CONSTANTA MARITIME UNIVERSITY MARINE AUXILIARY MACHINERY. Practical problems and guidelines for rudder and steering gears design. Draft Edition. Naval Architect and Marine Engineer: IORDAN NOVAC Ph.D. CONSTANTA 2013This page intentionally left blankChapter 4 Maneuvering of Ships ‘The history of scientific research on maneuvering of ships started already in 1749 with the classic work of Buler on equations of motion of a ship, but shipbuilding still remained for almost two centuries fully based on a shipbuilder’s experience-based knowledge. In about 1920, some first attention on a more analytic approach appeared when single-plated rud- ders were replaced by flow-line-curved rudders. This development was based on research on airfoils, carried out in the new aviation industry. More systematic work on maneuvering, has been started during World War II. Shortly after this War, [Davidson and Schiff, 1946] published a paper dealing with maneuvering problems on a (for that time) modern ap- proach. ‘The first International Symposium on Ship Maneuverability was held in 1960 in Washington in the U.S.A. There, among others, [Norrbin, 1960] gave his view on the "state of the art” of scientific work carried out on maneuverability of ships. Since then, an increasing attention has been paid on research in this particular hydrodynamic field. Especially, (inter)national organizations - such as the IMO (International Maritime Organization), the ITTC (International Towing Tank Conference) and the SNAME (Society of Naval ‘Architects and Marine Engineers) - became more active in the stimulation of research on those aspects of ship maneuverability which are vital for safer shipping and cleaner oceans. Results of this (and other) research are treated in this Chapter. During the last four decades, research on ship maneuverability was also stimulated strongly by the increasing ship size problems (crude oil carriers and container vessels), the related shallow water problems when entering harbors, the increasing ship speed problems (nuclear submarines and fast ferries), newly-developed experimental oscillatory techniques (planar motion mechanismns) and - last but not least - the enormous developments in the computer industry with related new possibilities for computer simulations. In some parts of this Chapter on Maneuvering of Ships, very fruitful use has been made of the following references: ‘© The "Principles of Naval Architecture”, 1989, Chapter IX on Controllability by C.L. Crane, H. Eda and A. Landsberg. @ Various Proceedings of the International Towing Tank Conference; particularly thoseCHAPTER 4. MANEUVERING OF SHIPS of the 22nd ITTC (1999), which presents detailed procedures on conducting full scale maneuvering trial tests. « A paper on *IMO’s Activities on Ship Maneuverability” in the Proceedings of the International Conference on Marine Simulation and Ship Maneuverability (MARSIM) in October 1993 at St. John's in Canada by S.D. Srivastava. For more detailed information on maneuvering of ships, reference is given to these publi- cations. 4.1 Introduction Controllability encompasses all aspects of regulating a ship's trajectory, speed and orien- tation at sea, as well as in restricted waters where positioning and station keeping are of particular concern. Controllability includes starting, steering a steady course, turning, slowing, stopping and backing. In the case of submarines, diving has to be added to these controllability tasks too. The study of the complex subject of controllability is usually divided into three distinct areas of functions: ‘© Course keeping (or steering) ‘This aspect yields the maintenance of a steady mean course or heading. Interest centers on the ease with which the ship can be held to the course. © Maneuvering ‘This aspect yields the controlled change in direction of motion; turning or course changing. Interest centers on the ease with which change can be accomplished and the radius and distance required to accomplish the change. © Speed changing ‘This aspect yields the controlled change in speed including stopping and backing. Interest centers on the ease, rapidity and distance covered in accomplishing changes. Performance varies with water depth, channel restrictions and hydrodynamic interference from nearby vessels and obstacles. Course keeping and maneuvering characteristics are particularly sensitive to the ship's trim. For conventional ships, the two qualities of course keeping and maneuvering may tend to work against each other; an easy turning ship may be difficult to keep on course whereas a ship which maintains course well may be hard to turn, Fortunately, a practical compromise is nearly always possible. Since controllability is so important, it is an essential consideration in the design of any floating structure. Controllability is, however, but one of many considerations facing of naval architects and involves compromises with other important characteristics. Some solutions are obtained through comparison with the characteristics of earlier successful designs. In other cases, experimental techniques, theoretical analyses, and rational design practices must all come into play to assure adequacy. Three tasks are generally involved in producing a ship with good controllability:4.2. REQUIREMENTS AND TOOLS ‘ Establishing realistic specifications and criteria for course keeping, maneuvering and speed changing. @ Designing the hull, control surfaces, appendages, steering gear and control systems to meet these requirements and predicting the resultant performance. © Conducting full-scale trials to measure performance for comparison with required criteria and predictions. ‘This chapter will deal more or less with each of these three tasks. Its goal is to give an introduction to the basics of controllability analysis and some of its many facets. In a next lecture, manners will be given that should lead to the use of rational design procedures to assure adequate ship controllability. 4.2 Requirements and Tools In this section, some basic information is given on maneuvering requirements, rudder types, required rudder areas and rudder control systems. 