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Unit 2 Steam Power Plant: Structure
Unit 2 Steam Power Plant: Structure
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Two important area of application of thermodynamics are power generation and
refrigeration.
Both power generation and refrigeration are usually accomplished by a system that
operates on a thermodynamics cycle.
Thermodynamics cycles can be divided into two generation categories :
(a) Power Cycles
(b) Refrigeration Cycles
The devices or systems used to produce a net power output are often called engines and
the thermodynamics cycles they operate on are called power cycle.
The devices or systems use to produce refrigeration are called refrigerator, air
conditioners or heat pumps and the cycles they operates on are called refrigeration
cycles.
Thermodynamic cycles can be categorized as :
(a) Power cycles or Refrigeration cycles.
(b) Gas Cycles or Vapor Cycles : In gas cycles, the working fluid remains in
the gaseous phase throughout the entire cycle, where as in vapor cycles the
working fluid exists in the vapor phase during one part of the cycle and in
the liquid phase during another part.
(c) Closed Cycles or Open Cycles : In closed cycles, the working fluid is
returned to the initial state at the end of the cycle and is re-circulated. In
open cycle, the working fluid is renewed at the end of each cycle instead of
being re-circulated. 21
Power Plant Engineering Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
know steam generator, steam turbine, and
describe cooling towers and condensers.
2
1
4 3
s
(a)
T 2
1
4 3
s
(b)
Figure 2.1 : Carnot Cycle
Boiler
3
2 W turb,out
Turbi
wpump,in ne
Pump 4 qout
1 Condenser
(a)
T
3
qin
W turb,out
1 4’
qout
wpunp,in
s
(b)
Figure 2.2 : Rankine Cycle 23
Power Plant Engineering (b) The ideal Rankine cycle dose not involve any internal irreversibilities
(c) The Rankine cycle consists of the following four processes :
1-2 : Isentropic compression in pump (compressors)
2-3 : Constant pressure heat addition in boiler
3-4 : Isentropic expansion in turbine
4-1 : Constant pressure heat rejection in a condenser
Process 1-2
Water enters the pump at state 1 as saturated liquid and is compressed
isentropically to the operating pressure of the boiler. The water temperature
increases somewhat during this isentropic compression process due to slight
decrease in the specific volume of the water. The vertical distance between
state 1 and 2 on the T-s diagram is greatly exaggerated for clarity.
Process 2-3
Water enters the boiler as a compressed liquid at state 2 and leaves as a
superheated vapor at state 3. The boiler is basically a large heat exchanger
where the heat originating from combustion gases, is transferred to the
water essentially at constant pressure. The boiler together with the section
where the steam is superheated (the superheater), is often called the steam
generator.
Process 3-4
The superheated vapor at state 3 enters the turbine, where it expands
isentropically and produces work by rotating the shaft connected to an
electric generator. The pressure and the temperature of the steam drops
during this process to the values at state 4, where steam enters the
condenser
Process 4-1
At this state, the steam is usually a saturated liquid-vapor mixture with a
high quality. Steam is condensed at constant pressure in the condenser
which is basically a large heat exchanger, by rejecting heat to a cooling
medium from a lake, or a river. Steam leaves the condenser as saturated
liquid and enters the pump, completing the cycle.
Energy Analysis of the Ideal Rankine Cycle
All four components associated with the Rankine cycle (the pump, boiler, turbine
and condenser) are steady-flow devices, and thus all four processes that make up
the Rankine cycle can be analyzed as steady-flow process.
The steady flow equation per unit mass of steam reduces to
(qin qout ) (win wout ) he hi (kJ/kg)
Pump (q = 0) :
wpump, in (h2 h1 ) v ( P2 P1 )
where h1 h f @ p1 and v v1 v f @ p1
Boiler (w = 0) :
qin h3 h2
Turbine (q = 0) :
wturbine, out (h3 h4 )
24
Condenser (w = 0) Steam Power Plant
qout h4 h1
Pressure drop in
Pressure drop the boiler
in the pump
2 Irreversibility in
the turbine
ACTUAL CYCLE
4
1 Pressure drop in
the condenser
s
(a)
T
2a
2s
1
4s 4a
s
(b)
Figure 2.3 : Vapour Power Cycle
The other major source of irreversibility is the heat loss from the steam to the
surrounding as the steam flows through various components.
Particular importance is the irreversibilites occurring within the pump and the
turbine. A pump requires a greater work input, and a turbine produces a smaller
25
Power Plant Engineering work output as a result of irreversibilties. Under the ideal condition the flow
through these devices is isentropic.
The deviation of actual pumps and turbine from the isentropic ones can be
accurately accounted by isentropic efficiencies, define as :
ws h2 s h1
p
wa h2a h1
wa h3 h4a
T
ws h3 h4 s
2
2’
4
1
P’4 < P4
1’ 4’
Increase in wnet
s
Figure 2.4 : Rankine Cycle
Increase in wnet
3’
3
1 4 4’
3’ 3
Increase
in w net
Increase
in wnet
2’
2
1 4’ 4
s
Figure 2.6 : Vapour Power Cycle
High - p Low p
Boiler turbine trine
Reheater 4
P 4 = P5 =
Preheat 6
5
Condenser
2 Pump
(a)
Reheating
T High-pressure
turbine 3 4
2’
Low pressure
4
1 6
s
(b)
Figure 2.7 : Ideal Reheat Rankine Cycle
Thus the total heat input and the total work output for a reheat cycle become :
qin qprimary qreheat (h3 h2 ) (h5 h4 )
Steam
entering boiler
2
1 4
s
Figure 2.8 : Ideal Regenerative Rankine Cycle
28
Another way of increasing the thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle is by Steam Power Plant
regeneration. During a regeneration process, liquid water (feedwater) leaving the
pump is heated by steam bled off the turbine at some intermediate pressure in
devices called feedwater heaters.
There are two type of feedwater Heaters :
(a) Open Feedwater Heater
(b) Closed Feedwater Heater
Open Feedwater Heater
An open (or direct-contact) feedwater heater is basically a mixing chamber,
where the steam extracted from the turbine mixes with the feedwater exiting
the pump. Ideally, the mixture leaves the heater as a saturated liquid at the
heater pressure. The schematic of a steam power plant with one open
feedwater heater and the T-s diagram of the cycle are shown in the
Figure 2.9.
The heat and work interaction of a regenerative Rankine cycle with one
feedwater heater can be expressed per unit mass of steam flowing through
the boiler as follows :
qin h5 h4
qout (1 y) (h7 h1 )
wturbine, out (h5 h6 ) (1 y) (h6 h7 )
wturbine, in (1 y) wpump I, in wpump II, in
m6
where y
m5
wpump I, in v1 ( p2 p1 )
wpump II, in v3 ( p4 p3 )
Boiler Turbine
y
Open 6-y 1-y
FWH
4
2
Condenser
Pump II
Pump 1
(a)
T
4
6
3
3
1
7
s
(b)
Figure 2.9 : Steam Power Plant
29
Power Plant Engineering The thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle increases as a result of
regeneration. This is because regeneration raises the average
temperature at which heat is transferred to the steam in the boiler by
raising the temperature of the water before it enters the boiler.
