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Chapter 1
THE PROBLEM AND A REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Media has become an inevitability nowadays. Its influence on our lives

cannot be denied. Since its inception, media has transformed through the
help of technological advances into an indispensable tool for providing
entertainment, disseminating information, and expressing ideas.
At present, media is encountered by people everyday. The television,
radio, newspaper, and even the internet have already fortified their status as
invaluable devices for publicity and persuasion because of their
pervasiveness in our daily routines. Hence, media has remained through the
years as the undisputable agency for journalism.
Journalism is widely deemed as a noble profession. It is unquestionably
an expression of democracy and freedom. In spite of the meager salary, the
pressure of deadlines, and the time-consuming work, young people still
aspire to become journalists because of the intangible benefits the career
offers such as the power of the press and the fulfillment of serving as a
vessel of truth to their fellowmen.
Since time immemorial, journalism has offered a voice to the voiceless.
It has become the first draft of history. It has played a crucial role especially
in our society by functioning as a watchdog for the people. Through the
collection, investigation, verification, and presentation of information
regarding current events, issues, and personalities, journalism has operated
as a guard against malpractices and inefficiencies in public administration
working under the banner of the freedom of speech supposedly upheld and
protected by the Constitution. However, in the performance of this
responsibility, media practitioners practically lay down their lives. The great
power and obligation that complements the profession of journalism
oftentimes lead journalists to hazardous consequences. At times, media men
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find themselves on the firing end of death threats and life threatening
attacks.

The New York-based Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ) asserted in

its official website on 2005 that murder is the leading cause of job-related
deaths among journalists worldwide. In fact, it has listed the Philippines as
the “most murderous country of all” for journalists toppling Iraq, Colombia,
Bangladesh, and Russia in the five most murderous countries for journalists’
category.
Committee to Protect Journalist (CPJ) also pointed out that in most
cases, journalists were murdered in retaliation for reporting on government
corruption, crime, drug trafficking, or the activities of rebel groups.
Furthermore, the Committee to Protect Journalists (2005) presented
disturbing statistics. “In more than 85 percent of these slayings, CPJ found,
the killers have gone unpunished. The five Most Murderous Countries have
the worst records. Of the 58 murders in those nations, all have been
committed with impunity.”
While having their practicum in journalism, the researchers were given
ideas by professional journalists on how they encounter perilous situations
because of their careers. The researchers were also able to observe during
the course of their practicum the initial reactions of certain journalists when
they were informed that a colleague in the profession had been brutally
ambushed and murdered. This circumstance bestowed upon them the desire
to look deeper and examine closely the effects of these dangerous
encounters to the performance of journalistic duties.
Hence, this study will dwell on the effects of these media men killings
and other perilous encounters to the duty performance of journalists. It aims
to discover if these circumstances have made media practitioners much
bolder or less courageous in performing their sworn task. Moreover, the study
seeks to put a twist to the worn-out cliché and find out which between the
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pen and the sword is indeed mightier. The pen represents the journalists and
the sword represents the journalists’ attackers. If these attacks overwhelm
the journalists then it will prove that the attackers are mightier than the
journalists. On the contrary, if the journalists’ conviction becomes stronger
because of the attacks, then it will prove otherwise.

Review of Related Literature

Journalism ranks as a glamorous and noble profession. However, terms

in journalism are often taken for granted. This section intends to cite related
literature that will present an overview of journalism as a profession and
vocation as well as provide information about the dangers journalists have to
face in the performance of their duties and responsibilities. A brief
background of the Inoculation Theory employed in this study is also included.
Moreover, reactions of journalists against the oppression in their professions
are also cited.

Taking Journalism Seriously

Zelizer (2004) asserts that the most recognizable terms used in
journalism are journalists, news, media, communication and information.
Journalist is a term that is defined as one who writes in a journal or
diary. It initially connotes someone who systematically records certain
happenings within a specified timeframe and tends to make that record
public. Today, journalists are referred to as individuals who engage in a
number of related activities such as reporting, criticisms, editorializing, and
the conferral of judgment on the shape of things.
News refers to a report of a recent or current event or information
published in a newspaper or other periodicals. In the final analysis, news
maybe defined as any accurate fact or idea that will interest a large number
of readers (Pant, 2004).
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Media on the other hand, refers to the mediating agencies that transmit
information. Rodmon (2001) asserts that in its singular term, the word
medium refers to an interposed device through which shared messages are
conveyed rather than face-to-face. Media come in different forms such as the
print media (books, magazine and newspaper), broadcast media (television
and radio), digital media (computers, the world wide wed and gadgets like
video games), and the entertainment media (all of those mentioned plus
movies and recordings). Each medium is the basis of the giant industry, but
other related and supporting industries also serve them and us, such as
advertising and public relations (Baran, 2002).
Lastly, communication is referred to as the act of imparting, conferring,
or delivering from the sender to the receiver, while ‘information’ is referred to
the knowledge acquired in any manner. Both communication and information
gives emphasis on news making—by which we mean the delivery of
information as well as the content of the relay.

How Journalists Talk About Journalism

According to Burns (2002), media practitioners talk about journalism in
different ways that is describe by Robert Parker as “Synthetic Knowledge” or
the kind of knowledge that is embodied in habit and custom rather than that
which forms the core of formalized systems. The following are five of the
most prominent references in journalists’ discussion of their craft:
Journalism as a sixth sense—a “news sense”. Lord Riddell, a long-time
newspaper editor states that all true journalists possess an itch to
communicate the news to the public. Journalists have a ‘nose for news’ or
‘smelling out news’-- The characteristic of a journalist that refers to the skill
of recognizing news.
Journalism as a container--news is referred to as a phenomenon with
volume, materiality, dimension, depth, and even complexity. It is seen to
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contain news, and holds information for the public until it can appraise what
has happen.
Journalism as a mirror--- in this view, news is considered to be the lens
of the word. It is seen as all that happens, without any filtering or
sensationalism on the part of the journalist. Journalists must only gaze on
what is happening in the real world objectively. Likewise, journalists should
report the news as it happened.
Journalism as a child---journalism is referred to as a phenomenon in
need of nurturing, attending, supervision, and care. Thus, journalist served as
the care-takers of news. Relevant catch-praises on this view are: “Putting
paper to bed” which involves the closing of the press for the night. While
“sitting on a story”, involves taking care of the story until it is time for
publication. The terms “pampering” or “coddling” a story refers to
elaborating unsubstantiated story line. On the contrary “breaking news”
refers to the story that is new, and in need of finishing refinement, or further
nurturing by journalists. “Killing a story” involves the editor-in-chief deciding
that a given news item needs no further attention.
Journalism as a service. This positions journalists in the service of public
interest and in conjunction with the needs of citizenship. It connotes service
both in the profession and in the community.
Each of these options shows that journalists experience their craft in
complicated ways. Their regard for journalism suggests a strong sense of
responsibility for the news that is complicated by both its materiality and its
continual and ever changing world. At the same time, journalists regard the
public dimensions of what they do as critical to a definition of their own work
as journalists.