4.2.1 General Requirements Each sailing ship must have a certain amount of course stability; ie. it must be able to maintain a certain direction or course. During sailing, the drift angle (the angle between the path of the center of gravity and the middle line plane of the ship) may not show large fluctuations. The phenomena “course” and "drift angle” have been defined in figure 4.1. ‘The rudder angle, required to compensate for external disturbances by wind and waves, may not be too large. Figure 4.1: Definition of Course and Drift AngleCHAPTER 4. MANEUVERING OF SHIPS ‘The sailing ship must be able to change its course relatively fast, with small overshoots. ‘Also, the path overshoot (or path width) has to stay within certain limits. ‘The ship must be able to carry out turning maneuvers within limits, defined later. It must remain well- maneuverable during accelerating and decelerating the ship and it must have an acceptable stopping distance. Also, the ship must be able to maneuver at low speeds without assistance of tugs. For this, certain demands on design, performance and control of the rudder are required. 4.2.2. Rudder Types ‘The type of rudder and its location and placement relative to the propeller have significant influence on rudder effectiveness and ship controllability. Rudders should be located near the stern and should be located in the propeller stream for good controllability. Figure 4.2 shows the major rudder types available to the designer. Its performance char- acteristics are of major importance to the controllability of the ship. ‘SIMPLETYPE; RUDDER POST COMPOUND; BUTT SIMPLE FULLY BALANCED BALANCED; WITH FIKED ‘STRUCTURE: WU ; s oe ieee rs BALANCED; UNOERHUNG: UNDERHUNG;SHALLOW SPADE;MERCMANT TYPE SPADE; TRANSOM STERN. DEEP HORN noRW [corres ypoen Figure 4.2: Various Rudder-Fin Arrangements All-movable rudders are desirable for their ability to produce lange turning forces for their size. The required rudder moment is strongly influenced by a careful choice of the balance ratio; this is the rudder area forward of the rudder stock divided by the total rudder area. Usually, this balance ratio varies between 0.25 for ships with a small block coefficient and 0.27 for ships with a large block coefficient. Structural considerations, costs, the need for additional stabilizing side forces provided by a horn and the considerations may require use of other types of rudders such as the semi-suspended (or horn) rudder. The horn type is also favored for operations in ice.4.2, REQUIREMENTS AND TOOLS 4.2.3 Rudder Size ‘The rudder area should be determined and verified during the initial ship arrangement study. A good first step is to use the 1975-Rules value of Det Norske Veritas for a minimum projected rudder area: 2 Ante (rosso. (z) } (44) in which: projected rudder area length between perpendiculars beam draft rg B d ‘This formula 4.1 applies only to rudder arrangements in which the rudder is located directly behind the propeller. For any other rudder arrangement Det Norske Veritas requires an increase in the rudder area by - at least; - 30 percent. A twin screw (or more) arrangement should be combined with rudders located directly behind the propellers for maximum low- speed maneuverability, A single rudder placed between two propellers may be inadequate, because the rudder blade does not swing sufficiently into the flow of a propeller to generate the needed turning moment. 4.2.4 Rudder Forces and Moments ‘A rudder behind a ship acts as an airfoil or a wing; it produces lift and drag in a proper flow. A cross section of a rudder (or a lifting surface) is such that at a rudder angle (or angle of attack of the flow) a relative large force perpendicular to the flow direction comes into existence. Figure 4.3 shows the components of the force produced by the rudder. The rudder profile has been placed with an angle of attack a in a homogeneous flow with a constant velocity V. Practically, V is defined as the velocity of the fluid far before the rudder. For small angles of attack, a, the total force P on the profile acts at about ¢ ~ 0.25 - ¢, provided that the span width s is large with respect to the chord length c. This force P can be decomposed in a lift force L perpendicular to the flow and a drag force D in the direction of the flow. The total force P can be decomposed in a normal force IV and a tangential force T, too. Rudder forces are made dimensionless by the stagnation pressure 4pV? and the projected rudder area Ay: L D oO = Tv, we (4.2) N id Ov = a Oa From the force components, as presented in figure 4.3, follows:CHAPTER 4. MANEUVERING OF SHIPS = chord length ‘t= wing section thickness ‘Figure 4.3: Forces on a Rudder Section ViF+Di = VP? Leosa+Dsina and Cy =Cycosa+Cpsina Deosa—Lsina and Cr =Cpeosa ~Czsina (43) For the rudder moment, it is important to know about which point it has been defined. ‘The moment M. about the front (or nose) of the rudder is: MM. M.=N- id Cu = (4.4) 6 ant a Ae a) ‘Thus the chord length c has been used for making the rudder moment dimensionless, so: (4.5) An example of these characteristics has been given in figure 4.4. The lift coefficient increases almost linearly with the angle of attack until a maximum value is reached, whereupon the wing is said to “stall”. At small angles of attack, the center of the lift forces acts at about c/e ¥ 0.25. At higher angles of attack - before stalling of the wing - the flow starts to separate at the suction side of the wing and the center of the lift force shifts backwards, for instance to about ¢/c = 0.40. ‘The moment M;s about the rudder stock is: My =N-(e~a) (46) A rudder moment is called positive here, when it is right turning. Sometimes, a definition of the rudder moment about a point fixed at e = 0.25 -c will be found in the literature.4.2. REQUIREMENTS AND TOOLS c £ fo RO ~0,25| & e Figure 4.4: Lift, Drag and Moment: Characteristics of a Wing Section The aspect ratio s/c of the rudder is an important parameter. The geometrical aspect ratio is defined by the ratio of the mean span width § and the mean chord length 2: (47) For an arbitrary rudder plan form can be written: me 2 ea tus AR=T (48) Because of the finite aspect ratio, three-dimensional effects will appear at the upper and lower side of the rudder; see figure 4.5. A fluid flow around the comers appears, of which the effect on the lift coefficient will increase with a decreasing aspect ratio. Figure 4.5: Flow Around Corners of a Lifting Surface ‘At larger aspect ratios, the flow becomes more two-dimensional over a larger part of the rudder surface. The flow around the comers can be avoided by walls or end-plates. A rudder which almost joints the stern of the ship at the upper side of the rudder, has aCHAPTER 4. MANEUVERING OF SHIPS considerably increased effective aspect ratio. Then, theoretically, the effective aspect ratio is twice the geometrical aspect