couple of
days behind from conquering the moon, approximately 70% of Indians still live in
villages. During the last few decades, green revolution took place in India and in
order to dispose their surplus production, the rural people began to contact with
nearby urban centers. In so doing, not only the rural people began to imitate or adopt
the life style of urban people but the urban people were also influenced by the rural
culture. Therefore, folk-urban continuum is not merely a parochial phenomena but it
has been universal in case of India.
The people of Allahabad living in the areas under study are also no exception
to the rule. Most of the people living in the present generation have rural background
also. While, they have permanently settled in the urban canters, still they prefer to be
associated with their roots in the rural areas. Many of our informants told that in
cases of marriage and other rituals they prefer to go to the village and celebrate the
143
occasion. They still enjoy the harvest of their crops produced in the rural areas. It
seems to them as bonus in their already sound economy.
It is true that their children receive modern education in the urban centers but it
is also equally true that they maintain their association with their villages in terms of
religious and matters relating to worship of family deities. The relatives of such
population settled in urban centers very often make visits to their kith and kin in
urban centers. Under the above circumstances in case of India, we can not conceive
in our mind that rural or folk people and the urban people in two water tight
compartments. They are infact the two ends of the same scale, as enunciated by
Robert Redfield in his book on “Folk culture of Yucatan”. Nevertheless, their lies a
difference between the Maxican rural and urban culture and their Indian counterpart.
The traditional institutions of the family, marriage, kinship, political
organization, religious organizations are so deep rooted in the Indian soil that, it
seldom changes whether people live in rural areas or in urban areas. As far as the
differencing methodologies of the Robert Redfield that he applied in the Yucatan and
our studies concern, it is to be noted that Redfield studies is more based upon
ethnographic technique of participant observation while our studies are more based
upon schedules.
We can say that Redfield’s study is that of ethnographic type and our study is
that of survey type. It does not mean that i did not apply participant observation that i
did wherever the necessity was. While applying the schedules for data collection, I
intently observed the life style of rural as well as the urban people. In the end, I
would put my major findings as such-
1. Allahabad is both an orthogenetic and heterogenetic city. Besides being the
great sacred center, Allahabad is also a great center of higher institutions.
2. People from all the directions came here, mostly from north and east directions
of Allahabad i.e.64.5% of the sample came from these directions. They mostly
(66% of the total sample) belong to surrounding villages of Allahabad and
cities of Pratapgarh and Jaunpur etc. Majority of respondents (57%), who
resided in Allahabad, came from 5-80 km distance from the city.
144
3. The largest percentage (56%) resides in Allahabad from one to fifteen years.
These are mostly students, government servants, private servants etc. Next
category of higher percentage (44%) belongs to mostly businessman; retired
persons etc. who are living here from 20-30 years, or more than 30 years.
4. People of Allahabad are engaged in different occupations. People are not
bound to caste based occupations. The large number of people i.e. 36.5 % of
the total sample is engaged in business. Others are students, government and
private servants. Population of city is very large and job opportunity is limited,
for this reason majority of people do business and private practices. Some of
them, who are not literate, depend on either agriculture or work in secondary
sectors, or do labour work in city. In the villages, large number of people is
engaged in agriculture and cattle farming.
5. Poor power supply, inadequate pure drinking water availability and toilet
facilities are the major problems in villages. Poor power supply is the basic
problem of most of the respondent’ (44.5%) villages Due to lack of these
facilities, most of the migrants do not like to visit their villages. Beside these
factors, social and religious life, food, fresh and clean atmosphere of the
villages are liked by most of the urban dwellers. Majority of the respondents
like social life (58%) and climate (22%) of the village. Large number of the
urban dweller visit their village monthly (39%) and six monthly (16%).This
shows that they are well connected to their villages.
6. Roads in most of the respondent’s (62.5%) villages are mettled or bricked for
providing better transportation between village and city. Majority of
respondents visit their villages by means of buses (41.5%) and (37.5%) by
trains. Taxies, buses and their own vehicles are major means of transportations
for villagers. Oldest means like bullock-carts and horse-carts are also used in
villages.
7. Most of the respondents (85.5%) have agricultural land in their villages, of