Journalism as a Profession
“Facts are sacred, comment is free” -- C.P. Scott
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Journalism is the ultimate expression of democracy and freedom. Its

focused is on knowing the right question to ask; being able to ask it in the
most knowledgeable and open way, and then being able to communicate it in
the most interesting, creative and forceful manner (Herbert, 2002). A
journalist plays an important role not only in informing people but also in
influencing their thinking and attitudes. Therefore, a journalist must act with
a profound sense of responsibility towards the society.
The social responsibility of journalists is of paramount importance. It is
widely recognized that “journalism is the mirror of the society”. A journalist
acts as the spokesman of mankind. Therefore, he must surpass the challenge
of finding a way to negotiate the often-competing professional, commercial
and ethical considerations involved in finding and presenting news while
adhering to a perception of journalism as playing an important role in society
(Burns 2002).
Aside from the social responsibility, a journalist is also bound by certain
professional obligations to honor. Basically, a journalist is responsible in
disseminating information in all circumstances. The information helps the
readers to make-up their mind on vital issues, and may also have a role in
shaping their attitudes. Thus, a journalist must act and write with great sense
of responsibilities because their writings have a tremendous impact on the
society. The stories must not be distorted, suppressed or exaggerated to fit
anybody’s personal interest- not his own, nor his proprietors or business
group. The interest of the readers at large must always be given priority.
Furthermore, as professionals in the field, journalists adhere to a standard
code of ethics.

Journalistic Code of Ethics

“The code of ethics of the society of professional journalists, clearly
distinguishes between advocacy and reporting, and emphasizing professional
integrity in public interest.” (Burns, 2002).
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Journalism, just like any other profession, has a code of ethics. Ethics
that imply the norms which journalists must uphold and cherish in order to
keep the integrity and sanctity of the profession intact. In its preamble, the
code of ethics describes the professional journalist as employed in private
enterprises, but with public responsibility (Burns, 2002).

The Search for Truth

Ideally, journalists’ first obligation is to the truth. On this, there is
absolute agreement and also utter confusion: everyone agrees that
journalists must tell the truth. Yet people are puzzled about what the truth
means.
Though truthfulness is a complicated and sometimes a contradicting
phenomenon, but is seen as a process overtime, journalists can get at it. It
attempts to get at the truth in a confused world by stripping information first
of any attached misinformation, disinformation, or self-promoting
information, and then letting the community react and the sorting out
process ensue (Kovach & Rosenstiel, 2001).

The Canon of Objectivity

One of the primary expectations of journalistic practice is that they will
gather and handle in formation objectively. Part of the culture of journalism is
that journalist will not pursue a political or social agenda, rather, their
professional agenda is of getting all relevant information from all relevant
sources. That information should be presented accurately and fairly. This
orientation is referred to as objectivity. It is a practice that aims to remove
any kind of distortion and guarantees full and fair accounts are given.
(Kovach and Rosenstiel, 2001)

Accuracy
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Accuracy is the central reason for much of what editor does. It is

defined as getting the facts right and getting to the truth of the matter. In
the pursuit of accuracy, a word of doubtful spelling is checked, one last fact
in the story is looked-up, or a source is called close to the deadline, when
parts of the story are in question.
A reputation for accuracy, is the publication’s most valuable resource.
Not only does it inspire the confidence of readers, but also an obvious
willingness on the part of the editors to strive for accuracy, opens up new
sources of information for the newspaper and often gets the paper out of
embarrassing and dangerous legal entanglements (Stovall, 2005).

Temptations Against Truth

In the line of duty of a journalist, temptation to abandon the
commitment to truth is very strong. American Senator Hiram Johnson
mentioned that the first casualty of war is truth. But it also occurs in the time
of peace. The presence of a stranger, who is differs in our language, color,
religion or even clothes becomes the “other”. In this case, Herodotus
explained that every one with exception believes that their own native
customs are by far the best. Therefore, truth in journalism should mean
more than just accuracy and telling the truth to get the story. It also means
not misrepresenting the people or the situation in the story to readers or
viewers. Another aspect of truthfulness is the responsibility of government
officials not to use the media for their own vested interest (Biagi, 2001).
Unfortunately, despite the glamour of the profession, journalists
encounter numerous hindrances that impede them to perform their duties
and responsibilities.

The Highs and Lows of Journalism

“Any light projects a shadow” -- Gaston Bachelard
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Despite the fact that many local journalists barely reach the minimum
salary wage, journalism still remains as a job that carries enormous personal
rewards. It is regarded as difficult, challenging, and fun job. The glamorous
side of journalism gives them the aura of responsibility, of public acceptance,
and of dignity.
Behind the façade of seemingly invisible powers of journalism lies an
industry dominated by a culture of impunity enjoyed by journalist killers and
attackers. Many Filipino journalists look at death, injury or threats as part of
their job and an inherent factor of working in a democratic country. The
Committee to Protect Journalists website stated that while the government
had made efforts to solve the killings of journalist, none of the powerful
figures behind some of these murders have been convicted. The lack of
prosecutional vigor on the part of the government suggests that those who
could attack or kill a journalist in the Philippines can still do so with impunity.
Despite the danger and threats that exists in the profession, however, the
Philippines still remains as one of the Asia’s freest press.