ratio. A flat plate has a relative large increase of the lift coefficient with the angle of attack, so a high 8C;,/da value. From the lifting surfaces theory, see [Abbott and von Doenhoff, 1958], follows: Cr rece Ge =2* fora fat plate (with a in radians) The great disadvantage of a flat plate as a rudder is the fast flow separation; the flow will separate already at small angles of attack. A flat plate stalls already at a small angle of attack. A wing section thickness, é, of 9 percent of the chord length, c, is often considered as a practical minimum value, so t/e > 0.09.4.2, REQUIREMENTS AND TOOLS The lift, drag and moment coefficients (',, Cp and Cy) of symmetrical NACA (National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics) wing sections for 0.06 vw=Ke, {1 (7+4) +E (e+-1) et} for: t2 t (4.28) h An example of the time histories of the rudder angle 5(t), the course 1 (t) and the rate of turn a(t) during a turning test is given in figure 4.25. Equation 4.24 can also be written as: UO =atbt+ceF (4.5)CHAPTER 4. MANEUVERING OF SHIPS with: (4.26) W et | (4.27) (4.28) ‘Thus, Nomoto’s first order indices K and T can be found very easy when applying the equations 4.22 and 4.28 to the time history of a turning circle as given in figure 4.25. 4.7.2, Use of Zig-Zag Maneuver Data Now, Nomoto’s K and T indices in equation: Th +b =K (6. +6) (4.29) will be determined for a zig-zag maneuver. The correction angle 6, in here is a required rudder angle to compensate for an asymmetry of the ship, when sailing a straight line. At time ¢ = 0, the ship has a rate of turn equal to to. An integration of equation 4.29 between the boundaries t = 0 and ¢ = t,, with = Hp at both boundaries, results in: te Ti + Vlg = Kote + K (4.30) or: : Ue = Kbste + K | 6,dt (4.31) 3 Ina similar way, it can be found that:4.7. ESTIMATION OF NOMOTO’S K AND T INDICES Figure 4.26: Integration Boundaries for Analysing Zig-Zag Maneuvers ‘ v. = K6t,+K | 6,at (4.32) i Ul = Kt +K / Sydt (4.33) 3 The integral f §,d can be determined by a numerical integration of the time history of the a rudder deflection angle. The unknowns K and 6, can be solved from equations 4.32 and 4.33. Generally, these values does not fullfil equation 4.31, because the initial conditions will play a role at the beginning of a zig-zag maneuver. The time constant J” can be determined from an integration of equation 4.29 over the trajectory between f and é. (alternatively between ts and f, or between te and t,), because of a relatively large response, so: , Ps Til? +wRy = Keaig+K [at (4.04) é ie i ral +0 = Két\e + f 5,dt (4.35) Tif + vite = Keath +x faa (4.36) a Ne or:CHAPTER 4. MANEUVERING OF SHIPS T (athe) = (Wen) — KB. (tet) — K f buat (4.37) a ¢ 7 (ia-‘o) = (vi-vs) —KB.(K-4) —K f 5a (4.38) i 0 T (to-do) = (vo-de) - Kb (t-te) — / bd (4.39) Again, equation 4.37 will be affected by initial conditions, so equations 4.38 and 4.39 can be used to determine the turning capacity coefficient K’. A simple method for determining Nomoto’s manoeuvering indices K and T from full-scale zigzag trial data is given by [Journée, 1970]. 4.7.3 Experimental Data on K and T ‘The maneuvering indices K and 7’ are made dimensionless with ship length L and initial forward speed Up by: (4.40) Figure 4.27 shows a graphic presentation of K’ and 7’ indices in relation to the size of the ship for various types, as they have been published by Kensaku Nomoto on the First Symposium on Ship Maneuverability in Washington in 1960. Nevertheless the spreading of the data points, the figure shows that K’ does not depend very much on the ship size, but that 7” increases with the ship size. 0 0 2 30 40 90 © 010 2 30 40 50 60 Displacement (tonx 1000) Displacement (on x 1000) Figure 4.27: Non-Dimensional Presentation of K and T' Indices of Nomoto Figure 4.28 shows the data points for K’ and 7", obtained from various zig-zag trials, with the upper and lower curves set at 1.25 and 0.75 times the mean. In the literature,4.7. ESTIMATION OF NOMOTO’S K AND T INDICES sometimes the overshoot angle is basis for analyzing results of zig-zag maneuvers. However, Nomoto has pointed out that the overshoot angle is nearly proportional to K'/T", with the rudder angle 6, fixed. Figure 4.28 confirms Nomoto's suggestion that the parameters K’ and 7’ provide a more useful basis for analyzing results of zig-zag maneuvers than does the overshoot angle. [Source| PNA, 1989] ag aro a z eee Figure 4.28: Relationship of Steering Quality Indices K’ and T’ 08 Tomales Test toss or [amc SRM caLL|S BEER memes ee 3] bh ct eee z Ce Figure 4.29: Correlation of Zig-Zag Maneuver Performance Data Figure 4.29 shows the relationship between the parameters K’ and 7" and the rudder area, ‘Ap. Together with formula 4.1 of Det Norske Veritas, this relationship may be useful as design tools in selecting a rudder area.CHAPTER 4. MANEUVERING OF SHIPS 4.8 Speed Changing Stopping, coasting, backing and accelerating are important ship maneuvers; the first three particularly when near land, other vessels and fixed structures. However, the interactions between hull and propeller(s) during these maneuvers are quite complex. Because of this and the transient character of maneuvering, empirical calculations of the characteristics of these maneuvers are sometimes used when adequate motion equation coefficients are not available for simulation. ‘Stopping is decelerating the ship speed from any given ahead speed until the ship comes to rest. When discussing stopping capabilities, at least two ahead speeds should be considered; a crash stop from "full-ahead sea-speed” and a stop from “harbor speed”. Harbor speed may be 12 knots for a slow ship, such as a tanker, or about 15 knots for a fast ship, such ‘as a container vessel. Although in practice "emergency full astern” is almost never ordered from "fullahead sea-speed”; it is a customary machinery acceptance trial and the results are useful as a relative measure of stopping ability. Coasting refers to decelerating without using backing power. Time and distance required for a ship to decelerate to a slower speed is often of interest in ship handling. Decelerating more generally means that engine power ahead is insufficient to maintain steady forward speed. In that case, the unbalanced longitudinal force (ie., thrust is less than resistance) ‘then causes the ship to decelerate until resistance again equals thrust, at some lower speed. Rarely will a ship-handler coast a ship to near dead-in-the-water, because of the very long time it takes. However, decelerating