which 14% have one to ten acres of land to grow crops and vegetables. Most of
villagers (67%) use tractors instead of bulls for cultivation and use chemical
145
fertilizers (40.5%) instead of bio-fertilizers. Almost a similar percentage of
respondents do agricultural practices by themselves (41.5%) and on adhia
(42.5%).
8. There are three types of houses in village; they are kachha with mud floor,
semi-pakka with bricked floor and thatched roof and pakka with cemented
floor and roof. Most of the respondent’s houses in villages are semi-pakka type
(42.5%). In the city the houses are mostly pakka houses except slums. In the
city there are three types of residential status, some are living in self made
houses, some in rented apartments or lodges whereas rest live in slums. The
majority of respondents are living in the self made houses (65.5%).
9. In most of respondent’s villages (54%) power supply is provided for 6-8
hours. Hand pump is the major source of drinking water in most of the
village’s i.e.42%. Majority of respondent’s i.e.63.5% have tube well as major
source of irrigation.
10. In most of the villages, about 85% of the total population uses chula for
cooking food, while in cities most of the respondents(75-80%) uses LPG gas
for cooking.
11. Now days, more or less all types of the entertainment facilities are
available to villagers, primarily TV and radio. In the city, almost all residents
have TV with cable connection (47.5%), Radio, CD players for gaining
information and entertainment. A very small percentage of respondents (19.5%)
have computer and internet facilities.
12. Family is the primary unit of the society. Joint families which are the
characteristics of the rural society are also found in the city in large numbers
(66%). But now a day, large joint families show disintegration in their structure
in both city and villages. Fast urban life, new opportunities to earn money
outside the village are the basic factors that causes most of the family splits, this
resulted in nucleo-joint families where all members live under one roof with
separate kitchen. Majority of respondents (36%) have 5-10 members in their
family and most of the parents (29%) have 1-2 children.
146
13. The marrying age of youths are increasing because of carrier consciousness and
financial freedom. Now a days most of the girls (55.5%) are marrying at an age
of 24 to 30 years or more in city whereas at some lower age about 18 to 24 years
in villages. Earlier girls are married at an age below 20 years but due to the
urban impact especially on educational arena, the marrying age is higher than
previous.
14. In spite of rapid urbanization and modernization, still most of the members of the
city (67.5%) do arranged marriages and mostly like to perform marriage
ceremony at paternal villages (57%) following Vedic rites and rituals (85%) but
also a large number of respondents (49.5%) prefer to perform marriages from the
hotels and marriage homes.
15. Educational statuses of both cities and villages have been increased. In city most
of the respondents are post graduates (44.5%) while in villages, large number
has under graduate qualification. Now parents (75.5%) provide similar education
to both sons and daughters also in villages similar to cities. The educational
elevation of the villagers has a wide impact on the social life. 34.5% parents
send their children to English medium schools, while 32.5% parents send their
children to hindi medium schools.
16. In spite of various availability of spicy and fast food, the most preferred food
among the respondents (94.5%) is dal-chawal, roti-sabji. Most preferable beverage
is tea in city as well as in village. 64% respondents take 2-3 cups of tea daily. The
respondents (85%) prefer lassi and juices in place of cold drink. They expend their
maximum money on food (56.5%) and children (27%).
17. Majority of respondents replied that they wear clothes to cover (40%) their body
and protect their body from bad weathers (29.5%). Paints-shirt (55.5%) and saris
(33%) are the most preferable clothes in city as well as villages. Due to the
availability of cosmetic products like shampoo, creams, powders etc. in village
market, women of villages use these products like women of cities.
18. Telephone especially mobile phones (32.5%) are posses by city dwellers and
villagers for good connectivity to native place. The newspapers are less available
147
in villages and their main source of information is still radio. In city, 89.5%
respondents read newspapers daily.65.5% respondents have colour television.
19. Due to poor medical facilities in cities, majority of the respondents (49.5%) prefer
nursing home for treatment and 63.5% believe on Allopath. In the cities majorities
are health conscious, they do yoga, morning-walk and other exercises for fitness.
20. In spite of busy time schedule, tough competition people in cities find time for
worship of God, visiting temples etc. Most of the people (32.5%) visit temples
weekly. They respect their elders and touch their feet. All these findings suggest
that in spite of urbanization, modernization and development in every field,
people of Allahabad are still bound to their villages and they follow age old
traditions and sanskars. Family and kinship relations play decisive role in their