Dangers of Journalism
“The disproportionately high toll of media deaths has made the
Philippines the second most dangerous country in the World for media
workers, after war- torn Iraq.” (IFJ, 2006)
Freedom of the press is defined by Mr. Webster as “the right to freely
publish without censorship or other government interference, usually
restricted by in practice by laws barring obscenity, sedition and libel.”
Apparently, there are other factors that contribute to the suppression of the
media such as violence. Violence takes in many different forms; physical
harm, public harangues, threats (veiled or overt), surveillance of movements
and communication, new blackouts, denial of access to information, prior
restraints on coverage, and criminal libel charges and censorship (Espina-
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Varona, 2004). When media is oppressed, the society itself experiences the
same kind of oppression.
Journalists in the Philippines have paid a high price for their
outspokenness. Good journalists in the country run the risk of either being
maimed for life or killed for reporting without fear or favor. (Espina-Varona,
2004)
In fact, Mendoza (2004) asserted that an average of 3 Filipino journalists
are killed each year. But recently, the number of murdered journalist had
increased dramatically.
Most of the journalists killed had exposed corrupt local politicians,
criminal gangs and illegal gambling.

Attacks on the Press

“The Philippines has been declared the most dangerous place to work
for journalist after Iraq” (Herrera, 2005). Apparently, the Philippines have
earned this “dubious honor” based on the increasing number of journalist
killed since 1986.
Herrera further stated that the Philippine media is regarded as
dangerous and submissive by the protectors of the feudal status quo, and
that is basically the reason why each year, there is an assured quota of
martyrs- journalist killed because they dare to exercise the freedom of
speech and of the press guaranteed by the conditions. Journalists are being
killed in the country precisely because they are exposing acts of corruption
being penetrated by their feudal lords.
Along with the call of, duty and responsibility to inform o the public may
know, Philippine media has always been exposed to dangers and threats
every time they write and speak of the truth, especially along issues of public
governance. Killers and attackers send a harsh and cold message to
Philippine journalist such as “don’t bother to speak of the truth, to expose
corruption and all the violence committed in Philippine society-for if you do,
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you put your life, possibly the life of your family, on the line, and nobody can
protect you, not even your own government, can protect you.” But despite of
this chilling and saddening reality, journalists simply shrugged it off and as a
response they always say “Its part of my job.”

Journalistic Killings
“The deaths of the journalist were the result of a mixture of government
in action and tolerance towards a rising culture of violence—Noonan (Olarte,
2006).
Since 1986, 55 journalists have already been killed. Unfortunately, none
of these cases has been solved. The motives remain unclear, and the killers
barely identified.
The Philippine National Police (PNP) in response to journalist killings
have announced that laws would be relaxed to allow journalists to carry fire
arms in order to defend themselves. However, the International Federation of
Journalists (IFJ) and National Union of Journalist in the Philippines (NUJP)
condemned this as irresponsible and counter-productive. They insisted that
journalists are independent observers and should not be encouraged to be
active combats.
NUJP also said that the only way to end these killings is for the
authorities to relentlessly pursue arrest, prosecute and convict he killers and
their masterminds. They contended that to legally arm the journalist for self
defense is not the solution to continuous murders of media practitioners. All
these deaths are shocking reminders of the price that journalist have to pay
everyday for press freedom and democracy. The activity of the criminal
justice system must be improved. And if improvement were already made,
(as they claim), they are obviously still far from being successful. (NUJP,
2006).
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The Darker Era

The Year 1985 marked an exclamation point, not just in the Philippine
History, but as well as in the Philippine’s Press History. It was more than a
decade ago when democracy was taken back from the hands of the dictator.
For the Philippine media, triumph was much sweeter (Elumbre, 2006).
Elumbre (2006) further asserts that Juan Mercado, one of the twenty-two
journalists detained during the martial law years recalled that fourteen years
of living under the Marcos’ dictatorship was “nightmare”. And according to
Maria Ceres P. Doyo, a freelance investigative and feature writer during the
Marcos Era regarded reporting as a more dangerous to life and limb. Leticia
Jimenez Magsanoc, even recounted calling media then, as “suicide
journalism”. The Marcos years were indeed the most dangerous years for
journalism.
Then came the year 1986, and the media industry took a 180-degree
turn. Suddenly, everybody was free to write once again.
The veteran journalist believed that the experience under the martial
law had greatly influenced they worked today. Tordesillas, exclaimed that
it’s a good experience going through a crisis. It somehow enriches one’s
experience and perspective. “In order to gain freedom, you must take the
risk to see change. If you have to believe in the power of the pen, bust most
of all, you have to believe in the power of the truth,” Doyo recounts.

Enough is Enough
“When violence poses a permanent threat for journalists, it poses a
threat to the whole society.” --Director General Koichico Matsuura (2006)
According to an NUJP press release on May 22, 2006, two journalists in
the country were killed in their line of duty, one is Palawan broadcaster
Fernando “Dong” Batul, and the other is Albert Orsolino of Laguna. Orsolino
is the 42nd journalist killed under the Arroyo administration.
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Some of journalists held President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo and her

administration accountable for the murders of their colleagues under her
watch and the increasingly brazen manner in which they have been killed.
“In its obsession with national security, and its own survival, this
administration has failed to protect their lives and respect the rights of the
Filipino people, journalists included and consequently failed to defend
democracy” NUJP added.
Members of the NUJP has showed their rejection and condemnation on
their colleagues’ death. “Enough is enough,” says NUJP. They claim that
they have condemned enough. They have issued statements enough. They
have marched in the streets and called the government’s attention enough.
And now, they call for their colleagues to fight back. NUJP explained that
united, journalists can fight back the threats to their lives and liberties with
the weapon they know best how to use their profession, their pens, their
cameras, their microphones.
“We call on the people, the public, the audience we serve to stand with
us. For the freedom of the press, we struggle to uphold is not ours alone, but
the logical extension of the people’s right to free expression and to know
from all other rights emanate,” NUJP stated.

The Ultimate Mission of a Journalist

On August 14, 2006, two journalists were abducted in the Gaza strip by
a previously unknown group known as the Holy Jihad Brigades.
After almost two weeks of negotiations, Fox News correspondent Steve
Centanni and cameraman Olaf Wiig were released in good health by their
abductors on the 27th of August.
The Committee to Protect Journalists reported that at a news conference
following their release, both men said they hoped the kidnapping would not
deter journalists from continuing to report in Gaza. “My biggest concern
really is that, as a result of what happened to us, foreign journalists will be
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discouraged from coming to tell the story and that would be a great tragedy
for the people of Palestine,” Wiig told reporters. “You guys need us on the
streets, and you need people to be aware of their story.”
The said kidnappings were condemned by Palestinian officials and
leading journalists associations in Gaza.