at the least sustainable ahead power at which the ship will steer is very important to the ship handler. ‘The distance required to thus decelerate is critical to getting a ship’s speed down from the harbor approach velocity to a speed regime at which tugs can be effective in controlling the ship. In harbors where berthing may be located near the harbor entrance, this figures in harbor design, siting of terminals and in tthe selection and use of tugs. In some places it has led to the use of braking ships. Backing a ship is a maneuver of accelerating from rest to a given astern speed or distance. A backing propeller, on the other hand is one in which the blades are turning with negative angle of attack, producing astern thrust. Accelerating means increasing ship speed from rest or from a particular ahead speed to a higher ahead speed. ‘The principal performance indexes of these maneuvers reflect the time and distance from the initiation to completion. To simplify analyses, we often assume that the ship travels on a straight line during stopping. This is generally not true except in the case of some multi- screw ships with opposite rotating propellers, in the absence of appreciable wind, current and rudder angle and with controls-fixed straight-line stability. For the backing or stopping of ships with single-screws or uni-rotating multi-screws, the rotation of the propeller tends to swing the stern to port: if the propellers are right-handed (positive rotation according to sign convention) and to starboard if they are left-handed (negative rotation). Other factors may cause the ship to veer in the opposite direction. When a ship deviates from its straight path during a stopping or backing maneuver, the distance traveled is measured along its curved track. But the projections of this distance - termed head reach and side reach - are generally of greater importance as performance indexes.4.8. SPEED CHANGING 4.8.1 Stopping Suppose a ship sailing in calm water at a straight path, with a speed Up. Its stopping distance and stopping time can be obtained by stationary model tests. At a range of forward speeds U, the remaining longitudinal force X(U,n) is measured at a range of propeller rates n; see figure 4.30. This force consists of resistance and thrust contributions. 4K(U,n) — increasing U n0 Figure 4.30: Breaking Force as Function of Forward Speed and Propeller Rate ‘Newton's second law provides the following equation of motion in the longitudinal direction: Stim-%)-V} =-X(U,n) (4.41) In here, —X; is the added mass in the longitudinal direction, which is assumed to constant here. Then: r dt ee ~m— x0) ay (4.42) fF; Toe eat ~(m—x0 [xy om % In here, t—to is the time span required to reduce speed from Up to U. The covered distance during that time span is s — 59. From equation 4.41 can be found: rs (m — Xa) ~ pm — Xi Uy == f Xa is From this follows for U = 0:CHAPTER 4. MANEUVERING OF SHIPS . i ¢ im —Xeh= pp f X-ad bo Lugt/m see") —= m-Xq, (m/sec) —* V Figure 4.31: Virtual Mass as Function of Forward Speed and Propeller Rate ‘This added mass, — Xz, is depending on forward ship speed and propeller rate, as has been shown in figure 4.31 Figure 4.32 shows an example of the measured and computed stopping distances at several initial speeds of a tanker in full load and in ballast condition. 4.8.2 Coasting Coasting with the propeller *windmilling” consists of reducing the ahead power to that level necessary to cause the propeller to rotate without producing any thrust. In that case, the ship would be slowed solely by its hull resistance. When coasting with the propeller stopped, the ship would be slowed by its hull resistance plus the resistance of the locked propeller. Tn practice, the propeller’s rpm is likely to be slightly less than its zero-slip value, so that it exerts some sternward thrust. With feedback engine control it may circle between very slow ahead and astern. 4.8.3 Backing Many operators feel that backing time should be established primarily on the basis of ‘maneuverability around docks. In the case of clearing a ship slip, the astern speed achieved after the ship has traveled one ship length may be an adequate criterion for judging backing speed. However, a poll of the operators did not suggest what the speed should be, but48. SPEED CHANGING at spant Un) Figure 4.32: Measured and Computed Stopping Distances of a ‘Tanker rather indicated that experience and the particular hydrographic conditions would dictate the desirable astern speed. The astern speed, U, reached in differential time at starting from rest may be obtained by equating the product of the instantaneous accelerating force, X, times the distance traveled, s, to the kinetic energy of the ship at speed U. Thus: (m— Xa) 0? (4.44) 4.8.4 Accelerating Acceleration ahead is important for naval ships that may have a change position rapidly in a task force or accelerate suddenly for other tactical reasons. The acceleration may be found from: (m- Xa) 4 =T (Un) -{1-t}- RU) (4.45) with the variables: thrust T’, thrust deduction fraction t and resistance R. Figure 4.33 shows an example of the acceleration force and the acceleration as functions of the ship speed. Figure 4.33-a shows typical relationships amongst 2, 7’, X and speed for a steam turbine. ‘The thrust curves 1 and 2 in the figure apply to the case where the initial speed is greater than zero. In the case shown, because the thrust is greater than resistance at the initial speed, there is no equilibrium and theship accelerates. At” execute”, the thrust is increased rapidly to the amount desired. Then thrust curve 1 applies. Of course, the time to reach total equilibrium at maximum speed will be quite long. This is because resistance will very gradually approach the thrust curve as speed approaches maximum and there is gradually diminishing unbalanced thrust remaining to cause acceleration.CHAPTER 4. MANEUVERING OF SHIPS {[Soures: PNA, 1969) Figure 4.33: Acceleration Force and Acceleration as Functions of Ship Speed If the final desired speed after acceleration is less than the maximum speed, then much less time and distance are needed. Then the maximum available thrust of curve 1 is utilized until the desired speed is reached and the thrust: is appropriately reduced to equal the resistance at the desired speed, curve 2. This technique is useful in conducting maneuvering ‘rials to shorten the time needed to "steady up” on the approach course. Figure 4.33-b shows the relationship defined by equation 4.45 between i: and the ship speed, U, corresponding to the thrust curves 1 and 2. The relationship between time, velocity and distance is as follows: aU t= fi wu sn [ua (4.46)This page intentionally left blankSTEERING GEAR rr SSNSSTEERING GEAR ? SSNS The Basic Requirement for Steering Gears Steering gear is required to: a. be continuously available; b. move the rudder rapidly to any position in response to the order from the bridge during manoeuvring, and hold it in the required position; c. have arrangements for relieving abnormal stress and returning the rudder to its required position; d. maintain the ship on course regardless of wind and weather. For a given prssage, the distance actually travelled (and fuel consumed) will depend upon a vessel's ability to maintain the desired course. For a given sensitivity of autopilot, the ability to maintain course depends upon the sensitivity of the steering gear. The rapid and accurate response of well maintained electro-hydraulic steering minimises the distance travelled and results in an economy of operation far in excess of the other systems. Rudder Carrier Bearing Fe = Zi i) ces aon: (oe ships seating ALTERNATIVE CARRIER BEARING (TAYLOR-PULLISTER DUNSTOS TYPE) Fig. 1 This type of carrier bearing with a conical seat (Fig. 1) has the advantage that the seat and side wall will located the rudder stock. The angle of the conical seal is. shallow to prevent binding. Bearing weardown occurs over a period of time, and allowance is made in the construction of the steering gear for a small vertical drop of the rudder stock (approx. TM (ndepinig KraveSTEERING GEAR * 2 ee eeeeraesesrme 55 | 5 6mm). Lifting of the rudder and stock by heavy weather is prevented by jumping stops between the upper surface of the rudder and the stem frame. External rudder stops are fitted to limit its movement to, say 39° each way from the mid position. In the steering gear there are also stops set to limit the angle to which the rudder can be moved by the gear. These are set to, e.g. 37° each way from the mid position. The latter are necessary to prevent the rudder being forced against the outside stops. The outside stops prevent unlimited rudder movement, which could arise from damage, causing the rudder to become disconnected. The result of this being, possibly, contact with the propeller. Limits on the telemotor are set at 35° each way from the mid-position. Ram Type Hydraulic Steering Gear relief valves supply valves replenishing tank forward FOUR RAM STEERING GEAR DIAGRAMMATIC ARRANGEMENT Fi ig The tiller, keyed to the rudder stock, is of forged or cast steel. For hydraulic gears with four cylinders, the tiller has two arms, which slide in swivel block arrangement designed to convert linear movement of the rams to the rotary movement of the tiller ams and rudder stock. The rams are of close grained hard cast iron or steel with working surfaces ground to a high finish. Each pair of rams is bolted together, the jointed ends being boxed vertically and bushed to form top and bottom bearings for the trunnion arms on the swivel block (see Fig. 2). Crosshead slippers bolted to the sides of the rams, slice on Tiana RenterSTEERING GEAR os | NEES 5 SY The machined surfaces ofife guide bean, so atthe glands inthe cylinders are relieved of side loads. The guide beams also serve to brace each pair of cylinders which tend to be pushed apart by the hydraulic pressure on the arms. The cylinders have substantial feet bolted to the stools on which the gear is mounted. In four cylinder sets adjacent cylinders are cross braced by heavy brackets (not shown in the sketch of the four ram type) which in conjunction with the guide beams, preserve alignment Operation Of Four Ram Gear The pipe arrangement (Fig. 2) on the simple sketch of the four ram system shows the connections from two pumps to four rams. Because of the non-reverse lock arrangements, one pump can be stopped with the valves left open. All four rams work together but in the event of damage, either pair of rams can be isolated from the pressure pumps and allowed to idle with the bypass open. The remaining pair of rams then operate as a two ram gear. The by-passes are in parallel with the relief valves. The rudder can be locked by closing the supply valves, in an emergency. The relief valves between the pipes connecting the opposing rams are designed to list if pressure in the system rises to about 10 percent above normal. This will occur due either to the rudder being hit by a heavy sea or from direct loading. By-passing of oil from one side of the system to the other through the relief valves permits the rams to move and abnormal stress on the rudder stock is thereby avoided. The hunting gear will cause the rudder movement to be corrected by putting the pump on stroke. Each pump has suction connections through non-return valves from the replenishing tank. Losses of oil from the system are automatically made up from this reserve of oil. A certain amount of leakage occurs in the pump and this oil is drained to the replenishing tank. Where an overhead tank is fitted (V.S.G. pump) the oil is caused to flow from the pump casing by a centrifugal action produced by rotation of the cylinder block. Other oil flowing back into the pump gives a cooling action. In connection with the upkeep of electro-hydraulic gears, it might be mentioned that failures have occurred due to the fracturing at the necks of the pipes which carry the oil between the ram cylinders and the pumps. These pipes and ram cylinders works at pressures in the vicinity of 900lb per sq. in., and the cylinder relief valves are set at 1,000Ib per sq. In one case, when the pipes fractured at the neck, the cylinders were emptied of oil and the rams were flamed from side to side by heavy seas striking the rudder. Special attention should be paid to these high pressure oil pipes after any heavy weather. Itis now a requirement of the Classification Societies that a brake of some kind should be fitted to these hydraulic gears. (see Fig. 3). (narra KrteteSTEERING GEAR *% SSNSSTEERING GEAR = SSNS Rotary Vane Gear The principle of the Rotary Vane Unit is illustrated in Fig. 4. PRINCIPLE OF ROTARY VANE STEERING GEAR 1) rudder stock 5) fixed vane 2) casing 6) port pressure chambers 3) vane boss 7) starboard pressure chambers, 4) rotary vane 8) pressure manifold Fig. 4 The rudder stock is tapered in way of the rotor which is keyed to it. The stator is secured to the ship's structure to prevent is rotating. In the annular space between rotor and