Closed Feedwater Heaters
Another type of feedwater heater used is steam power plants is the closed
feedwater heater in which heat is transferred from the extracted steam to the
feedwater without any mixing taking place. The two streams now can be at
different pressure, since they do not mix. The schematic of a steam power
plant with one closed feedwater heater and the T-s diagram of the cycle are
shown in Figure 2.10.
Boiler Turbine
Mixing 7
chambe 8
Closed
r 9 FWH
5
2
4 3 Condenser
Pump II Pump 1
(a)
T
4
5
9 7
2
3
1
8
(b)
Figure 2.10 : Steam Power Plant
Coal To chimney
Storag
e
Flue gases
Air
Cool Air
preheater
handing Flue gases
plant 3-phase supply
Feed water
Econo-
miser
Air taken from the atmosphere is first passed through the air pre-heater, where it is
heated by flue gases. The hot air then passes through the furnace. The flue gases after
passing over boiler and superheater tubes, flow through the dust collector and then
through economiser, air pre-heater and finally they are exhausted to the atmosphere
through the chimney.
Steam condensing system consists of the following :
(a) Condenser
(b) Cooling water
(c) Cooling tower
(d) Hot well
(e) Condenser cooling water pump
(f) Condensate air extraction pump
(g) Air extraction pump
(h) Boiler feed pump
(i) Make up water pump.
2.3.2 Classification
Boiler is an apparatus to produce steam. Thermal energy released by combustion of fuel
is transferred to water, which vaporizes and gets converted into steam at the desired
temperature and pressure.
The steam produced is used for :
(a) Producing mechanical work by expanding it in steam engine or steam
turbine.
(b) Heating the residential and industrial buildings.
(c) Performing certain processes in the sugar mills, chemical and textile
industries.
Boiler is a closed vessel in which water is converted into steam by the application of
heat. Usually boilers are coal or oil fired.
32
A boiler should fulfill the following requirements : Steam Power Plant
The flue gases coming out of the economizer is used to preheat the air before
supplying it to the combustion chamber. An increase in air temperature of
20 degrees can be achieved by this method. The pre heated air is used for
combustion and also to dry the crushed coal before pulverizing.
Soot Blowers
The fuel used in thermal power plants causes soot and this is deposited on the
boiler tubes, economizer tubes, air pre heaters, etc. This drastically reduces the
amount of heat transfer of the heat exchangers. Soot blowers control the formation
of soot and reduce its corrosive effects. The types of soot blowers are fixed type,
which may be further classified into lane type and mass type depending upon the
type of spray and nozzle used. The other type of soot blower is the retractable soot
blower. The advantages are that they are placed far away from the high
temperature zone, they concentrate the cleaning through a single large nozzle
rather than many small nozzles and there is no concern of nozzle arrangement with
respect to the boiler tubes.
Condenser
The use of a condenser in a power plant is to improve the efficiency of the power
plant by decreasing the exhaust pressure of the steam below atmosphere. Another
advantage of the condenser is that the steam condensed may be recovered to
provide a source of good pure feed water to the boiler and reduce the water
softening capacity to a considerable extent. A condenser is one of the essential
components of a power plant.
Cooling Tower
The importance of the cooling tower is felt when the cooling water from the
condenser has to be cooled. The cooling water after condensing the steam
becomes hot and it has to be cooled as it belongs to a closed system. The Cooling
towers do the job of decreasing the temperature of the cooling water after
condensing the steam in the condenser.
The type of cooling tower used in the Columbia Power Plant was an Inline
Induced Draft Cross Flow Tower. This tower provides a horizontal air flow as the
water falls down the tower in the form of small droplets. The fan centered at the
top of units draws air through two cells that are paired to a suction chamber
partitioned beneath the fan. The outstanding feature of this tower is lower air
static pressure loss as there is less resistance to air flow. The evaporation and
effective cooling of air is greater when the air outside is warmer and dryer than
when it is cold and already saturated.
Superheater
The superheater consists of a superheater header and superheater elements. Steam
from the main steam pipe arrives at the saturated steam chamber of the superheater
header and is fed into the superheater elements. Superheated steam arrives back at
the superheated steam chamber of the superheater header and is fed into the steam
pipe to the cylinders. Superheated steam is more expansive.
Reheater
The reheater functions similar to the superheater in that it serves to elevate the
steam temperature. Primary steam is supplied to the high pressure turbine. After
passing through the high pressure turbine, the steam is returned to the steam
generator for reheating (in a reheater) after which it is sent to the low pressure
turbine. A second reheat cycle may also be provided.
SAQ 1
(a) Describe the various types of power cycles.
(b) What is steam generator? Describe the components of steam power plant.
(c) What is a boiler? Discuss about different types of boilers, its components
and functions. 35
Power Plant Engineering
2.4 SUPER HEATER
One of the most important accessories of a boiler is a super heater. It effects
improvement and economy in the following ways :
The super heater increases the capacity of the plant.
Eliminates corrosion of the steam turbine.
Reduces steam consumption of the steam turbine.
Types of Super Heater
Plate Super heaters.
Pendant Super heaters.
Radiant Super heaters.
Final Super heaters.
Convection
superheater
Economizer
Increased
combustion air
Combustion
zone
Tempering air
(alternate)
Convection
superheater
Increased Economizer
combustion air
Combustion zone
Air heater
Flue gas
recirculating fan
By-pass clamper
Furnace
Convection surface
High superheat
Low superheat
5
High Low
pressure pressure Generator
turbine turbine
7
Boiler
6
Condenser
4
3 2
Feed 1
water
heater
Feed pump 2 Feed pump 1
Boiler HPT
Temperature
4
FP 2 6
3 Feed water heater
2 LPT
FP 1 Condenser
7 7
Entropy
FP1 = Feed pump 1
FP2 = Feed pump 2
HPT = High pressure turbine
LPT = Low Pressure turbine
Figure 2.16 : Rankine Cycle with Two Steam Turbines and a Single Open Feedwater Heater
39
Power Plant Engineering Feedwater heaters can also be open and closed heat exchangers. An open feedwater
heater is merely a direct-contact heat exchanger in which extracted steam is allowed to
mix with the feedwater. This kind of heater will normally require a feed pump at both the
feed inlet and outlet since the pressure in the heater is between the boiler pressure and
the condenser pressure. A deaerator is a special case of the open feedwater heater which
is specifically designed to remove non-condensable gases from the feedwater.