Inoculation Theory
McGuire and Papageorgis’s theory of inoculation rests on the medical
analogy of vaccination. They pointed out that people have many
unchallenged beliefs that can be easily swayed once attacked, for they are
not used to defending them. Likewise, in the medical field, it can be
compared to the situation when a person was brought up in a germ-free
environment and was suddenly exposed to germs. The person’s body is
susceptible to infections and diseases. And such person can be given
resistance either by supportive treatment—proper diet, exercise, rest, and so
forth—or by inoculation, a weaker dose of the virus that stimulates the
development of defenses. In the medical area, inoculation approach was
proven to be more effective than the supportive approach in producing
resistance. (Severin, 1997)

Synthesis
The related articles cited in this study aimed to give the reader an
overview of journalism and the extent of the danger that journalists around
the world face everyday in performing their duties. Further, the
aforementioned section also gives a brief introduction of the Inoculation
Theory that the researchers will employ in this study. Thus, majority of the
articles presented in the review of related literature deal with journalism as a
profession and the dangers journalists have to face in the performance of
their duty.
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The perils that journalists encountered during the 1980’s were almost
the same dangers that present journalist have to endure at the present.
However, there is a slight difference in the way attackers harass the
journalist. Attackers at present are more vicious and fearless in assaulting
journalists. This is due to the apparent lack of the government’s interest in
finding and prosecuting their killers.
This study is unique because it presents journalism not only as a career
but also as a vocation. Hence, frolicking has no place in this profession.
Journalists must gravely hold on to certain moral values and personal
principles and convictions in order to preserve their credibility in delivering to
the people the truth.
These accumulated principles, convictions, and beliefs will certainly
affect their duty performance thus keeping the integrity of their profession
intact.
However, considering the dangerous nature of their chosen careers,
journalists cannot help but encounter hazardous situations. Journalistic perils
such as death threats and journalistic killings hinder them to perform their
responsibilities professionally.
In explaining the impact of these journalistic perils on the beliefs and
convictions of journalists as well as its effect on their duty performance, the
researchers will test the applicability of the medical analogy employed by the
Inoculation Theory which is primarily the thrust of this study.
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Theoretical/Conceptual Framework

In performing their role as the watchdog of the public, journalists often

face the dilemma of having to expose the truth as regards government
corruption, crime, and the like. In doing so, colliding with corrupt but
influential and powerful people with infinite resources is imminent. Thus,
occurrences like these endanger a media practitioner’s life. Influential and
powerful people affected by exposés made by journalists would employ any
means to silence them and prevent them from blowing their whistles. Hence,
journalists are attacked by their enemies in the profession in an attempt to
weaken their beliefs, affect their attitudes, and smash down their stands in
doing their duties and responsibilities.
However, the Inoculation Theory by McGuire and Papageorgis (Severin,
1997) stresses that instead of devastating his convictions, these attacks
actually make his beliefs and attitudes stronger.
According to Dr. Steven Booth-Butterfield, the main point of Inoculation
Theory is that attacks make beliefs stronger. He employed a medical analogy
to illustrate the theory further. When a person is vaccinated, the shot
actually gives him a weak dose of the virus. This in turn activates the body’s
immune system. The immune system fights off this weak attack and the
immune system actually becomes stronger. Thus, the next time the virus
attacks, the immune system can handle an even larger assault. The key
word in all this is, “weak.” If the shot contained too strong a dose, it would
overwhelm the immune system, make the person sick, and perhaps even kill
the person. The dose must have enough of the virus to activate the immune
 17

system, but must not be so strong that it overpowers (Booth-Butterfield,

1996).

Warn Receiver of
Impending Attack

Make a Weak
Attack

Get Receiver to
Actively Defend

Strong Belief

Figure 1
Theoretical Framework of the Impact of Journalistic Perils
on Media Practitioners

For inoculation to be effective, the three steps of inoculation must be

satisfied. First, there must be a warning of the attack. This will activate the
existing defenses of the receiver. As soon as the warning is made, receivers
are threatened. Now they know that an attack is forthcoming and that they
must prepare for it. Next, there must be a weak attack. Again, it is
important to note that the attack must be weak and ineffective. If a strong
 18

attack is produced, the attitude you wanted to strengthen will get weaker and
maybe even move in the opposite direction. In short, the attack must be
strong enough to force the receivers to defend. It must not be so strong as to
overcome the defense.
Once a weak attack is produced, this will make the receiver to actively
defend his belief. Many years of careful research have shown that the more
actively the receiver defends against the attack, the stronger the existing
attitude will become.
An active defense occurs when the receiver does more than merely
think, but rather performs actions.
When these steps are satisfied and the process of inoculation is
completed, the beliefs of the receiver of the attack would be reinforced and
strengthened. (Booth-Butterfield, 1996)

Threats

Journalistic Perils

Sympathizing with
the Victims

Strong Attitude

Duty Performance
of Media
Practitioner
 19

Figure 2
Conceptual Framework of the Impact of Journalistic Perils
on Media Practitioners

When a journalist performs his role as a watchdog of the public and

expose corruptions and malpractices of prominent figures in the society, they
will receive threats. This will condition their minds that potential attacks may
be approaching initiating them to prepare themselves mentally and
emotionally.
Sooner or later, attacks will come. A journalist will encounter dangerous
situations if he chooses to stay true to his professional code. He might
experience these circumstances himself or they might witness it happen to
their peers in the profession.
When this transpires, they will develop empathy for the victims which in
turn will foster in them a strong desire to get back with his attackers. Thus,
the journalist will be imbibed by a strong attitude and this will definitely have
a positive effect on his duty performance as a media practitioner.

Death Threats

Journalist Killings

Condemning the
Killings

Strong Conviction

Duty Performance
of Media
Practitioner
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Figure 3
Operational Framework of the Impact of Journalistic Perils
on Media Practitioners

When journalists receive death threats, they would mentally prepare for
future attacks that are imminent. The killings of fellow journalists serve as a
weak attack to discourage them to pursue their profession. It’s one way of
restraining the journalists’ freedom of speech. Unfortunately, these attacks
do not only strengthen the journalist’ attitudes and beliefs but as well as his
dedication towards his passion. Because of these journalist killings, the
journalist will try to defend himself by condemning the slayings of his
colleagues. Thus, triggering the journalist to perform his duty with much
conviction.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The intent of this study is to evaluate the impact of journalistic perils on

the performance of media practitioners, in terms of their duties and
responsibilities in the profession.

