Common emitter transistor amplifier basics

The common emitter transistor amplifier characteristics are what could be termed a good all
round level of performance.

Common emitter transistor amplifier circuit configuration

For both NPN and PNP circuits, it can be seen that for the common emitter amplifier circuit,
the input is applied to the base, and the output is taken from the collector. The common
terminal for both circuits is the emitter.

Common emitter amplifier impedance levels

The input impedance is typically around 1KΩ, although this can vary considerably according
to the circuit values and conditions. The low input impedance results from the fact that the
input is applied across the base and emitter where there is a forward-biased junction.
Also the output impedance can be relatively high. Again this varies considerably upon the
circuit values chosen and current levels permitted. This may be as high as 10KΩ or possibly
more. However, if current drain allows higher current levels to be drawn, the output
impedance can be reduced considerably. The level of resistance or impedance comes from the
fact that the output is taken from the collector where there is a reverse-biased junction.
Common emitter transistor amplifier gain
Another important factor is the gain level that can be achieved. There are two forms of gain
that can be determined: current gain and voltage gain.
The current gain for the common emitter amplifier circuit is denoted by the Greek symbol β.
This is the ratio of collector current to base current. This may be thought of as the ratio of
output current to input current. To gain an accurate figure of the gain for a signal, the current
gain for small input changes in current is often used. Using this the current gain, β, and the
changes in input and output current are related in the following way:

∆ IC
β=
∆ IB
Where
   β = current gain 
    ΔIc = change in collector current 
    ΔIB = change in base current
In order to look at the voltage gain of the common emitter amplifier circuit, it is necessary to
look at the resistances or impedances for the input and output.

∆VC
∆I RC ∆VC
β= C β= on ℜ−arranging : A v = A =β ( R ¿ ¿ c / R b )¿
∆ IB ∆Vb ∆Vb v
Rb
Where
    Av = voltage gain 
    RC = collector circuit output resistance 
    Rb = base circuit input resistance

Common emitter input output phase relationship

The common emitter transistor amplifier is the only configuration that gives an inversion,
180°, between the input and output signals.
The reason for this can be seen from the fact that as the input voltage rises, so the current
increases through the base circuit. In turn this increases the current thought the collector
circuit, i.e. it tends to turn the transistor on. This results in the voltage between the collector
and emitter terminals falling.
In this way an increase in voltage between the base and emitter has resulted in a fall in
voltage between the collector and emitter terminals, in other words the phase of the two
signals has been inverted.

Practical common emitter amplifier circuit

While the basic theoretical circuits shown above are able to describe the basic operation of
the common emitter amplifier in concept.
However, for the circuit to be able to operate in a real system, other elements such as bias,
decoupling and the like need to be added. As a result, the overall circuit for a common
emitter amplifier utilizes several components to ensure that it is able to operate in the fashion
required.

Common emitter amplifier complete with bias resistors, decoupling, etc

Within the circuit there are a number of components that provide different functions to enable
the overall circuit to operate in the fashion required:
These capacitors provide AC coupling between stages. They need to
  C1, C2 be chosen to provide negligible reactance at the frequencies of
operation.
 
  R1, R2 These resistors provide the bias for the base of the transistor.
 
This is the collector load resistor within the common emitter
  R3
amplifier.
 
  R4 This resistor in the common emitter amplifier provides a measure of
 DC feedback to ensure that the DC conditions within the circuit are
maintained.
 
This is a bypass capacitor. The effect of R4 is to reduce the gain of the
  C3 circuit. Bypassing the resistor enables greater levels of AC gain to be
achieved.
 
This circuit provides the basis for a simple AC common emitter transistor amplifier stage. It
is commonly used and the circuit values can easily be calculated as described on the next
page.
The common emitter amplifier is one of the most common transistor amplifier configurations.
Fortunately the common emitter amplifier design is quite easy to realize.
It is easy to design the common emitter amplifier using a straightforward approach to the
calculations. In this way it is possible to quickly choose the component values required.
Some of the design requirements and circuit constraints will depend upon the particular
application. For example an AC coupled amplifier will differ from that required for being
driven by logic, etc. To overcome this examples of an AC common emitter amplifier design,
and a simple logic buffer using a common emitter design will be shown.

Simple logic common emitter amplifier design

This very simple design for a logic buffer or common emitter amplifier design is about as
simple as any design can be.

Simple logic buffer using a common emitter amplifier design

A common emitter amplifier acting as a buffer for a logic IC is very easy to design.
Although not the only way to design the stage, the following process flow could be used.
Choose transistor:   The choice of the transistor, marked Q1 in the diagram will depend upon
a number of factors:
Power dissipation anticipated.
Switching speed required - for switching applications choose a switching transistor, not
another form of transistor with a high bandwidth, ft.
Current gain required.
Current capability required.
Collector emitter voltage.

Calculate collector resistor:   The determination of the collector resistor, R2 is achieved by

determining the current required to flow through the resistor. This will depend upon elements
such as the current that the circuit needs to deliver. It may also be that an LED indicator is
required in series with the collector resistor. The current should be determined to give the
required light output. The value of the resistor can be determined using Ohms law, knowing
the current flowing through the resistor and the voltage across it. 