Closed feedwater heaters are typically shell and tube heat exchangers where the
feedwater passes throughout the tubes and is heated by turbine extraction steam. These
do not require separate pumps before and after the heater to boost the feedwater to the
pressure of the extracted steam as with an open heater. However, the extracted steam
must then be throttled to the condenser pressure.
Many power plants incorporate a number of feedwater heaters and may use both open
and closed components.
Feedwater heaters are used in both fossil- and nuclear-fueled power plants. Smaller
versions have also been installed on steam locomotives, portable engines and stationary
engines. An economiser serves a similar purpose to a feedwater heater, but is technically
different. Instead of using actual cycle steam for heating, it uses the lowest-temperature
flue gas from the furnace to heat the water before it enters the boiler proper. This allows
for the heat transfer between the furnace and the feedwater occurring across a smaller
average temperature gradient. System efficiency is therefore further increased when
viewed with respect to actual energy content of the fuel.
Reheater
High pressure
turbine exhaust
Steam
Blowdow
n Economiser
Deaerated boiler
Boiler feedwater
Figure 2.17 : Coal-fired Power Plant Steam Generator Highlighting the Air Pre-heater Location
(Radiant Section Tubing is Not Shown)
40
Types Steam Power Plant
There are two types of air preheaters for use in steam generators in thermal power
stations : One is a tubular type built into the boiler flue gas ducting, and the other
is a regenerative air preheater. These may be arranged so the gas flows
horizontally or vertically across the axis of rotation.
Tubular Type
Construction Features
Tubular preheaters consist of straight tube bundles which pass through the
outlet ducting of the boiler and open at each end outside of the ducting.
Inside the ducting, the hot furnace gases pass around the preheater tubes,
transferring heat from the exhaust gas to the air inside the preheater.
Ambient air is forced by a fan through ducting at one end of the preheater
tubes and at other end the heated air from inside of the tubes emerges into
another set of ducting, which carries it to the boiler furnace for combustion.
Problems
The tubular preheater ductings for cold and hot air require more space and
structural supports than a rotating preheater design. Further, due to dust-laden
abrasive flue gases, the tubes outside the ducting wear out faster on the side facing
the gas current. Many advances have been made to eliminate this problem such as
the use of ceramic and hardened steel.
Many new circulating fluidized bed (CFB) and bubbling fluidized bed (BFB)
steam generators are currently incorporating tubular air heaters offering an
advantage with regards to the moving parts of a rotary type.
Dew Point Corrosion
Dew point corrosion occurs for a variety of reasons. The type of fuel used, its
sulfur content and moisture content are contributing factors. However, by far the
most significant cause of dew point corrosion is the metal temperature of the
tubes. If the metal temperature within the tubes drops below the acid saturation
temperature, usually at between 88°C and 110°C, but sometimes at temperatures
as high as 127°C, then the risk of dew point corrosion damage becomes
considerable.
Regenerative Air Pre-heaters
There are two types of regenerative air pre-heaters: the rotating-plate regenerative
air preheaters and the stationary-plate regenerative air preheaters.
Rotating-plate Regenerative Air Pre-heater
The rotating-plate design consists of a central rotating-plate element installed
within a casing that is divided into two (bi-sector type), three (tri-sector type) or
four (quad-sector type) sectors containing seals around the element. The seals
allow the element to rotate through all the sectors, but keep gas leakage between
sectors to a minimum while providing separate gas air and flue gas paths through
each sector.
FG
Air
As indicated in the figure, there are rotating inlet air ducts at the bottom of the
stationary plates similar to the rotating outlet air ducts at the top of the stationary
plates.
2.6 FURNACES
2.6.1 Types and Classification of Different Furnaces
Based on the method of generating heat, furnaces are broadly classified into two types
namely combustion type (using fuels) and electric type. In case of combustion type
furnace, depending upon the kind of combustion, it can be broadly classified as oil fired,
coal fired or gas fired.
Based on the mode of charging of material, furnaces can be classified as (i)
Intermittent or Batch type furnace or Periodical furnace and (ii) Continuous
furnace.
Based on mode of waste heat recovery as recuperative and regenerative
furnaces.
Another type of furnace classification is made based on mode of heat
transfer, mode of charging and mode of heat recovery as shown in the figure
42 below
Steam Power Plant
Open fire place furnace
According to
Mode of heat
transfer
Heated through medium
Forging
Fe-rolling (batch/
Furnace Batch continuous) Pusher
According to
Classification Mode of heat
transfer Continuous Pot
Primary Air
coal
Raw coal
Banker
Burner
Pulverising
Mill
Feeder
Fan
Hot Air
Secondary air
Primary crusher
Magnetic separator
Coal drier
Coal bunkers
Unit system Central system
Scale Scale
Pulveriser
Pulveriser
Central bin
Burners
Feeder
Furnace Burners
Fan
Air preheater
Air
Feed water
Feed
Economise
water
r
Heater
Main
steam
Hotgas
Storage
And Evaporator
Separator (convective)
drum Preheated
Down Combustion
comer Chamber
Fire gate Evaporator
Circulating Fuel Ash pan (radiant)
Pump Distributing
header
Figure 2.24 : LA MONT Boiler
The centrifugal pump delivers the water to the headers at a pressure of 2.5 bar above the
drum pressure. The distribution headers distribute the water through the nozzle into the
evaporator. The steam separated in the boiler is further passed through the super-heater.
46
Secure a uniform flow of feed water through each of the parallel boiler circuits a choke Steam Power Plant
is fitted entrance to each circuit. These boilers have been built to generate 45 to
50 tonnes of superheated steam at a pressure of 120 bars and temperature of 500°C.
Recently forced circulation has been introduced in large capacity power
2.6.7 Benson Boiler
The main difficulty experienced in the La Mont boiler is the formation and attachment of
bubbles on the inner surfaces of the heating tubes. The attached bubbles reduce the heat
flow and steam generation as it offers higher thermal resistance compared to water film :
(a) If the boiler pressure was raised to critical pressure (225 atm), the steam and
water would have the same density and therefore the danger of bubble
formation can be completely avoided.
(b) Natural circulation boilers require expansion joints but these are not
required for Benson as the pipes are welded. The erection of Benson boiler
is easier and quicker as all the parts are welded at site and workshop job of
tube expansion is altogether avoided.
(c) The transport of Benson boiler parts is easy as no drums are required and
majority of the parts are carried to the site without pre-assembly.
(d) The Benson boiler can be erected in a comparatively smaller floor area. The
space problem does not control the size of Benson boiler used.
(e) The furnace walls of the boiler can be more efficiently protected by using
small diameter and close pitched tubes.
(f) The superheater in the Benson boiler is an integral part of forced circulation
system, therefore no special starting arrangement for superheater is
required.
(g) The Benson boiler can be started very quickly because of welded joints.