life. Besides having almost all urban facilities, people are maintaining their folk
characteristics; this reflects the presence of “Folk-urban continuum” in Allahabad.
One can say “An urban resident with rural mindset”.
148
Appendices
I have prepared questionnaire for the intensive study of the social changes
arises due to interaction of rural and urban societies. It covers almost all aspects of
folk- urban societies. It consists of 125 questions related to information about their
villages, agriculture, their family life, dress, food habbits, sanskars and values, health,
entertainment etc.
Questionaire
Name-
Age-
Sex-
Caste-
Occupation-
1. Since how long you have been in Allahabad city?
2. Where do you originally belong to?
3. What is the name of your parents’ village/town/city?
4. How far it is from Allahabad?
5. In which direction it is situated?
6. Do you go to your village-yes/no?
If yes the, how often?
Daily/ weekly/ fortnightly/ monthly/ six monthly/ yearly.
7. How do you go to your village?
a. on foot
b. by bicycle
c. by bus
d. by train
e. by own vehicle
8. do you like village atmosphere? Yes/no.
149
9. What attracts you in the village most?
Climate/ social life/ material life/ religious life/ communal life/ food and drink/
entertainment.
10. What are the reasons due to which you don't like to go to village?
a. kacchi sadak
b. absence of power supply
c. problem of drinking water
d. less facility of entertainment
e. less facility of toilet and bathroom
11. The road of your village is
a. kachhi sadak
b. pakki sadak
12. Do you have power supply in your village- yes/no?
If yes then how many hours-
a. 2 to 4 hrs
b. 4 to 6 hrs.
c. 6 to 8 hrs.
d. All time
13. Is there any problem of drinking water in your village- yes/no?
If yes then tell about problems.
14. What are the means of drinking water in your village-
a. Nal
b. Hand pump
c. Tube well
d. Kuan
e. River
f. all the above
15. Do you have any source of entertainment in your village- yes/no?
If yes then what
a. Radio
150
b. T.V.
c. Cinéma
d. All the above
16. What is your educational qualification?
a. illiterate
b. non matriculate
c. matriculate
d. intermediate
e. graduate
f. post graduate
17. Do you have any job- yes/no?
if yes, then what is your job?
18. Do you and your wife both are in service?
19. Whether your family in nuclear or combined?
20. Whom do you live with?
a. with parents
b. independently
c. friends
d. relatives
21. How many members are there in your family?
22. How many children you have? no. of boys/ no. of girls.
23. In which school they are studying?
24. Do you send your children to English medium school? Yes /no.
a. if yes, then why?
b. if no, then why?
25. They go to school-
a. on foot
b. by trolley or rickshaw
c. by school bus
d. by bicycle
151
26. Do you send you children to coaching institute or they self study?
27. Whether you guide your children in their studies?
28. How many hours you give to your children for playing or entertainment
29. Whether do your children go to play?
a. playing ground
b. park
c. street
d. in home
30. How much time you give to your family?
31. Whether you are giving similar education to both your daughter and son
32. What is the marrying age of a girl in your family?
33. From where you like to perform marriage of your daughter or son-
a. paternal village
b. city
34. If from city then from-
a. any grand hotel
b. marriage home
c. home
35. Whether you perform marriage according to
a. Vaidic rituals
b. modern ways
36. In marriage what you prefer to do-
a. high decoration by flowers, jhalars and loudspeakers etc.
b. simple, un expensive way
37. Whether you wore dress
a. to cover your body from a sense of shame
b. to protect your body against weather
c. to protect your body against bad evils or magic
d. to attract attention.
38. Which type of dress you prefer more?
152
Dress wore by Men Dress wore by Women
a. pant, shirt a. sari
b. kurta, paizama b. salwar-kurta
c. dhoti, kurta c. jeans, t-shirt
d. jeans, t-shirt
39. How many dresses you buy in a year?
a. 1 to 2
b. 3 to 5
c. more than 5
40. Do you buy dress?
a. on every festive occasion
b. without any occasion
41. Whether your children often demand for a new dress? yes/no.
42. a. Whether your children wear what you like or
b. they wear what they like?
43. When you go for outing what do you like to wear-
a. flat heel chappal / sandle
b. high heel chappal / sandle
44. When your sandle/ shoes are damaged then what you do-
a. repair that sandle/ shoes and wear
b. buy new sandle/ shoes
45. Which method you apply for washing clothes?
a. hand wash
b by washing machine
c. give to dhobi
46. Whether you iron your clothes-
a. by yourself
b. by your servant
c. give to dhobi
47. Do you have any servant in your home?
153
48. What works are done by the housewife?
49. What works are done by the head of the family?
50. What works are done by the young members of the family?
a. by boys
b. by girls
51. Whether all personal works are done by each member of the family?
Yes/no.
52. Which type of food you prefer daily?
a. dal-chawal, roti- sabzi
b. puri or paratha-sabzi
c. fast food
d. fruits or juice
53. Do you take daily meals?
a. at home
b. at hotel
54. How many times you take meals daily-
a. one
b. two times
c. three
d. more than three times
55. Daily intake of tea-