stator are fitted fixed vanes, located equidistantly round the inside of the stator, and rotary vanes, located equidistantly round the outside of the rotor. This combination forms two sets of alternative pressure chambers each set connected hydraulically to the manifold. Fluid is delivered under pressure to either of these pressure chambers thus turning the rudder. Normally the unit is fitted with three rotary and three fixed vanes which permits a working rudder angle of 70°, i.e. 35° port to 36° starboard. The vanes also act as rudder stops and allow for a maximum angle of 80°. When specially large rudder angles are required only two moving and two fixed vanes are fitted, thus permitting a rudder angle of 130°. The pump delivering the hydraulic medium is drive by a continuously running electric motor. Duplicate motors and pumps are normally provided one set being for stand-by duty, except when in narrow waters. As a protection against overload, relief valves are connected hydraulically (to the two manifolds. These are set to lift at a pre-determined pressure and safeguard the hydraulic) system in the event of the rudder encountering an abnormally high resistance. By-passing of fluid, following the lifting of the relief valves, permits the rotor to tum. Unepirng KrotaeSTEERING GEAR os SE 9 5 In passenger ships, if emergency steering gear is not fitted, the rotary vane unit is supplied with dual pressure chambers this being the equivalent of the four ram steering gear. The layout of a typical system is shown in Fig. 5.STEERING GEAR ~ SSNS Rotary Vane Construction ROTARY VANE STEERING GEAR anchor bolt ‘solating valves S a {close t@ lock gear) oS 2 el sealing strips 0 anchor bolt 9 ap ° 0] gastiron o Ol forwear S ell lio} ° o|° hein! rubber | o] ° shock le absorber ellll| Je lo ° | manifolds oy lel 0} anchor Bracket moving vane (key and \ pic fixed vane (dowels and cap screws) fig. 6 \Vanes in the gear shown (fig. 6) are of spheroidal graphite cast iron, the fixed ones being held to the stator by high-tensile steel dowel pins and cap screws. Moving vanes are keyed to the cast steel rotor which in tum is fitted to a taper on the rudder stock and keyed. Vanes are sealed by steel strips back by synthetic rubber laid in slots. Weight of the gear is supported by a rudder carried bearing beneath it in this design. Rotation of the gear is prevented by two anchor bolts held in fixed anchor brackets with rubber shock-absorbing sleeves. The bolts have outer cast-iron bushes to take wear from the steering gear flanges. Top and bottom stator flanges are welded on after oil manifold grooves have been machined. Hydraulic pressure is supplied by variable delivery pumps, with electric motor drive, running at constant speed in the same direction. Pumps may be of the Hele-Shaw radial piston type or of the axial piston V.S.G. In both, the stroke of the pump pistons can be carried and flow of oil to and from the pump can be reversed. When the operating rod of the pump is mid position, there is no flow of oil. Crcerenen wtSTEERING GEAR i? SSNS Hele-Shaw Pump HELE-SHAW VARIABLE DELIVERY PUMP. fig. 7 The constant speed Hele-Shaw pump has it output controlled by a simple pushipull rod attached to guide rings in the pump. Without stopping or starting the pump, the output can be varied from zero to full in either direction. The pump consists of a bronze cylinder body with seven or nine radial cylinders which is rotated at constant speed in one direction (Fig. 7). The radial cylinder block rotates on a fixed steel central piece having two ports opposite to one another and in line with the bottom of the rotating cylinders. In each cylinder there is an oil hardened steel piston having a gudgeon pin with bronze slippers on the end. The slippers revolve with the cylinder block in grooves machines in a pair of floating rings. These are the rings, which are moved horizontally by the control rod. Movernent of the floating rings from the mid-position displaces the circular path of rotation of the pistons from that of the cylinder block and produces a pumping action. When the rod is in mid-position and the centres of rotation of pistons and block coincide, there is no pumping action. Uneprare RonteSTEERING GEAR - ed SSNS V.S.G. Pump (variable speed gear) piston swashplate casing ae Ls) _drive shaft suction a discharge N WAr = ports \ Yi axial cylinder block SIMPLIFIED ARRANGEMENT OF V.S.G. PUMP ig. 8 The V.S.G. pump has a cylinder block with axial cylinders. The sketch (Fig. 8) shows a simplified arrangement. Piston stroke and oil flow are varied by angular movement of the swash plate. The V.S.G. pump has been developed in recent years to operate with higher pressure with a resulting decrease in size of steering gears. Higher pressure means a casing of fabricated steel rather than cast iron. The cylinder block with its pistons is driven through the drive shaft by a simple constant-speed electric motor. The pistons ate tired through piston rods and bearings to a swash plate or tilting box. With the latter vertical, the pistons rotate with the cylinder block but have no axial movement. When the swash plate or titing box is set at an angle by the controller the pistons are caused to reciprocate in their cylinders and produce a pumping action. Stepless changes of pump delivery from zero to maximum in either direction is achieved, through lever or servo controls. Pump Anti-Reverse Locking Gear When two pumping units are fitted and only one is running, the idle pup would be driven in the reverse direction by oil pressure from the other but anti-reverse rotation locking gear if fitted in the flexible coupling between the motor and pump. It consists of steel pawls on the motor coupling rim. These paws with the motor and pump running, are thrown out towards the rim by centrifugal force. With the pump stopped, the pawls retum to their normal inward position and engage the teeth of a fixed ratchet secured to the pump base. Unoponre KewtaoeSTEERING GEAR * SSNS Hunting Gear The pump control is moved by the telemotor through a floating lever. The other end of this lever is connected through a safety spring link to the rudder stock or tiller (Fig. 9). buffer Sodgerstock spring or tiller G floating lever variable delivery pump telemotor HUNTING GEAR A A, fig.9 The telemotor is the receiver of the hydraulic remote control system from the wheel on the bridge. The linkage through the floating level of telemotor, pump and rudder stock forms the hunter gear. The pump is only required to