UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL
ENGINEERING

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING I (CE 452) SUPPLEMENTARY LECTURE

NOTES - WATER TREATMENT

BY

J. M. TEMBO

OCTOBER, 2011
URBAN WATER TREATMENT METHODS

Water from source almost always has to be treated before it can be consumed. Treatment
is through unit Operations.

Unit Operations: Treatment processes are often composed of several operations which
are basic and form a unit. Each unit operation changes one physical, chemical, or
microbiological characteristic of water. For example for the removal of unwanted
substances, we use the following unit operations:

- Coagulation/flocculation
- Sedimentation
- Precipitation
- Ion-exchange
- Absorption (activated carbon)
- Oxidation (iron removal)
- Gas transfer

For stabilization and addition of wanted constituents

- Feeding chemicals
- Gas transfer

For disinfection
- chlorination
- ozonation
- irradiation

The most important/most frequently applied operations are

(a) for surface water

o Coagulation/flocculation
o Sedimentation
o Filtration
o Chlorination

(b) For groundwater

o Precipitation
o filtration
o chlorination

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TREATMENT STAGES IN A CONVENTIONAL TREATMENT PLANT
CE 452

TREATMENT STAGES IN A CONVENTIONAL TREATMENT PLANT

Pure Water to Supply

PUMPING

STORAGE

CHLORINATION

FILTRATION Sludge

SEDIMENTATION Sludge

Flocculation
Washwater (for rapid
sand filters)
For slow sand filters
Mixing Chamber "waste" after clean
FLOCCULATION/C
OAGULATION

Coagulant Aid

Coagulants/Alkalis

Pretreatment Sludge

Raw Water Pumps Lagoon

Coarse Screens

Source

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COAGULATION/FLOCCULATION
This is a unit operation for the removal of colloids (particles in the size range10-3 to 10-
2
mm). Colloids are usually the ones responsible for turbidity and colour of natural waters.

Coagulation of water impurities is the process of aggregation of colloidal and disperses

particles as they stick together under the action of molecular attraction forces. Most of the
colloids have a negative charge which promotes the anti-coagulation stability of the
colloids.

The process of coagulation can be enhanced by

(1) Increasing the ion concentration

(2) Adding di-or/and tri-valent cations

COAGULATION BY ADDITION OF DI- OR/AND TRI-VALENT CATIONS

Coagulation is economically achieved by adding salts with trivalent ions such as

Aluminum and iron III (ie Al+++ and Fe3+)

ADVANTAGES OF USING TRIVALENT IONS (AS COAGULANTS)

Imagine this colloid has a charge of -9

If we use trivalent cations only 3 will be needed if we use monovalent cations, we would
need 9 hence more expensive in that more have to be added.

WHAT HAPPENS IN THE COAGULATION STEP?

To a sample (water sample containing colloids) a COAGULANT will be added. The

coagulant will be mixed with the sample for about 1 minute rapidly. This is important for
mixing and bringing the destabilized colloids in contact with each other so that they can
aggregate (coagulation depends on collisions)

THE FLOCCULATION STEP

Exchange adsorption of cations proceeds very quickly and is finished upon exhaustion of
the exchange ability of colloids. After that, the hydrolysis of the surplus coagulant takes
place as follows

Al3+ + 3H2 O Al (OH)3 + 3H+

Fe3+ + 3H2 O Fe (OH)3 + 3H+

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The Al and Fe hydroxides are not discrete (stand-alone) molecules. They are
polymerized. Very large molecules are formed leading eventually to a visible floc. This
floc will entrap the coagulated colloids. This is what is called FLOCCULATION.

TYPE OF MIXING
Unlike for coagulation, gentle mixing here is important to avoid breaking the floc.

pH AND ALKALINITY
Alkalinity improves the buffering capacity of water. The above process would result in
lowering of the pH which would result in the dissolution of the floc and liberation of the
coagulated particles. However, if alkalinity is present, the reactions will be as follows: -

Al3+ + 3HCO-3 Al (OH + 3 CO2

2Al3+ + 3 CO2-3 2Al (OH)3 + 3CO2

For Iron

Fe 3+ + 3HCO3- Fe (OH)3 + 3CO2

2Fe 3+ + 3CO2-3 + 3H2O 2Fe(OH)3 + 3CO2

Thus, it is important to add an alkali (eg Calcium hydroxide) together with the coagulant
to increase the buffering capacity of the water. However, if too much alkali is added, the
pH will increase and impair floc formation (redissolving).

JAR TEST
This is a test for determining the required coagulant dose for a water sample. (also
determination of optimum pH).

APPARATUS

1 to 6 I liter jars

various amounts of coagulants

a stirring device

PROCEDURE
Rapidly mix for 1 minute (coagulation step) then gentle mixing for 20 - 30 minutes
(flocculation step).