(h) The Benson boiler can be operated most economically by varying the
temperature and pres- sure at partial loads and overloads. The desired
temperature can also be maintained constant at any pressure.
(i) Sudden fall of demand creates circulation problems due to bubble formation
in the natural circulation boiler which never occurs in Benson boiler. This
feature of insensitiveness to load fluctuations makes it more suitable for
grid power station as it has better adaptive capacity to meet sudden load
fluctuations.
(j) The blow-down losses of Benson boiler are hardly 4% of natural circulation
boilers of same capacity.
(k) Explosion hazards are not at all severe as it consists of only tubes of small
diameter and has very little storage capacity compared to drum type boiler.
During starting, the water is passed through the economiser, evaporator, superheater and
back to the feed line via starting valve.
During starting, first circulating pumps are started and then the burners are started to
avoid the overheating of evaporator and superheater tubes.
2.6.8 Loeffler Boiler
The major difficulty experienced in Benson boiler is the deposition of salt and sediment
on the inner surfaces of the water tubes. The deposition reduced the heat transfer and
ultimately the generating capacity. This further increased the danger of overheating the
tubes due to salt deposition as it has high thermal resistance. The difficulty was solved in
Loffler boiler by preventing the flow of water into the boiler tubes. Most of the steam is
generated outside from the feed water using part of the superheated steam coming-out
from the boiler.
47
Power Plant Engineering The pressure feed pump draws the water through the economizer and delivers it into the
evaporator drum. About 65% of the steam coming out of super heater is passed through
the evaporator drum in order to evaporate the feed water coming from economizer.
The steam circulating pump draws the saturated steam from the evaporator drum and is
passed through the radiant superheater and then convective superheater. About 35% of
the steam coming out from the superheater is supplied to the H.P. steam turbine. The
steam coming out from H.P. turbine is passed through reheater before supplying to L.P.
turbine. The amount of steam generated in the evaporator drum is equal to the steam
tapped (65%) from the superheater. The nozzles which distribute the superheated steam
through the water into the evaporator drum are of special design to avoid priming and
noise.
This boiler can carry higher salt concentration than any other type and is more compact
than indirectly heated boilers having natural circulation. These qualities fit it for land or
sea transport power generation. Loffler boilers with generating capacity of 94.5 tones/hr
and operating at 140 bar have already been commissioned.
2.6.10 VELOX-Boiler
When the gas velocity exceeds the sound-velocity, the heat is transferred from the gas at
a much higher rate than rates achieved with sub-sonic flow. The advantages of this
theory are taken to obtain the large heat transfer from a smaller surface area in this
boiler. Air is compressed to 2.5 bars with the help of a compressor run by gas turbine
before supplying to the combustion chamber to get the supersonic velocity of the gases
passing through the combustion chamber and gas tubes and high heat release rates. The
burned gases in the combustion chamber are passed through the annulus of the tubes.
The heat is transferred from gases to water while passing through the annulus to generate
the steam. The mixture of water and steam thus formed then passes into a separator
which is so designed that the mixture enters with a spiral flow. The centrifugal force thus
produced causes the heavier water particles to be thrown outward on the walls. This
effect separates the steam from water. The separated steam is further passed to
superheater and then supplied to the prime-mover. The water removed from steam in the
separator is again passed into the water tubes with the help of a pump.
The gases coming out from the annulus at the top are further passed over the superheater
where its heat is used-for superheating the steam. The gases coming out of superheater
are used to run a gas turbine as they carry sufficient kinetic energy. The power output of
the gas turbine is used to run the air-compressor. The exhaust gases coming out from the
gas turbine are passed through the economiser to utilize the remaining heat of the gases.
The extra power required to run the compressor is supplied with the help of electric
48
motor. Feed water of 10 to 20 times the weight of steam generated is circulated through Steam Power Plant
the tubes with the help of water circulating pump. This prevents the overheating of metal
walls.
Scope
The procedure describes routine test for both oil fired and solid fuel fired boilers
using coal, agro residues etc. Only those observations and measurements need to
be made which can be readily applied and is necessary to attain the purpose of the
test.
2.7.1 Reference Standards
British standards, BS845 : 1987
The British Standard BS845: 1987 describes the methods and conditions under
which a boiler should be tested to determine its efficiency. For the testing to be
done, the boiler should be operated under steady load conditions (generally full
load) for a period of one hour after which readings would be taken during the next
hour of steady operation to enable the efficiency to be calculated.
The efficiency of a boiler is quoted as the % of useful heat available, expressed as
a percentage of the total energy potentially available by burning the fuel. This is
expressed on the basis of gross calorific value (GCV).
This deals with the complete heat balance and it has two parts :
(a) Part one deals with standard boilers, where the indirect method is
specified.
49
Power Plant Engineering (b) Part two deals with complex plant where there are many channels of
heat flow. In this case, both the direct and indirect methods are
applicable, in whole or in part.
ASME Standard : PTC-4-1 Power Test Code for Steam Generating Units
This consists of
(c) Part One : Direct method (also called as Input -output method).
(d) Part Two : Indirect method (also called as Heat loss method)
IS 8753 : Indian Standard for Boiler Efficiency Testing
Most standards for computation of boiler efficiency, including IS 8753 and BS845
are designed for spot measurement of boiler efficiency. Invariably, all these
standards do not include blow down as a loss in the efficiency determination
process.
Basically Boiler efficiency can be tested by the following methods :
The Direct Method
Where the energy gain of the working fluid (water and steam) is compared
with the energy content of the boiler fuel.
The Indirect Method
Where the efficiency is the difference between the losses and the energy
input.
2.7.2 The Direct Method Testing
Description
This is also known as „input-output method‟ due to the fact that it needs only the
useful output (steam) and the heat input (i.e. fuel) for evaluating the efficiency.
This efficiency can be evaluated using the formula :
Heat output
Boiler Efficiency 100
Heat input
Heat Input
Both heat input and heat output must be measured. The measurement of
heat input requires knowledge of the calorific value of the fuel and its flow
rate in terms of mass or volume, according to the nature of the fuel.
For Gaseous Fuel
A gas meter of the approved type can be used and the measured
volume should be corrected for temperature and pressure. A sample
of gas can be collected for calorific value determination, but it is
usually acceptable to use the calorific value declared by the gas
suppliers.
For Liquid Fuel
The meter, which is usually installed on the combustion appliance,
should be regarded as a rough indicator only and, for test purposes, a
meter calibrated for the particular oil is to be used and over a realistic
range of temperature should be installed. Even better is the use of an
accurately calibrated day tank.
For Solid Fuel
The accurate measurement of the flow of coal or other solid fuel is
very difficult. The measurement must be based on mass, which means
that bulky apparatus must be set up on the boiler-house floor.
Samples must be taken and bagged throughout the test, the bags
sealed and sent to a laboratory for analysis and calorific value
determination. In some more recent boiler houses, the problem has
been alleviated by mounting the hoppers over the boilers on
calibrated load cells, but these are yet uncommon.