deliver oil when the steering wheel is moved. The hunting gear retums the pump operating rod to mid-position as soon as the helmsman stops turning the wheel. When the rudder has moved through the angle corresponding to the wheel position, it will remain there until the wheel and telemotor ate moved again. The sketch shows simply, the operation of the hunting gear. The telemotor moves the end of the floating rod A to A; and the pump control is moved, therefore from B to B;. Pumping of the hydraulic oil causes movement of the rams and the end of rod C moves to C; thus causing the pump control to be pulled back to the neutral position B. | RSS oS Unioponiy KroneSTEERING GEAR os nr nT rere: 95 1 if the rudder is displaced by a heavy sea through lifting of the relief valves, the hunting gear is moved by the rudder stock. This will put the pump on stroke and the rudder will be restored to its previous position. Control And Control Systems Electro Hydraulic Steering Gear With these systems the motor runs continuously. Duplicate motors and duplicate feeders are normally provided and in certain installations a change-over switch is provided so that each motor may be supplied by either feeder. Short circuit protection only is provided in these feeder circuits, the normal overload protection being replaced by an overload alarm. Control Systems These are of three basic types:- () Non Follow Up Systems With these systems the gear will run and the rudder will continue to turn while the steering wheel or other controller is moved from its central position. Rudder movement is stopped only when the steering control is centred once again (or when the rudder is brought up against the stops). It will be obvious that placing the filler amidships merely stops application of helm and does not remove it. Removal of helm must be effected by moving the tiller to the opposite side. Controllers with non follow up systems take the form of a wheel or a tiller lever or push buttons. A rudder indicator is fitted to indicate rudder movement. (ii) Follow Up Systems With these systems movement of the rudder follows the movement of the steering controller e.g. if the controller is moved to indicate a desired rudder position the rudder will tum until the actual rudder angle is the same as the desired rudder angle shown on the steering pedestal after which rudder movement will cease, the controller remaining offset from its central position. (ii) Automatic Systems With these systems the steering control circuits are controlled by signals received from the master compass, so that the ship is automatically held on to a selected course. Primarily the system is so arranged that when the vessel is on course the rudder is amidships but as soon as the compass indicates an error the auto pilot applies an amount of rudder sufficient to bring the vessel back on course. By the time the vessel is on course again the applied correcting rudder has been removed. With some systems, should it be required to alter the course being steered by the auto pilot by a few degree, this can be done by a Trim Switch and without necessarily reverting to hand steering. Undepiring KrautSTEERING GEAR * SSNS POWER SYSTEM CONTROL SYSTEM to main switchboard protection | protection —— a) ram qear fig. 10 Any and all of the above systems can be applied to both all electric or electro hydraulic steering systems so that the following may be fitted:- () Hand Electric (Follow Up) (ii) Hand Electric (Non Follow Up) (iii) Hand Hydraulic (“Telemotor Contro!”) (iv) Automatic and its normal practice to fit at least two of the systems (i), (i) and (ii). Fig. 10 indicates Follow Up, Non Follow Up and Auto Systems fitted to electro hydraulic power systems. Thus it will be obvious that an electric system of steering control consists essentially i)Steering pedestal or bridge unit. This produces electrical impulses by operation of the steering control. ii) Amplifier or control unit to transmit these impulses to the steering flat. iliyafter power unit to transtate these impulses into mechanical movement of the power steering system.STEERING GEAR os seen og DIAGRAM OF TELEMOTOR SYSTEM fig.11 The telemotor has become, on many vessels, the standby steering mechanism, used only when the automatic steering fails. It comprises a transmitter on the bride and a receiver connected to the variable delivery pump through the hunting gear. Transmitter and receiver are connected by solid drawn copper pipes. Liquid displaced in the transmitter causes a corresponding displacement in the receiver and of the pump control. The transmitter (Fig. 11) consists of a cylinder with a pedestal base which contains a piston operated by a rack and pinion from the steering wheel. The make up of tank functions automatically through spring loaded relieve and make up valves. Excess. pressure in the telemotor system causes oil to be released through the relief valve to the make up tank and loss of oil is made up through the lightly loaded make up valve. The two valves are connected to the cylinder through a shut off valve (which is normally left open) and the by-pass which connects both sides of the pressure system, when the piston is in mid-position. There is also a hand operated by-pass. The tank must be kept topped-up. The working fluid is a mineral oil of low viscosity and pour point and this givens some protection against rusting. As an alternative to mineral oil, a mixture of glycerol (glycerine) and water has been used. The receiver in the steering gear is shown as two fixed rams with moving opposed cylinder. Centring springs are fitted to bring the cylinders to mid-position. Movement of the telemotor received is limited by the stops set at 35°. The telemotor is connected to the hunting gear through a control spindle. By switching the change-over pin, the control spindle can be operated from the emergency steering position on the poop.STEERING GEAR a SSNS Charging The System The system is provided with a priming tank and hand pump which are situated in the steering gear compartment . When charging, the shut off between the make up tank and transmitter is closed and the wheel is brought to the mid position so that the piston is at the centre of its travel and the top and bottom parts of the cylinder are connected through the by-pass. The priming tank is filled (and then kept topped-up as necessary) and the hand pump operated with the charging valve open. Each section of the pipe is progressively filled with air being released through the bleed