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NTU

Optimum dosage

Mg/l

The above is what would be obtained in the case of determination of optimum coagulant
dosage.

NTU

Optimum pH

pH
The above is what would be obtained in the case of determination of optimum pH for
coagulation.

COAGULANT AIDS
These are substances that improve floculation when added to water in small amounts.
They improve flocculation by:

forming floc more rapidly

forming larger or/and heavier floc

reducing the coagulant dose

They are polymerised substances with long-chain molecules

Molecule of coagulant aids

INTERLACED
FLOCS

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COAGULATION/FLOCULATION IN PRACTICE
Material needed

A jar test kit

Solution storage tank (they should be of corrosive materials)

Chemical feeder (constant head or other types e.g. dry feed equipment)

Mixing chamber (Create turbulence e.g. by plunging/cascading or hydraulic jump)

Flocculation tank (baffles used or mechanical agitators)

The unit operation of Coagulation/flocculation is always followed by sedimentation and

filtration

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SEDIMENTATION
This is a unit operation for the removal by settling of the heavier/denser and larger
suspended particles. It is used for the removal of flocculated particles prior to filtration

High removal efficiencies in sedimentation tanks

determines the subsequent loadings on the filters

has marked influence on capacity of the filters

has influence/bearing on length of filter run

has influence on quality of filtered water

Sedimentation takes advantage of the gravitational forces, density and size of the
particles. Suspended particles will only settle if: -

the particles size is greater than the colloidal range as in this range, laws of
diffusion are predominant

the density is greater than that of water (the liquid)

APPLICATIONS OF SEDIMENTATION

in the removal of readily settleable particles (plain sedimentation)

in the removal of flocculated colloids

removal of precipitated hardness and iron

SIGNIFICANCE OF COLLOIDS AND SUSPENDED PARTICLES

they make aesthetically unpleasant

they are associated with micro-organisms

shorten filter runs (rapid clogging of filters)

may settle in the distribution system

SETTLING CHARACTERISTICS

DISCRETE
A discrete particle is a particle that does not change shape or size during settling with
adequate distance between them so that during settling, they are not affecting each
other. The Constant uniform Settling velocity at which a spherical particle under
laminar flow conditions moves can be determined from stokes law as follows:-

g ( S − 1)d 2
Vs =
18µ
Where

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 d = diameter of particle
S = specific gravity of particle
g = gravitational constant
µ = kinematic viscosity

A plot of the above equation for particles with different relative densities is given on
page 143 (Schaefer)

HINDERED SETTLING
Where particles are densely dispersed within the fluid, as the particles settle, the
displaced liquid will have an effect on the neighbouring particles thus reducing the
settling velocity.

FLOCCULENT SETTLING
Particles keep on growing. Hence initially, the settling velocity increases. But as the
particles go towards the bottom, the effects of hindered settling come into play.

1.
HINDERED

FLOCCULENT
DISCRETE

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 SEDIMENTATION IN PRACTICE
Operations are continuos and not batch systems upon which the above three settling
characteristics are based. The sedimentation tank can be termed a "a continuos flow
basin". In this case the particle is moving both vertically (downwards) and
horizontally.

Under ideal conditions, the following assumptions are made:-

There are quiescent conditions in the settling zone (no currents no turbulences)

The flow is uniform and steady across the settling zone

The concentration of the suspended solids is uniform when the water enters the
settling zone

Once the particles have reached the bottom, they stay there.

SETTLING ZONE
ho

OUTLET
INLET
ZONE
ZONE

lo

Retention time to = V/Q -------------------- (1)

Also vo = ho/to ------------------------------- (2)

From (2) to = ho/vo --------------------------- (3)

Equating (1) and (3) we get

Vo = ho/V/Q = Qho/V

But Volume V = ho * A

Therefore Vo = Q/A ((m3/s)/m2) or m/s

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The above is the most important parameter in the design of sedimentation tanks and is
called the OVERFLOW RATE or THE SURFACE LOADING RATE or THE FLOW
THROUGH VELOCITY

SETTLING BASINS IN PRACTICE

Conditions are non ideal and settling efficiency is reduced by factors like:-

currents
♦ Eddy currents (set up by incoming water - whirlpools) due to non existence of
ideal inlet
♦ Surface currents - induced by wind
♦ Vertical convection currents (when surface gets cooler than bottom)
♦ Density currents (when incoming water cooler than water in the basin)

Short circuiting (Retardation)
Where water is not uniformly distributed at the inlet and/or at the outlet

scouring (of bottom deposits)
This occurs when the tank length is very long compared to its depth (or width). When
designing, make sure the length to depth ration is less than 10 (i.e. l/d < 10)

SEDIMENTATION TANKS
TYPES

Rectangular manually cleaned

Rectangular mechanically cleaned

Circular usually mechanically cleaned

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