Heat Output
There are several methods, which can be used for measuring heat output.
With steam boilers, an installed steam meter can be used to measure flow
rate, but this must be corrected for temperature and pressure. In earlier
years, this approach was not favoured due to the change in accuracy of
orifice or venturi meters with flow rate. It is now more viable with modern
flow meters of the variable-orifice or vortex-shedding types.
The alternative with small boilers is to measure feed water, and this can be
done by previously calibrating the feed tank and noting down the levels of
water during the beginning and end of the trial. Care should be taken not to
pump water during this period. Heat addition for conversion of feed water at
inlet temperature to steam, is considered for heat output.
In case of boilers with intermittent blowdown, blowdown should be avoided
during the trial period. In case of boilers with continuous blowdown, the
heat loss due to blowdown should be calculated and added to the heat in
steam.
Merits and Demerits of Direct Method
Merits
(a) Plant people can evaluate quickly the efficiency of boilers.
(b) Requires few parameters for computation.
(c) Needs few instruments for monitoring.
51
Power Plant Engineering Demerits
(a) Does not give clues to the operator as to why efficiency of system is
lower.
(b) Does not calculate various losses accountable for various efficiency
levels.
(c) Evaporation ratio and efficiency may mislead, if the steam is highly
wet due to water carryover
2.7.3 The Indirect Method Testing
Description
The efficiency can be measured easily by measuring all the losses occurring in the
boilers using the principles to be described. The disadvantages of the direct
method can be overcome by this method, which calculates the various heat losses
associated with boiler. The efficiency can be arrived at, by subtracting the heat
loss fractions from 100. An important advantage of this method is that the errors
in measurement do not make significant change in efficiency.
Thus if boiler efficiency is 90%, an error of 1% in direct method will result in
significant change in efficiency, i.e. 90 0.9 = 89.1 to 90.9. In indirect method,
1% error in measurement of losses will result in
Efficiency = 100 – (10 0.1) = 90 0.1 = 89.9 to 90.1
The various heat losses occurring in the boiler are
Efficiency = 100 – (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8) (by indirect method)
Having established the magnitude of all the losses mentioned above, a simple
energy balance would give the efficiency of the boiler. The efficiency is the
difference between the energy input to the boiler and the heat losses calculated.
Boiler energy Balance : kCal / kg of fuel %
Input/Output Parameter
Heat Input in fuel = 100
Various Heat losses in boiler
1. Dry flue gas loss =
2. Loss due to hydrogen in fuel =
3. Loss due to moisture in fuel =
4. Loss due to moisture in air =
5. Partial combustion of C to CO =
6. Surface heat losses =
7. Loss due to Unburnt in fly ash =
8. Loss due to Unburnt in bottom ash =
Total Losses =
Boiler efficiency = 100 – (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8)
(i) Condensing
(ii) Back Pressure (Non Condensing)
(iii) Mixed Pressure
(iv) Reheat
(v) Extraction type (Auto or Controlled)
Condensing turbines are most commonly found in electrical power plants.
These turbines exhaust steam in a partially condensed state, typically of a
quality near 90%, at a pressure well below atmospheric to a condenser.
Non-condensing or backpressure turbines are most widely used for process
steam applications. The exhaust pressure is controlled by a regulating valve
to suit the needs of the process steam pressure. These are commonly found
at refineries, district heating units, pulp and paper plants, and desalination
facilities where large amounts of low pressure process steam are available.
Reheat turbines are also used almost exclusively in electrical power plants.
In a reheat turbine, steam flow exits from a high pressure section of the
turbine and is returned to the boiler where additional superheat is added.
The steam then goes back into an intermediate pressure section of the
turbine and continues its expansion.
Extracting type turbines are common in all applications. In an extracting
type turbine, steam is released from various stages of the turbine, and used
for industrial process needs or sent to boiler feedwater heaters to improve
overall cycle efficiency. Extraction flows may be controlled with a valve, or
left uncontrolled.
Induction turbines introduce low pressure steam at an intermediate stage to
produce additional power.
(c) Casing or shaft arrangement as
(i) Single Casing
(ii) Tandem compound
(iii) Cross Compound
Single casing units are the most basic style where a single casing and shaft
are coupled to a generator. Tandem compound are used where two or more
casings are directly coupled together to drive a single generator. A cross
compound turbine arrangement features two or more shafts not in line
driving two or more generators that often operate at different speeds. A
cross compound turbine is typically used for many large applications.
The materials used to construct turbines will vary somewhat depending on the
steam and power conditions for which the turbine is designed. Turbine casings are
made of cast carbon steel for non superheated steam applications. Superheated
applications use casings made of carbon molybdenum steel. For turbine casings
used on submarines, a percentage of chrome stainless steel is used, which is more
resistant to steam erosion than carbon steel. Each casing has a steam chest to
receive the incoming high-pressure steam. This steam chest delivers the steam to
the first set of nozzles or blades.
Nozzles
The primary function of the nozzles is to convert the thermal energy of steam into
kinetic energy. The secondary function of the nozzles is to direct the steam against
the blades.
Rotors
Rotors (forged wheels and shaft) are manufactured from steel alloys. The primary
purpose of a turbine rotor is to carry the moving blades that convert the steam's
kinetic energy to rotating mechanical energy.
Bearings
The rotor of every turbine must be positioned radially and axially by bearings.
Radial bearings carry and support the weight of the rotor and maintain the correct
radial clearance between the rotor and casing.
Labyrinth packing consists of rows of metallic strips or fins. The strips fasten to
the gland liner so there is a small space between the strips and the shaft. As the
steam from the turbine casing leaks through the small space between the packing
strips and the shaft, steam pressure gradually reduces.
Mechanical Efficiency
Mechanical Efficiency of a turbine is the ratio of the brake output to the
62 internal input. The Mechanical efficiency is an index of the external losses.
Steam Rate Steam Power Plant
2.9 CONDENSER
2.9.1 Functions of Condensers
The main purposes of the condenser are to condense the exhaust steam from the turbine
for reuse in the cycle and to maximize turbine efficiency by maintaining proper vacuum.
As the operating pressure of the condenser is lowered (vacuum is increased), the
enthalpy drop of the expanding steam in the turbine will also increase. This will increase
the amount of available work from the turbine (electrical output). By lowering the
condenser operating pressure, the following will occur :
(a) Increased turbine output
(b) Increased plant efficiency
(c) Reduced steam flow (for a given plant output)
It is therefore very advantageous to operate the condenser at the lowest possible pressure
(highest vacuum).
For best efficiency, the temperature in the condenser must be kept as low as practical in
order to achieve the lowest possible pressure in the condensing steam. Since the
condenser temperature can almost always be kept significantly below 100oC where the
vapor pressure of water is much less than atmospheric pressure, the condenser generally
works under vacuum. Thus leaks of non-condensable air into the closed loop must be
prevented.