This study specifically aims to answer significantly the following

questions:

1. What are the journalists’ professional backgrounds?

2. What are the journalists’ initial reactions to threats?
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3. What are the journalists’ initial reactions upon knowing that a

colleague has been hurt or killed on duty?
4. What are the influences of journalistic perils on the duty performance
of the journalists?

Significance of the Study

This study predominantly seeks on the consciousness of people as

regards the journalistic perils that journalists have to face in their duties and
responsibilities. The dangers and conflicts that journalists have to endure in
their crusade for truth are not simply minimal but treacherous.
Therefore this study will be of help to the following:

Mass Communication Students

This study aims to help them be aware of the dangers that are attached
to their chosen profession. They should possess a strong conviction on their
craft. This study will also serve as an avenue to help them be aware of their
prime duty to serve the public through fair, accurate, unbiased and objective
reporting.

Media Practitioners
This study aims to help them continue to abide by the ethical standards
they had sworn to uphold while performing their duties and responsibilities.
This study may help them realize their importance in the safeguarding of
democracy, and encourage them to pursue their battle for truth at all odds.

Society
This study aims to help readers become aware of the perils that
journalists have to face in order to serve them. And that they will stand with
journalists in their fight against journalist killers and attackers alike.
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Future Researchers
This study aims to help them use this research study as a basis and
reference to future studies that may be of relative nature.

SCOPE AND LIMITATION

This study covers the impact of journalistic perils such as written and
verbal threats, intimidations, and threats to family members of media
practitioners. It focuses on the effects of these dangers to the performance
of media practitioners in upholding their duties and responsibilities as
professional journalists.
Due to time and financial constraints, the researchers decided to
concentrate on three (3) print media journalists that are currently exposed to
journalistic perils and with no less than seven (7) years of experience in the
profession.
The researchers also wanted the study to deal with events as recent as
possible. Hence, internet resources were maximized to provide the latest
information related to the study.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

For the purpose of transparency and to have a common basis for

comprehension, the following terms were defined according to the way they
were used in the study.

Media. This denotes the various means of mass communication including

television, radio, print, and the internet. This study will specifically deal with
the print media.
 23

Media Practitioners. These are the people involved in the production of

media. Specifically, media practitioners in the study refer to those who are
involved in journalism.

Journalism. This stands for the profession of gathering, editing, and

publishing news reports for the media.

Journalists. This represents media practitioners who are involved in the

profession of journalism. Their main obligation is seek the truth. This study
will specifically deal with Print Media Journalists.

Journalistic Perils. These are the dangerous circumstances that journalists

encounter in the performance of their duties and responsibilities in the
profession such as death threats and journalistic perils. This study will
specifically deal with Journalistic Killings.
Death Threat. This is a journalistic peril that warns a journalist of an
impending attack usually expressed either in oral or written form.

Duty Performance. This refers to the way journalists execute their

responsibilities in the profession.

Journalistic Killings. This is a journalistic peril wherein a journalist’s life is

terminated to hinder him in the performance of his duties and responsibilities
in the profession.

Weak attack. This is an inoculation term used to denote attacks inflicted on

journalists that strengthens their beliefs and convictions as journalists.

Active Defense. This is an inoculation term used to denote reactions of

journalists when threatened with weak attacks.
 24

Fear. This refers to the as unpleasant feeling of apprehension or distress

caused by the presence or anticipation of danger. Specifically, this study will
deal with it as a indication of a journalist’s weak conviction.

Resignation. This refers to an instance of leaving a job. Specifically, in this

study, this will deal with a journalist leaving his profession due to journalistic
perils. Specifically, this study will deal with it as a indication of a journalist’s
weak conviction.

Reservation. This refers to the act of withholding something or an instance

of so doing. Specifically, this study will deal with it as a indication of a
journalist’s weak conviction.

Indignation. This refers to anger based on a condemnation of something

considered wrong or unfair. Specifically, this study will deal with it as a
indication of a journalist’s strong conviction.

Perseverance. This refers to a determined continuation of an action or

belief, usually over a long period and especially despite difficulties or
setbacks. Specifically, This study will deal with it as a indication of a
journalist’s strong conviction.

Condemnation. This refers to the action of stating that something or

somebody is in some way wrong or unacceptable. Specifically, this study will
deal with it as a indication of a journalist’s strong conviction.

Retaliatory Acts. This refers to acts of inflicting deliberate harm on

somebody in response or revenge for a harm he or she has done.
 25

Specifically, this study will deal with it as a indication of a journalist’s strong

conviction.

Chapter 2
METHOD

In this chapter, the research design, participants, sampling design, data

gathering procedure as well as the data analysis used in this research study
are presented.

Research Design

This study dubbed “Impact of Journalistic Perils on Media Practitioners”

will make use of a research design that is qualitative in nature. It will employ
descriptive research wherein the case study method will be utilized. Garcia
(2003) asserted that descriptive research endeavors to describe
systematically, factually, accurately and objectively a situation, problem or
 26

phenomenon. It seeks to describe “what is”. In addition to this, Leedy and

Ormrod (2001) cited that in a case study, a particular individual, program or
event is being thoroughly investigated. Catane (2000) further stated that
case study is an in depth investigation of a single person, an event or an
institution. It does not only attempt at identifying the existing condition of the
“what” of the situation but also the “why” of it.

Participants

The respondents of this study are print media journalists with no less
than seven (7) years in the profession and are currently exposed to
journalistic perils. The researchers considered the chosen respondents
because of their knowledge about the subject matter of the research study
conducted.

Sampling Design

The sampling design that will be employed in this research study is

purposive sampling. Catane (2000) stated that under this method of drawing
the sample, the researcher selects the sampling based on his subjective
judgment. Those who meet the purpose or objective of the study are those
deliberately include in his sample.
Thus, the respondents of trhis study were chosen because of the nature
of their profession and their apparent exposure to journalistic perils.

Data Gathering Procedure

 27

As a group, the researchers conducted a forum to choose a timely

research problem related to communication, their field of expertise. Thus, the
researchers came up with the research topic “Impact of Journalistic perils on
Media Practitioners”. Upon approval, the researchers started their
information-gathering for materials and references essential to their study.
Consequently, the researchers conducted interviews with the target
respondents to obtain sufficient data crucial to the completion of their study.