a. one cup of tea
b. two to three cup of tea
c. more than three cups
56. How many times you go to hotel?
a. every day
b. in a week
c. in a month
57. Do you take juice or fruits in your daily routine or occasionally?
154
58. do your give milk or fruits to your children daily Yes/No
59. Do you give chocolates or ice creams to your children often/ occasionally?
60. If you are given both cold drink and juice, which you prefer most?
a) Cold drink b) juice or lassi c) both
61. Do you take drug or narcotics? Yes/no
62. Do you use milk (a) for making tea (b) for drinking (c) both
63. Which you prefer-
a. to go to dairy everyday to buy milk
b. Milkman himself comes to home
c. Packet milk
d. Milk powder (Anik spray)
64. How many liters of milk you buy
a. ½ to 1 litre
b. 1 to 2 litres
c. 2 to 4 litres
d Above
64. Do you have cow or buffalo at your home- Yes/ No?
65. Do you have agricultural land in your village- Yes/No If yes then how
much?
66. (a) Do you grow at your home- (i) vegetables (ii) cereals (iii) both
(b) Buy from market- (i) vegetables (ii) cereals (iii) both
67. (a) How much do you consume from your total production?
(b) Buy from market- (i) vegetables (ii) cereals (iii) both
67. How do you utilize your rest production after consumption?
68. Do you buy vegetables (a) at door (b) from market?
69. Whether all members sit together from dinner or lunch? Yes/ no
70. Do you eat at?
a. Dining table
b. chatai or peedha
71. Do you read newspaper daily? yes/no
155
(a) men- yes/no
(b) women-yes/no
72. Do you have watch for watching time- yes/no
If yes, then-
(a) wall watch
(b) table watch
(c) wrist watch
(d) all the above
73. Do you have telephone? yes/no
if yes, then how many sets?
Telephone no. of sets
Telephone with card-
Cordless Telephone
Mobile phone
74. Do you have T.V. set- Yes/No?
If yes, then how many sets?
If No, then where you go to watch T.V.?
(a) friend's home (b) neighbor's house (c) no where
75. (a) Whether you have cable channels on your T.V. yes/no?
(b) Whether women/ children watch T.V.?
women- yes/no
children- yes/no
76. How many hours you and your children watch T.V.
(a) 1 hour (b) 2 hours (c) above
77. Which type of programme do you like to watch?
(a) News (b) movie (c) T.V. serials (d) Informative (e) sports
78. Do you and your children take food while watching T.V. --- Yes/No?
79. Do you impose any rues and regulations on your children for watching T.V.
80. Do you go to (a) cinema hall to see films?
(b) see at home on CD/TV
156
81. How many times you go to cinema hall?
(a) every day (b) every week (c) 2 or 3 times in a year (d) none.
82. Which type of films you like to watch?
(a) family drama (b) violent films (c) love triangles
83. How many hours you give to your children for playing or entertainment.
84. Do you have computer at your home?
If yes then for which purpose-
(a) for study (b) for entertainment (c) for official purpose
85. Do you have internet in your computer? yes/no
86. When any member of your family got ill or injurd, where do you go.
(a) Government hospital (b) nursing home
87. Which type of medicine do you prefer-
(a) government hospital (b) nursing home (c) ayurvedic
88. Do you wear chappal while (a) cooking (b) bathing?
89. Do you worship god? yes/no
90. Do you touch god's / earth's feet first after you get up in morning- yes/no.
91. Do you have a place for worship at your home- yes/no?
92. do you visit mandir
(a) everyday (b) every week (c) occasionally (d) none
93. Do you wear sacred thread- yes/no?
94. Do you touch your parent's foot everyday- yes/no?
95. Do you go to a tourist place very summer or not?
96. Whether you give some time for making your body fit and beautiful? yes/no
97. What do you do to make your body fit?
(a) walking (b) yoga (c) cycling (d) swimming (e) other exercises (f) dieting (g)
none
98. Do you clean your teeth daily- yes/no?
99. What do you use for cleaning your teeth-
(a) salt-oil
(b) lal dant manjan (c) toothpaste
157
100. Do you clean your teeth by-
(a) Fingers (b) Dantoon
(c) Toothbrush
101. Do you like to wear ornaments- yes/no
If yes then
(a) artificial
(b) gold, silver, diamond
102. Do you put sindoor on your maang- yes/no?
103. Do you makeup (a) daily (b) occasionally?
104. Do you put oil on hair- yes/no?
105. Do you massage your body-yes/no?
106. What do you use for cleaning your hair?
(a) Kali mitti (b) awla, reetha and shikakai
(c) herbal shampoo (d) chemical champoo
107. Do you use soap (a) daily (b) weekly (c) one
108. Do you go to beautypalour- yes/no
if yes than (a) every week (b) every month
109. On which item you spend more money-
(a) food
(b) clothes
(c) ornaments
(d) beautifying products
(e) touring, entertainment
110. Whether you feed your milk to your baby - yes/no?
if no, then why?
if no, then which milk you give to your small baby?
(a) cow milk (b) powder milk (lactogen)
111. Do you message your baby by (a) mustard oil (b) olive oil (c) other oil
112. What do you have?
158
(a) Bicycle (b) scooter or motorcycle (c) car (d) both car and scooter/
Motorcycle (e) all the above (f) none
113. Whether you have (a) arrange marriage (b) love marriage?
114. Whether you live in your (a) own home (b) rental house?
115. Whether you perform all the sanskars from birth to death? yes/no
116. When you meet someone on road, etc at random, do you.
(a) Welcome and says namaste or pranaam to him/her
(b) become unknown to him/ her
117. When guests comes on your home you-
(a) welcome and ask for tea/ water
(b) don't ask for tea/ water
118. Do you have cemented toilet/ bathroom on your home in village- yes/no
119. Do you grow crop on your land
(a) self
(b) give land to other on adhia
120. Which fertilizer you use for growing crops-
(a) Chemical fertilizer
(b) biofertilizer
121. For cropping your field what do you use-
(a) bullock
(b) tractor
122. How many bullocks you have?
(a) one
(b) two
(c) four
(d) none
123. How many tractors you have?
(a) one
(b) two
(c) four
159
(d) none
124.What are the sources of watering field in your village-
(a) tube well
(b) canal
(c) river
125. What are the changes you notice in your village for some years, state about
them?
160
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Folk-Urban Continuum Reconsidered A Case