The condenser generally uses either circulating cooling water from a cooling tower to
reject waste heat to the atmosphere, or once-through water from a river, lake or ocean.
Note : Tubes are brass, cupro nickel, titanium or stainless steel. The tubes are expanded or rolled and bell
mouthed at the ends in the tube sheets.
Figure 2.35 : Typical Power Plant Condenser
The diagram depicts a typical water-cooled surface condenser as used in power stations
to condense the exhaust steam from a steam turbine driving an electrical generator as
well in other applications
2.9.4 Condenser Components and their Functions
Shell
The shell is the condenser's outermost body and contains the heat exchanger tubes.
The shell is fabricated from carbon steel plates and is stiffened as needed to
provide rigidity for the shell. When required by the selected design, intermediate
plates are installed to serve as baffle plates that provide the desired flow path of
the condensing steam. The plates also provide support that help prevent sagging of
long tube lengths.
For most water-cooled surface condensers, the shell is under vacuum during
64 normal operating conditions.
Hotwell Steam Power Plant
At the bottom of the shell, where the condensate collects, an outlet is installed. In
some designs, a sump (often referred to as the hotwell) is provided. Condensate is
pumped from the outlet or the hotwell for reuse as boiler feedwater.
Vacuum System
For a steam ejector, the motive fluid is steam.
For water-cooled surface condensers, the shell's internal vacuum is most
commonly supplied by and maintained by an external steam jet ejector system.
Such an ejector system uses steam as the motive fluid to remove any non-
condensable gases that may be present in the surface condenser. The Venturi
effect, which is a particular case of Bernoulli's principle, applies to the operation
of steam jet ejectors.
Motor driven mechanical vacuum pumps, such as the liquid ring type, are also
popular for this service.
Motive fluid
nozzle
Diverging outlet
Converging
diffuser
inlet nozzle
Diffuser throat
Tube Sheets
At each end of the shell, a sheet of sufficient thickness usually made of stainless
steel is provided, with holes for the tubes to be inserted and rolled. The inlet end
of each tube is also bell mouthed for streamlined entry of water. This is to avoid
eddies at the inlet of each tube giving rise to erosion, and to reduce flow friction.
Some makers also recommend plastic inserts at the entry of tubes to avoid eddies
eroding the inlet end. In smaller units some manufacturers use ferrules to seal the
tube ends instead of rolling. To take care of length wise expansion of tubes some
designs have expansion joint between the shell and the tube sheet allowing the
latter to move longitudinally. In smaller units some sag is given to the tubes to
take care of tube expansion with both end water boxes fixed rigidly to the shell.
Tubes
Generally the tubes are made of stainless steel, copper alloys such as brass or
bronze, cupro nickel, or titanium depending on several selection criteria. The use
of copper bearing alloys such as brass or cupro nickel is rare in new plants, due to
environmental concerns of toxic copper alloys. Also depending on the steam cycle
water treatment for the boiler, it may be desirable to avoid tube materials
containing copper. Titanium condenser tubes are usually the best technical choice;
however the use of titanium condenser tubes has been virtually eliminated by the
sharp increases in the costs for this material. The tube lengths range to about 17 m
for modern power plants, depending on the size of the condenser. The size chosen
is based on transportability from the manufacturers‟ site and ease of erection at the
installation site.
65
Power Plant Engineering Waterboxes
The tube sheet at each end with tube ends rolled, for each end of the condenser is
closed by a fabricated box cover known as a waterbox, with flanged connection to
the tube sheet or condenser shell. The waterbox is usually provided with man
holes on hinged covers to allow inspection and cleaning.
These waterboxes on inlet side will also have flanged connections for cooling
water inlet butterfly valves, small vent pipe with hand valve for air venting at
higher level, and hand operated drain valve at bottom to drain the waterbox for
maintenance. Similarly on the outlet waterbox the cooling water connection will
have large flanges, butterfly valves, vent connection also at higher level and drain
connections at lower level. Similarly thermometer pockets are located at inlet and
outlet pipes for local measurements of cooling water temperature.
2.9.5 Condensate Pumps
Condensate pumps are those kinds of pumps that are used to collect and transport
condensate back into a steam system for reheating and reuse, or to remove unwanted
condensate.
Condensate pumps have a tank in which condensate can accumulate. The tank size varies
depending on the application. The accumulating liquid raises a float switch which
energizes the pump. The pump then runs until the level of liquid in the tank is
substantially lowered. Some pumps contain a two-stage switch. As the liquid rises to the
trigger point of the first stage, the pump starts working. If the liquid continues to rise, the
second stage will be triggered. This stage may switch off the HVAC equipment, which
is, preventing the production of further condensate, trigger an alarm or both.
Types of Condensate Pump
Boiler Feed Pump
This pump closes the boiler, steam and condensate loop by returning the
condensate back into the system for reuse.
Sump Pump
This pump is installed in compartments to remove the unwanted build-up of
water.
In a steam power plant, the condensate pump is normally located adjacent to the main
condenser hotwell often directly below it. This pump sends the water to a make-up tank
closer to the steam generator or boiler. If the tank is also designed to remove dissolved
oxygen from the condensate, it is known as a De aerating feed tank (DFT). The output of
the DFT supplies the feed booster pump which, in turn, supplies the feed pump
(feedwater pump) which returns the feedwater to the boiler so the cycle can start over.
Two pumps in succession are used to provide sufficient Net Positive Suction Head to
prevent cavitation and the subsequent damage associated with it.
Circulating Pumps
Condenser circulating pumps are used to pump cooing water through the
condenser. The source of the cooling water can be the sea, lake, river or a cooling
tower. Low speed –horizontal-double suction-volute centrifugal pumps are used
for this application. This pump has a simple but rugged design that allows ready
access to interior for examination and rapid dismantling if repairs are required.
Atmospheric Relief Valves
Atmospheric relief valves provide automatic protection of costly condenser
equipment. These valves are as important as trip throttle valves, over speed
governors, and other devices for power plant protection. Atmospheric relief valves
are designed and manufactured with the finest materials and the highest quality
workmanship.
66
Atmospheric relief valves open and close automatically. Each valve needs to be Steam Power Plant
installed vertically and properly leveled for smooth operation. Special ring seals
and a water seal is provided for zero leakage in full vacuum conditions. Each
valve opens immediately when pressure increases slightly above atmospheric
pressure. Higher than atmospheric set pressures can be provided with internally
spring loaded discs. During regular maintenance and as many times as possible,
each atmospheric valve should be opened by turning the hand wheel clockwise
then closing the valves by turning counter clockwise. This process ensures non-
binding and self-cleaning valve action.