Instrument

During interviews with the target respondents, the researchers used an

interview schedule. According to Catane (2000), an interview schedule is a
written I instrument that is use by the researcher to guide the asking of the
question. It also provides a means of recoding the responses made to
questions. It can be use to gather factual information or preferences as
opinions. Some question dealt with the respondents’ personal background in
terms of their experience in the journalism profession while others dwelt on
their perception on journalistic perils.

Data Analysis

The data gathered was analyzed through qualitative interpretation.

Items involving the determining of conviction was subjected to a rubric, a
matrix to evaluate degrees of responses.

Below is the rubric that will be used:

Table 1 Categories of responses based on the Inoculation Theory

 28

Impact of Journalistic
Weak Conviction Strong Conviction
Perils on Media
Practitioners

The respondent’s reaction

The respondent’s
directly or indirectly exhibits
reaction exhibits
indignation,
Initial Reaction to directly or indirectly
perseverance,
Threats fear, resignation, and
condemnation, and
reservations.
retaliatory acts.

The respondent’s reaction

The respondent’s
directly or indirectly exhibits
reaction exhibits
Initial Reaction to indignation,
directly or indirectly
Colleague Hurt or Killed perseverance,
fear, resignation, and
on Duty condemnation, and
reservations.
retaliatory acts.

The respondent’s reaction

The respondent’s
directly or indirectly exhibits
reaction exhibits
Influence of Journalistic indignation,
directly or indirectly
Perils on Duty perseverance,
fear, resignation, and
Performance condemnation, and
reservations.
retaliatory acts.

Based on the general trend of responses, the study determined the

applicability of the Inoculation Theory.

Chapter 3
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter exhibits and discusses the data accumulated and presents
its respective interpretation and analysis as reflected by the issues raised in
chapter 1.

Profile of the Respondents

 29

Due to the qualitative nature of the study, the researchers decided to

concentrate on three (3) respondents who are respected journalists in their
own right with no less than seven (7) years in the profession. The said
journalists are currently exposed to journalistic perils making them ideal
respondents for this study. Moreover, to ensure that both genders will be
represented, the respondents are composed of two (2) males and (1) one
female.

Professional Backgrounds of the Respondents

Respondent #1 is a Bulacan-based journalist who has been in the

profession for 15 years. Realizing his weakness in numbers, he pursued his
passion for words and took up AB Mass Communication and graduated from
Far Eastern University in 1991. Right after graduation, he started working on
a weekly newspaper in Metro Manila which is based in Caloocan. In 1993, he
went abroad and worked as an assistant editor in a Filipino publication in
Chicago. It was in 1999 when he went back to the Philippines. A year after,
he started working at the Malolos Times, a local weekly in Bulacan until 2003.
While employed at the Malolos Times, he also worked as a part-timer at the
Manila Times. By the year 2004, he was acquired by Mabuhay publication in
Bulacan where he is currently situated. In 2006, he wrote for the Philippine
Star while at the same time working for its sister publications—the Pilipino
Star Ngayon and Pang-Masa.
The respondent viewed journalism as the expression of truth. “Where
there is truth, there is strength,” he said. And the challenge is to find the
best way to communicate the truth…the message.
Unaware of the dangers and threats that were associated with the
profession when he entered journalism school, all he saw then was his ability
 30

to express himself freely. “ I can express myself better in words than in

numbers,” were his words.
As a college, he had read about journalists who were assigned in
different places such as war correspondents in Afghanistan. He perceived
their (war correspondents) war coverage as an adventure. Therefore, the
sense of adventure that is attached to the profession also contributed to his
decision to engage in journalism.
As a journalist, the respondent satisfies his desire to express himself
freely. He deemed his role as a citizen of our country that contributes to the
betterment of the society. “The truth must be told,” he said.

Respondent #2 is a journalist based in Palawan. He has been

practicing the profession for seven years. The respondent was a Tourism
graduate who accidentally became inclined with journalism when he applied
as a Disc Jockey in a FM station. Since then, the passion ignited. He is
currently broadcasting for a provincial radio station in Palawan and writing for
a local paper.
The respondent defines Journalism as a passion, a job that one must
enjoy in order to survive. He decided to pursue Journalism because of the
sense of adventure and thrill that is attached to the profession. According to
him, as a journalist, he can go to many different places to cover news.
Respondent # 2 also asserted that he enjoys his profession as a
journalist and claim that it really pays to be a journalist. He can deliver the
news to the people and at the same time enjoy himself through different
places that he was assigned to with all expenses paid.

Respondent #3 is a Central Luzon correspondent for the Philippine

Daily Inquirer. She has been in the profession for 14 years already starting in
1993. The respondent was a Mass Communication graduate with a major in
journalism of Centro Escolar University.
 31

Respondent #3 views journalism as a vocation. Through her profession,

the respondent feels that she helps the country by contributing to community
building.
The respondent asserted that she decided to be a journalist because it’s
what she does best as she claimed. She enjoys her work. She is doing her
work not for her job but for her own desire without pressure. But most
importantly her burning passion to write drives her more.
The respondent feels the sense of fulfillment as a journalist of being able
to contribute to the welfare not just of her community but of her country as
well. She can also feel that she can assert herself whenever she proves her
participation. As a reporter, her lifestyle became active. Her profession
makes her on-the-go for the news, unlike other jobs that confound people just
to the four corners of the office.

Journalistic Perils on the Respondents

Respondent #1 has already experienced different kinds of threats and

dangers such as libel cases and death threats which are usually expressed
verbally or through text messages. At times, “Threats can also be very
unusual,” he claimed. Such as being threatened by a person he only met for
the first time. In his 15 years of service, the most unforgettable threat he had
experience was politically-related. The said text message stated: “Mag-iingat
ka. Huwag niyong binabangga yung pamilyang ito, kung hindi…” or “Be
careful. Don’t mess with this family or else…” The respondent further
explained that threats can also be on the profession. They (media attackers)
can file libel cases against a journalist to ruin his credibility. The respondent
also experienced being physically harmed while covering a story. The
experiences advised him to be more careful and to lay low.
Respondent #2 asserts that the profession is not always a bed of
roses. In his seven years in the profession, he had already experience the
 32

dangers attached to journalism. The most common are probably libel cases.
He was just two years in the profession when he was billed seven libel cases.
Fortunately, they all have been dismissed. He was not also spared with death
threats. Some were through texts and others were personally delivered by
the attackers. He was followed by his attackers to his favorite hang-outs and
was verbally harassed. However, the respondent insisted that the threats did
not discourage him in anyway.