screws. At the last section the non-retum valve is opened to allow oil from the end of the pipe to be returned to the priming tank. Pumping is continued for some time, then the non-return valve is closed while pressure is maintained with the pump. The bleed screw at the top of the cylinder is cracked open to get rid of any remaining air. After closing the bleed screw on the cylinder, the shut off between the cylinder, and make up tank is opened and the tank is brought up to level. For an initial charges, pipes are disconnected so that the sections of pipe can be washed through. During the charging operation, joints are checked for leakage and when the system is full, a further check is made with the shut off closed and pressure maintained with the pump. At this stage, if the non-return valve is opened, each stroke of the hand pump should produce a discharge back to the tank which exactly coincides with the movement of the pump lever. The system is made ready for testing and operation by closing the charging and non- return valves and opening the shut-off valve. The hand by-pass valve must be closed Charging Steering Gear The steering gear itself must be completely filled with oil and all air must be excluded. Thus the air release valves are opened on hydraulic cylinders and pumps, also stop valves and by-pass valves in the system. The variable delivery pump can be used to pump the oil around the system (while keeping the replenishing tank topped-up). It can be put just on stroke by the handwheel (Fig. 11) and turned by a bar. The rams may be filed through the filling holes until all air has been displaced, before starting to pump the system through. Charging methods for steering gears and telemotors vary from one type to another.STEERING GEAR im aed SSNS ‘Alternative Types Of Steering Systems The type of system shown in Fig. 12 is powered by fixed, instead of variable capacity hydraulic pumps. Control is effected by directional and proportional valves. This system may be used on rotary units. cceora conta vale (shy soperieyten) propertona conta ve vote manfold ec metre et fig. 12STEERING GEAR * SSNS The Electrical Single Motor Steering Gear See Fig. 13 i balers agromati =) {a La | potentiometer theostat ] | OL: ‘THE ELECTRICAL SINGLE MOTOR STEERING GEAR fig.13 The armature of the telemotor is fed directly from the mains and so is the potentiometer rheostat. If B is moved, say down, by the wheel then current flows due to the difference of potential between A and B. The telemotor field is now excited and the telemotor rotates so as to bring A into line again and restore equilibrium. Through a screw nut, frame and fulcrum arrangement the reverser switch is moved up and so closed. Mains current the flows through the brake field (to release the brake), through the rudder motor series field and through the rudder motor armature. The shunt field of the rudder motor (not shown) is permanently connected to the mains but this is insufficient to cause rotation unless the series field is also excited. Rotation of the rudder motor is arranged to hunt back the rheostat contact A through a floating lever frame and screw nut arrangement as well as opening the reverser switch. Ursoprning KateeSTEERING GEAR - SSNS ‘Steering Gear Testing, Drills And Examinations Under International (IMO, SOLAS) regulations the Master must , within 12 hours before each departure (except for ships on short voyages on which the tests must be carried out weekly) ensure that the steering gear is checked and tested in order to be sure that it is working satisfactorily. The requirements for steering gears depend on the age and size of the vessel, which may not have all the equipment included in the list of tests and checks, so the words ‘where applicable’ are included in the regulations, an extract from which follows. The test procedure shall include, where applicable, the operation of the following: a) the main steering gear; b) the auxiliary gear; c) the remote steering gear control systems; d) the steering positions located on the navigating bridge; e) the emergency power supply; 4) the rudder angle indicators in relating to the actual position of the rudder; g) the remote steering gear control system power failure alarms; h) the steering gear power unit failure alarms; and i) the automatic isolating arrangement and other automatic equipment required for steering gear. The checks and tests shall include: a) the full movement of the rudder according to the required capabilities of the steering gear, b) a visual inspection of the steering gear and its connecting linkage; and ©) the operation of the means of communication between the navigating bridge and the steering gear compartment. Prior to the tests, the deck department should be informed and it should be verified that there are no obstructions in way of the rudder. The oil level in the supply tank should be checked and topped-up to about 75% of its capacity and where arrangements are provided for testing low level alarms these should be operated. The engineer officer should check over linkages to ensure that they are free and will not be impeded or prevented from operating satisfactorily, check that sliding surfaces are properly lubricated, and check for leakages from the system. Rams should be lubricated with system oil, and the engineer office should check that individual grease nipples or the central greasing system, if fitted for the ram guides, are full and providing lubrication. The connecting pin should be removed from the steering from its navigating bridge position and inserted (into position for control of the steering gear from within the steering gear compartment). The rudder should be moved hard over using each power unit in tum before cutting off the power to test the audible and visible alarms on the bridge. At the same time, the position of the tiller as indicated in the steering compartment should be checked against the position indicated on the bridge by the rubber angle indicator using (testing) the communication system provided and it would be verified that the light provided on the bridge to indicate the running motor of the power unit is working. Local testing or local emergency operation of steering gears powered by fixed capacity hydraulic pumps is carried out by manual operation of the directional control valves. With the connecting pin replaced in position for telemotor steering, the tiller should be operated from the bridge by (say) the port power unit. Disconnecting the power SSS Unaoprniy Krave