Requirements of a Good Condensing System
The requirements of ideal surface condenser used for power plants are as follows :
(a) The steam entering the condenser should be evenly distributed over
the whole cooling surface of the condenser vessel with minimum
pressure loss.
(b) The amount of cooling water being circulated in the condenser should
be so regulated that the temperature of cooling water leaving the
condenser is equivalent to saturation temperature of steam
corresponding to steam pressure in the condenser. This will help in
preventing under cooling of condensate.
(c) The deposition of dirt on the outer surface of tubes should be
prevented. Passing the cooling water through the tubes and allowing
the steam to flow over the tubes achieve this.
(d) There should be no air leakage into the condenser because presence
of air destroys the vacuum in the condenser and thus reduces the
work obtained per kg of steam. If there is leakage of air into the
condenser air extraction pump should be used to remove air as
rapidly as possible.
During operation, the fan forces air at a low velocity horizontally through
the packing and then vertically against the downward flow of the water that
occurs on either side of the fan. The drift eliminators located at the top of
the tower remove water entrained in the air. Vibration and noise are
minimal since the rotating equipment is built on a solid foundation. The
fans handle mostly dry air, greatly reducing erosion and water condensation
problems.
Induced Draft
The induced draft tower show in the following picture has one or more fans,
located at the top of the tower, that draw air upwards against the downward
flow of water passing around the wooden decking or packing. Since the
airflow is counter to the water flow, the coolest water at the bottom is in
contact with the driest air while the warmest water at the top is in contact
with the moist air, resulting in increased heat transfer efficiency.
Water in
Air in
Outflow
Multi-Step Controls
Some compressors are designed to operate in two or more partially loaded
conditions. With such a control schemes, output pressure can be closely controlled
without requiring the compressor to start/stop or load/unload.
Table lists required automatic control functions and their initiation mode(s). These
functions are the minimum required, and others may be added as needed. Those
functions requiring manual initiation are noted as (M), those initiated by automatic
signal are noted as (A), and those operating on a continuous signal are noted as
(C). Manual control shall be provided on automatic control functions, as required,
for maintenance and testing.
Control Room (CR) Instrumentation
For installations with a large central power plant, on-site instrumentation and
controls shall be provided in the CR to centralize operation of the on-site utilities.
Instrumentation in the CR shall be microprocessor-based systems and shall permit
the power plant operator to monitor the operating status of all equipment, operate
the equipment, and evaluate system conditions affecting delivery of electric power
and coolant to the site equipment and the facility. Additionally, monitoring and
control of auxiliary equipment and of all equipment required to regulate the
environment of the site shall be performed in the CR. Operators shall be able to
measure operating conditions, which shall permit analysis of the thermodynamic
and mechanical performance of the power plant on a continuous basis. Abnormal
incipient failures and failure conditions shall be annunciated in the CR. Mimic
status boards and/or CRT color graphic displays shall indicate, by color coded
groups arranged graphically, the status of all power generation equipment,
commercial power primary substation medium-voltage switchgear, coolant pumps,
and other critical items. Printout on a periodic basis and under alarm conditions
shall be provided for all critical equipment and plant conditions. Remote CRTs
and printouts shall be provided for operation officers or the facility engineer.
73
Power Plant Engineering (a) A master frequency control system shall be provided for the primary
switchgear main bus. Provisions shall be made for sensing and controlling
any or all of the buses when they are electrically connected to each other,
when they are in service but electrically separated, or when only one is in
service. The system shall be capable of being switched in or out of service,
to either side of the primary double bus, or to split bus operation without
causing system frequency deviation beyond the requirements specified. The
system shall include the following :
(i) Frequency recorders
(ii) Frequency deviation transducers
(iii) Master frequency standard
(iv) Governor actuator devices
(b) A master voltmeter recorder system shall be furnished to indicate and
record the line-to-line voltages on the main buses and on each medium-
voltage power supply bus. The voltmeter shall measure the true RMS
voltage. A multi-channel recorder shall be used to precisely record all bus
voltages.
(c) Recording watt-hour meters and demand meters shall be installed for the
commercial power connection. The installation shall meet the requirements
of the serving utility and local regulating agencies, and shall provide with
data needed to confirm billing by the utility company. Voltage and current
measurements shall be true RMS.
(d) Table lists the minimum requirement for the CR control panel instruments
and controls for prime movers. These instruments and controls are the
minimum required, and others may be added as needed.
Table 2.2 : Minimum CR Control Panel Instrumentation for Prime Movers
The prime mover control panel shall be located in the unit control compartment or
other suitable space in accordance with the manufacturer‟s standard design.
Table 2.3 lists the minimum monitoring and control functions required of the
prime mover control panel. These monitoring and control functions are the
minimum required, and others may be added as needed.
Table 2.3 : Monitoring and Control Functions of Engine Control Panel
Control Switches
1 Master operation selector (remote-auto-crank-fire-oil)
2 Load selector (base-peak)
3 Master control (stop-start)
4 Fuel selector switch
5 Emergency trip push button (to shut down engine and open generator breaker)
Motors and Indicators
1 Tachometer
2 Exhaust temperature
3 Set point
4 Control system voltage
5 Digital temperature indicator with selector switch (or recorder) (12 points minimum)
6 Base operating hours
7 Peak operating hours
8 Total operating hours
9 Fuel flow integrator
10 Counters for fast, manually initiated, fired, and total starts
11 Indicating lamps to show start sequencing
12 Relays, timers, and other devices as required
Local Instrumentation
Local control shall be provided. Transfer of control to the local station shall be
accomplished at the local station upon receipt of permission from the CR operator;
the transfer shall be alarmed in the CR. Representative function to be controlled
locally are listed in table. These functions are the minimum required, and others
may be added as needed.
Table 2.4 : Functions to be Controlled Locally
1 Startup/shutdown prime mover-generator (permissive, manual initiate sequence)
2 Trip prime mover-generator (emergency – CR and local)
3 Trip primary feeder switchgear circuit breakers (emergency – CR and local)
4 Start motor-generator set, if applicable (permissive, manual initiative sequence)
5 Trip motor-generator set, if applicable (emergency – CR and local)
6 Initiate startup, operation, and shutdown of refrigeration compressors
7 Startup and shutdown all air-handling units
8 Start and stop air compressors
9 Cool and heat each pump or bank of pumps and at each motorized valve or bank of motorized
valves for equipment startup and shutdown; permit an operator-maintainer, upon approval of the
power plant operator, to put alternate equipment in service for the purpose of maintenance, repair
or replacement
10 Temperature indicator, each cylinder and combined exhaust (selector switch)
11 Pressure indicator, starting air, air receiver
12 Pressure indicator, cooling water, pump discharge
13 Temperature indicator, cooling water, supply to engine
14 Temperature indicator, cooling water, return from engine
15 Level indicator, jacket water, surge tank
16 Motor control switches, jacket water pumps, cooling water towers fans, fuel oil transfer pumps,
centrifuges and related auxiliaries
17 High engine oil temperature
18 Annuniciator alarms, low tube oil pressure, high tube oil temperature, low jacket water pressure,
high jacket water temperature, high and low day tank levels 75
Power Plant Engineering Transient Protection, Grounding, Bonding, and Shielding
Functional upsets shall be minimized by the appropriate use of redundant data
transmission codes and software checks. Damaging upsets shall be minimized by
the proper use of transient protection devices in all power supplies and on all data
communication lines.