Respondent #3 also experienced threats and dangers in the

profession. She experienced verbal harassment through text messages and
phone calls as well as being wrongfully accused of libel. However, while
these incidents advised her to be more careful, they did not actually lessen or
stop her from pursuing her desire to write.

Since the thrust of this study is to find out the applicability of the
Inoculation Theory in explaining the impact of journalistic perils on the duty
performance of media practitioners, the researchers will now apply the
rubrics shown in chapter 2 to determine the general trend of the
respondents’ responses. According to the medical analogy, inoculation would
be effective if there will be a warning of the attack first. Once the receiver of
the attack is prepared, weak attacks produce a strong conviction while strong
attacks overwhelm the recipient resulting to a weak conviction.

Initial Reaction to Threats

Respondent #1 stated that since most of the threats are through text
messages, his initial reaction was to look for confirmation and find the
sender’s identity. He also consulted his colleagues. His initial emotion was
bewilderment. He then kept asking himself of the things he had done and
checked any of his write-ups that could have triggered the threat. He was
 33

left puzzled by his attacker’s identity. There was even a time when he had to
choose the routes that he has to take. Or while walking alone, he has to look
at his back to check if someone is following him. He became really suspicious,
especially to strangers who are staring at him. Or while he was driving and a
motorbike was following him, he has to change his route. He became really
careful. As a result, he laid low.

Respondent #2 explained that the threats initially advised him to be

more cautious in his actions. It compelled him to verify his facts more.
Moreover, it made him more careful. There was even a time when he cannot
leave his home without a companion. He was also puzzled by the identity of
his attackers. Everyday, he would try to reminisce his entire expose` and
determine his attackers’ identity. Because of certain pressures from family
and friends, he was left with no choice but to lay low a little. However, they
proved to be futile in the end. After a short time, he continued his writing.

Respondent #3 while accompanied by fear, she initially felt anger

when she received the threats. In fact, she immediately wanted to get to this
people (attackers) and confront them. “Threats actually bring out courage,”
she said. But at times when anger seemed to overwhelm her senses, the
respondent ensures that democracy rules. Succumbing to anger, according
to her, is like saying “I’m exposing myself to bullets... I’m looking for my
death.”

Table 2 Summary of the respondents’ initial reaction to threats

Impact of Journalistic Perils on Weak Conviction Strong Conviction

Media Practitioners

Initial Reaction to Threats 1 2

 34

As shown by Table 1, one (1) of the respondents exhibited a weak

conviction while the other two (2) displayed strong convictions.
Respondent #1 exhibited paranoia in response to the threats he
received. This reaction indirectly showed fear, hinting that he was
overwhelmed with the threats.
On the other hand, while respondent #2 showed similar reactions at
first, his perseverance took over. As a result, he eventually went back to
writing suggesting that his conviction was fortified despite the threats.
Respondent #3 also felt fear, but it was anger that dominated her
senses. This implies that the respondent was challenged the more because
she perceived the threats as weak.

Initial Reaction to a Colleague Hurt or Killed in the Line of Duty

Respondent #1 has not yet experienced a situation wherein a

colleague was hurt or killed because of the profession. However, the
respondent admitted that the news of journalist killings gave him an initial
feeling of fear because of the possibility of him becoming a victim too.

Respondent #2 was shocked when a fellow Palawan journalist was

murdered. Since Palawan was before considered a peaceful community, the
respondent and his colleagues didn’t see the possibility of a journalist killing
coming. While the incident really scared them, it paved the way for the
journalists to unite in the shout for justice.

Respondent # 3 has also not yet experienced an instance when a

colleague was killed while on duty. But she mentioned a situation wherein a
friend was hurt and threatened. Her initial reaction was to protect him. She
told him to lay low a little and adviced him to protect himself also. In the
 35

case of journalist killings, the respondent stated that she has co-authored
numerous letters of condemnation issued against their attackers.
Table 3 Summary of the respondents’ initial reaction to a colleague hurt or killed on duty

Impact of Journalistic Perils on Weak Conviction Strong Conviction

Media Practitioners

Initial Reaction to Colleague

Hurt 1 2
or Killed in the Line of Duty

Table 2 shows again that one (1) of the respondents exhibited a weak
conviction while the other two (2) displayed strong convictions.
Respondent #1 directly exhibited fear when confronted with journalist
killings. This suggests that he was overwhelmed by the situation, diminishing
his conviction.
Respondent #2 showed fear also. However, the killing of a colleague
caused him and other journalists to unite in a call for justice. This suggests
that a mixed feeling of indignation and condemnation filled the respondent
for what happened to his fallen comrade, fostering his conviction.
Respondent #3 sympathized with the victims of journalistic perils. The
fact that the respondent retaliated by co-authoring letters of condemnation
for journalist killers shows that she feels a sense of indignation for what have
transpired, solidifying her conviction.

Influence of Journalistic Perils on Duty Performance

Respondent #1 explained that journalistic perils hamper the truth.

Somehow, these perils affect the respondent’s duty performance. According
to him, these perils somehow taught him to be more careful and focused by
reviewing, confirming all the facts, and doing away with hearsays at all times.
“If an issue threatens to put your life in balance, be more careful,” he
suggested. When asked if he was still willing to pursue his profession amidst
 36

the threats and dangers that are attached in journalism, he answered with a
striking statement, “There is no story worth dying for.” He explained that
when threats and dangers come your way, and that your life is at stake, it
would be better to draw back a little and let the situation subside. Moreover,
if the lives of the respondent’s family and loved ones are at stake, he would
choose to lay low.

Respondent #2 stated honestly that journalistic perils did not actually

affect (negatively) his performance. Though, initially, the dangers pushed him
to be more careful. In general, however, the perils strengthened his faith in
the profession. He considered harassment and libel cases as something
common. And the death of his colleague united all the journalists in Palawan.
Amidst pressures from family and friends to resign, he opted to continue in
the profession because according to him, “The passion is there.”