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I would like to begin my acknowledgement expressing my deep sense of

I am highly grateful to my parents who nurtured and shaped me in my early

INTRODUCTION 12-19

History of Allahabad (Special Reference to Urbanization)

2.2 Sacred importance of Allahabad

2.3 Allahabad through the ages

Migration and Urbanization

3.2 Migration–contributing factor for urbanization

Demographic profile of Allahabad

4.1 Population of Allahabad

3. Importance of the topic

In modern days of large technological development, cities grew more rapidly

4. Aims and Objectives

I. Inspite of large-scale industrialization, urbanization, westernization, and

7. Methodology of Data Collection and limitations

Chapter One is overview of literature; in this chapter an elaborate account of various

Up to mid-1930, in the arena of social and cultural anthropology,

(SPECIAL REFERENCE TO URBANIZATION)

Urbanization is very complex phenomenon characterized by a phenomenal

2.2 Sacred importance of Allahabad

Photo 2.1: The holy Sangam

Map 2.1: Map of Allahabad city

2.3 Allahabad through the ages

MIGRATION AND URBANIZATION

Migration and urbanization are interrelated to each other. Migration has

3.2 Migration–contributing factor for urbanization

Migration is the movement of people from place of their origin to another

4.1 Population of Allahabad

Population is defined as ‘Number of persons living in a place having the

4.1.1 Male and female population

Out of total population of 166,197,921 persons, 87,565,369 are males and

4.1.2 Population density

Population density is defined as the number of person per square kilometers

4.2 Demographic spectrum of Allahabad

4.2.1 Urban-rural demographic distribution

In Allahabad, out of total population, 3,729,320 persons are living in rural

Table 4.1(b): Urban-rural population distribution in Allahabad

4.2.2 Decadal population growth

The Decadal population growth rate in UP state, during 1991-2001 (25.85%)

Table 4.2: Percentage of decadal population growth

4.2.3 Sex ratio

4.2.4 Age Composition

Table 4.4: Age group distribution

This shows that the maximum percentage of population (~ 40 %) belongs to younger

Table 4.5: Work participation rate based on religion

4.2.6 Literacy rate:

Education appears to be on of the most important factor affecting the

Table 4.6: Literacy rate

Religion Hindu Muslim Sikhs Christians Buddhists Jains others

Literacy 61.80 63.30 68.90 53.60 61.10 84.30 73.30

4.2.7 Religion based composition of population

4.2.8 SC/ST based population

Table 4.8: SC/ST distribution of population

4.2.9 Number and size of Households

Total number of households recorded in India is 193,579,954 whereas it is

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