(a) Transient protection devices such as fuses and circuit breakers shall
be used to limit current in power supplies.
(b) Grounding of the instrumentation and control system shall be in
accordance with standard specification.
(c) Electronic circuits sensitive to EMI shall be protected by filters and
electrical shields. Metallic shields shall be used as necessary to
protect individual components, transmission lines, equipment
installations, or entire buildings to reduce the strength of incident
radiated electric and magnetic fields. Filters shall be placed on
communications, control, and power circuits to reduce electrical
transients to levels that sensitive circuits can endure without causing
functional or damaging upsets.
Drum set
point +
Feed water
control valve
Drum level -
The most obvious control scheme for feedwater applications is simple level
control. This is also known as single-element control because drum level is the
only indicator used to control feedwater flow.
Drum level is sensed by a transducer and fed back to the control system, which in
turn proportionally moves the valve to compensate. If the drum level is increasing
above its nominal point, the modulating valve is cut back; if drum level decreases
below the nominal point, the valve is opened to increase feedwater flow. This
controller may be strictly proportional or it may include integral gain. The simple
goal of this scheme is to maintain a strict level of water in the steam drum.
76
Steam Power Plant
Flow
Steam
drum Drum
level Mud
drum
Feed water Firing
Area
Steam
Flow
output
Under steady-state conditions, the demand from the boiler system (steam flow)
will be constant. Ideally, this would indicate that feedwater entering the system
will flow at a constant rate and the firing rate from the combustion control is
uniform. Now, assume that the steam demanded from the system undergoes a step
increase. To make up this increase in energy output, it is obvious that the firing
rate must also experience an instantaneous boost. And, to compensate for the
increase in mass flow at the output of the system, it is logical to assume that an
increase in feedwater flow will be needed.
In this situation, it is important to understand the internal dynamics of the boiler
system. When the steam demand is instantly increased, the proportion of steam to
water in the riser tubes will also increase. When the proportion of steam is
increased, the volume of the entire system will also rise. Because of the boiler
construction, the only place that this volume will be taken up is in the steam drum.
This phenomenon is known as swell and is indicated by an instant increase in
drum level when the firing rate undergoes a step increase. The opposite event,
known as shrink, occurs upon a decreased firing rate, causing a corresponding
drop in drum level.
If an instant increase in steam output is required (causing an accelerated firing rate
and swell in the steam drum), a simple level control would react to this swell by
decreasing the feedwater flow to the drum. However, it can be seen that the
increased mass flow at the system output requires an increased feedwater flow at
the input and, thus, the level control has reacted in the wrong direction to the
firing-rate change. As the increase in steam flow translates to a greater quantity of
water leaving the steam drum to enter the downcomer, the level control will
eventually have to play “catch-up” to establish proper feedwater flow. Such a
scheme will provide unstable feedwater control in large boiler systems.
With this in mind, it is worthwhile to define some goals to feedwater control.
First, the control should monitor drum level. This is not to say that the drum level
should be maintained at a strict level, since this is impossible when shrink and
swell are present in the system. However, to an extent, the control should not
allow the drum level to deviate beyond specific boundaries, which vary depending
on drum size.
Second, the control should be able to balance the input of the system (feedwater)
with the output of the system (steam). We saw above that the single-element level
control does not properly react at first to this requirement.
Going along with this, the third objective to feedwater control is to avoid any
sudden changes in boiler water inventory. Ideally, the control should smoothly
adjust this inventory whenever there are any sudden changes in load.
77
Power Plant Engineering Incidentally, it is interesting to note that when a boiler is at 100% output (steady
state), the boiler water inventory is less than at an output level below 100%. The
reason for this is that at high output the ratio of steam to water in the system is
greater and, consequently, the total mass of water contained in the system is less.
Fourth, it is imperative that the interaction of the feedwater control and the
combustion control be minimized. Poor feedwater control will interfere
significantly with the firing rate, causing a decrease in overall efficiency.
Fifth, a good feedwater control should be able to compensate for any fluctuations
in feedwater supply pressure. These fluctuations will change the flow
characteristics of the control valve and, thus, the overall dynamics of the
feedwater system. Variation in feedwater pressure, along with shrink and swell
provide the two greatest challenges for a feedwater supply control.
As discussed earlier, single-element level control provides an inadequate response
for sudden load changes in the boiler system. To combat the problems encountered
with shrink and swell, we introduce a second element of control-steam flow
(Figure 2.43).
PID
Drum set
+
point Feed water
+
control valve
Drum level -
Steam flow +
Scaling
A flow transducer is located at the output of the boiler system. The purpose of this
scheme is to sense a change in steam demand and use this signal to compensate for
the wrong-way reaction of the drum-level controller. This is demonstrated in the
following Figure 2.44.
Steam Flow
demand Swell
Drum
level Level
Drum
control term
Steam flow x
Scaling
Feedwater flow x
Scaling
Pl
Pl
M X ref
Load demand
Scheduled
LQG controller
[0:1]
uadd
y ref e - y
Existing boiler u Boiler
control system
- +
Figure 2.47 : Scheduled LQG Controller with Feedwater Acton from Load Demand Signal,
as a Complement to an Existing Boiler Control System 81
Power Plant Engineering SAQ 2
(a) What is a super-heater? What are its types? Describe any one of them.
(b) What is a feed water heater? Explain its advantages.
(c) What is a furnace? What are its types?
(d) Explain advantages and disadvantages of different types of furnaces.
SAQ 3
(a) How do you measure the performance of a boiler? Explain.
(b) Describe the various types of performance measurement of boilers.
(c) What is a steam turbine? How do they classify? Explain the working of any
one steam turbine.
(d) Explain the various components of steam turbine and their functions.
(e) Describe the advantages and disadvantages of steam turbines.
SAQ 4
(a) What is a condenser? What are the various components of condensers?
Explain their functions.
(b) What is a cooling tower? What are the various types of cooling towers?
(c) Describe the working of natural draft cooling tower.
(d) Explain the different control systems of steam power plant.
2.12 SUMMARY
Steam power plants are located at the water and coal available places. Steam is utilized
to run the turbines, in turn gives the power to generator and generator produces the
electricity, the electricity is utilized for lighting, running the industries, for lighting of
offices, schools, etc. Boiler is an important component of the power plants, it produces
the steam.
83