Respondent #3 asserted that the different journalistic perils actually

challenged her. In fact, they brought out the fighter within her. The
respondent stated that these threats and dangers actually makes one more
courageous. According to her, these dangers did not deter her conviction in
anyway. Despite the risks, the respondent insisted that she will still pursue
her profession because this is where she finds fulfillment. “If you’re happy
with your work, you don’t have to work when dealing with your work,” she
stated.

Table 4 Summary of the influence of journalistic perils on respondents’ duty performance

Impact of Journalistic Perils on Weak Conviction Strong Conviction

Media Practitioners

Influence of Journalistic Perils

1 2
on Duty Performance
 37

Table 3 shows anew that one (1) of the respondents exhibited a weak
conviction while the other two (2) displayed strong convictions.
Respondent #1 exhibited a reservation when he uttered, “There is no
story worth dying for.” Based on his response, given a situation wherein he
has to choose between his own welfare and his duty as a journalist with
journalistic perils as intervening factor, the respondent will certainly favor the
former.
Respondent #2 showed that perseverance is a virtue. Despite the risks,
he ignored calls from loved ones to resign because of the fulfillment he gets
from the profession. In fact, he remarked that his passion lies in journalism.
Hence, no matter what journalistic peril will come his way, journalism will
always be part of his life.
Respondent #3 proved that courage is required amidst the threats and
dangers associated with her profession. This she showed by the indignation
and condemnation for journalist attackers she implied in her responses. She
asserts that these perils did more good than harm. Instead of discouraging
her, the dangers challenged her to love her chosen profession more. The
sense of fulfillment and enjoyment that journalism gives her is the reason
why she will always persevere.
 38

Chapter 4
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the data gathered and analyzed, the summary, findings,

conclusions, and recommendations of the study are presented in this final
chapter.

Summary of Findings

In the realm of journalism, a battle is unfolding. Attackers of the

profession are now using threats and dangers as journalistic perils to
discourage journalists to pursue their sworn duty of upholding the truth.
Hence, this study intended to determine the impact of journalistic perils on
the duty performance of media practitioners. It aimed to find out which
indeed between the pen of the journalists and the sword of their attackers is
mightier. Moreover, it focused on gauging whether journalistic perils
strengthen or weaken a journalist’s conviction resulting to a relative effect on
his duty performance. In doing so, the researchers decided to test the
applicability of the medical analogy of the inoculation theory in explaining the
phenomenon.

To accomplish this thrust, an interview schedule was employed by the

researchers as an instrument to acquire responses necessary for the
completion of the study. Through purposive sampling, three (3) journalists
 39

with exposure to journalistic perils and ample experience in the profession

were chosen to be respondents of the study.

Furthermore, the researchers employed descriptive research and the

case study method for purposes of analysis. A rubric was designed by the
researchers to qualitatively measure the data gathered from the
respondents. The summary of the accumulated data was then presented by
means of tables and descriptive paragraphs.

1. Profile of Respondents

The three (3) respondents of this study are journalists with extensive
working experience in respected newspaper publications around the country.
Since majority of journalists hurt and killed are from the provinces, the
researchers made sure that the respondents have local or provincial
journalism affiliations. The genders are roughly represented as the
respondents are composed of two (2) males and one (1) female. Moreover,
the respondents have no less than seven (7) years of experience in the
profession.

2. Initial Reaction on Threats

All of the respondents initially manifested fear and a decision to be more

cautious. However, they differ from each other in terms of the after effects of
the incident. Respondent #1 preferred to lay low to the point of abandoning
the story if the threats escalate. Respondent #2 also laid low because of
pressures from family and friends, but eventually continued his duty to
uphold the truth. Respondent #3 was overwhelmed by anger and insisted
that the threat challenged her more and brought out the fighter within her.
 40

Hence, respondent #1 was overwhelmed by the threat resulting to a weak

conviction. On the other hand, respondent #2 and respondent #3 perceived
the attacks as weak. Thus, resulting to their strong conviction.

3. Initial Reaction to Colleague Hurt or Killed while on Duty

Again, the respondents’ normal reaction was to manifest fear. However,

they perceived the situation differently. Respondent #1 realized the
possibility of him becoming a victim of journalistic killings. Respondent #2,
when a colleague was murdered, joined with other journalists in unity for a
call for justice. Respondent #3 chose to protect a colleague that was
threatened by advising him to protect himself also. She further asserted a
condemnation for journalist killings. Thus, respondent #1 manifested a weak
conviction, while respondent #2 and #3 exhibited strong convictions.

4. Influence of Journalistic Perils on Duty Performance

While respondent #1 was aware that journalistic perils hamper the

truth, he insisted that no story is worth dying for. Based on his responses, his
personal safety is of utmost concern. Respondent #2 asserted that
journalistic perils did not have a negative effect in his duty performance. In
fact, it strengthened his faith in his profession because of the passion he feels
for the job. Respondent #3 explained that journalistic perils challenged her
to be more courageous. She emphasized that the perils did not deter her
conviction. Instead, the respondent condemned the dangers and banked on
the fulfillment she receives from the profession. As a result, respondent #1’s
reservation showed weak conviction, while respondent #2’s perseverance
and respondent #3’s condemnation of the attacks.

Conclusions
 41

Based on the findings of the study, it can therefore be concluded that

the inoculation theory is applicable in determining the impact of journalistic
perils on the duty performance of media practitioners.
According to the medical analogy, strong attacks overwhelm the
receiver producing a weak conviction while weak attacks foster beliefs
resulting to a strong conviction.
Moreover, the respondents’ experiences equates to inoculation’s
analogy. Respondent #1 manifested a weak conviction because he
perceived the threats and dangers as strong and overwhelming. Respondent
#2 and #3 displayed strong convictions because they viewed the journalistic
perils as challenges that fostered their beliefs.
Recommendations

After careful deliberation of the findings and conclusions of this study,

the following recommendations are presented:

Mass Communication programs should incorporate courses on value

formation to strengthen aspiring journalists’ commitment to the profession.
Aspiring journalists should be aware of the threats and dangers
involved in the journalism profession. Thus, education of these perils should
be integrated in their curriculum.
Journalists should be part of journalist organizations for purposes of
unity and security.
For future researchers, this research can be a basis for similar and
related studies provided that they conduct a more comprehensive data
gathering to further represent journalists around the country.