Determine base resistor value:   The base current is the collector current divided by the value
of β or hfe which is virtually the same. Ensure that there is sufficient current drive to turn the
transistor ON for the lowest values of β even at low temperatures where values for β will be
lower. Care should be taken not to drive excessive current into the base as switching may
take longer as a result because excess stored charge needs to be removed.

Re-evaluate initial assumptions:   Once the design has been competed it is necessary to re-
evaluate some of the initial decisions and estimates in case the final design has changed
anything.

Simple AC coupled common emitter amplifier design

The basic circuit for an AC coupled common emitter amplifier design is shown below.
Basic common emitter amplifier design
This circuit is not widely used because it is difficult to define the exact operating point of the
circuit as a result of variations in the values of β encountered. Again the flowing process flow
could be used:,/p>
Choose transistor:   The choice of transistor will depend on factors including the power
dissipation anticipated, collector emitter voltage, bandwidth and the like.

Choose collector resistor:  The value of this should be chosen so that the collector sits at
about half the supply rail for the required current. The resistance value can be determined
simply using Ohms law. The current value should be chosen to give resistance / output
impedance that will be acceptable for the following stage to all the aspects of our choice. 

Choose base resistor:  Using the β figure for the transistor, determine the base current. Then
using Ohms law and knowledge of the supply voltage and the fact that the base will be 0.5V
(for silicon) above ground, calculate the resistor, this is used to limit the current .

Calculate decoupling capacitors:  Using a knowledge of the input and output impedances,
determine the value of capacitor to equal the impedance at the lowest frequency of use. (Xc =
2π f C where C is in Farads and the frequency is in Hz and 2 π is the constant value in
formula).

Revisit calculations:  Revisit all calculations and assumptions to ensure they are all still valid
in the light of the way the circuit has developed and are just according to the specifications
required.
Comprehensive AC coupled common emitter amplifier design

Common emitter amplifier complete with bias resistors, decoupling, etc

The common emitter amplifier design is relatively straightforward. The following design
flow can be used as a basis.
Choose transistor:   As before, the transistor type should be chosen according to the
anticipated performance requirements and according to quality and extent of the gain
achieved.
Calculate collector resistor:   It is necessary to determine the current flow required to
adequately drive the following stage. Knowing the current flow required in the resistor,
choose a collector voltage of around half the supply voltage to enable equal excursions of the
signal up and down. This will define the resistor value using Ohms law.
Calculate the emitter resistor:   generally a voltage of around 1 volt or 10% of the rail value
is chosen for the emitter voltage. This gives a good level of DC stability to the circuit.
Calculate the resistance from knowledge of the collector current (effectively the same as the
emitter current) and the emitter voltage, moreover certain assumption can made with help of
datasheet.
Determine base current:   It is possible to determine the base current by dividing the
collector current by β (or hfe which is essentially the same). If a range for β is specified, work
on cautious side, also the value of β can determined from the digital multimeter or from
datasheet.
Determine the base voltage:   This is easy to calculate because the base voltage is simply the
emitter voltage plus the base emitter junction voltage. This is taken to be 0.6 volts for silicon
and 0.2 volts for germanium transistors, if base emitter voltage is known it can be easily
calculated.
Determine base resistor values:   Assume a current flowing through the chain R 1 + R2 of
around ten times that of the base current required. Then select the correct ratio of the resistors
to provide the voltage required at the base, usually bases resistance is used to limit the value
of current on the bases and R1 + R2 is used to divide voltage.
Emitter bypass capacitor:   The gain of the circuit without a capacitor across the emitter
resistor is approximately R3/R4. To increase the gain for AC signals the emitter resistor
bypass capacitor C3 is added. This should be calculated to have a reactance equal to R 4 at the
lowest frequency of operation; usually this is done by taking into account the capacitor
reactance.
Determine value of input capacitor value:   The value of the input capacitor should equal the
resistance of the input circuit at the lowest frequency to give a -3dB fall at this frequency.
The total impedance of the circuit will be β times R3 plus any resistance external to the
circuit, i.e. the source impedance. The external resistance is often ignored as this is likely to
not to affect the circuit unduly. So it does not make any significant changes if it is ignored.
Determine output capacitor value :   Again, the output capacitor is generally chosen to equal
the circuit resistance at the lowest frequency of operation. The circuit resistance is the emitter
follower output resistance plus the resistance of the load, i.e. the circuit following.
Re-evaluate assumptions:   In the light of the way the circuit has developed, re-assess any
circuit assumptions to ensure they still hold valid. Aspects such as the transistor choice,
current consumption values, etc as the assumptions are first key to design circuit of choice.

Although there may appear to be a large number of stages to designing the common emitter
amplifier, they are all relatively straightforward and do not take long. The calculations and
requirements may change the design flow slightly in order to meet the requirements for a
particular circuit design.

COMMON EMITTER TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER

CHARACTERISTICS
PARAMETER CHARACTERISTIC
S
Voltage gain Medium
Current gain Medium
Power gain High
Input / output phase 180°
COMMON EMITTER TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER
CHARACTERISTICS
PARAMETER CHARACTERISTIC
S
relationship
Input resistance Medium
Output resistance Medium