Icence By Post © copyrign ‘The ages in Wis book an ET fingers. Not suitable formal. children. Care when handlingAUTHORITY It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training purposes only. When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment manufacturer's handbook. You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording, report writing, documentation etc. For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/ guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety authorities and national governments.CONTENTS Magnetism The solenoid Permeability Magnetic materials Magnetisation Demagnetisation Reluctance The hysteresis cycle Induction Mutual inductance Lenz's law Inductance in a de circuit PAGE oan 10 12 13 14 15 16 19 23HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK Magnetism and inductance are subjects for the B1 and B2 licensed personnel only. They do not apply to the A line mechanic. It is important to have a sound knowledge of these subjects - at least to the level 2. Much of the book need only be read once for the information to “sink in” but it will take more time to remember the equations and some of the more difficult sections. Again, for the Full Student, if you have any problems contact your tutorMAGNETISM The Earth's Magnetic Field - Angle of dip ‘The earth behaves as if it is a magnet. In fact it is an enormous electro-magnet that changes its polarity every 100,000 years or so. It has a considerable effect on magnetic compasses and can be considered as an imaginary magnet as shown in figure 1 ‘The magnetic poles do not align with the geographic poles so that geographic north (on the spin axis of the earth) is different from the magnetic north (on the magnetic axis of the earth). annus uacnerc site wore 6 4 vp NEEDLE SETS RORZONTALY Nort POLE wort ~. rocRar wagner SOUTH POLE EouaTor ao Beans macnenc POLE (SOUT Fig. 1 THE EARTH AS A MAGNET Ifa compass needle is suspended in such a way that it can rotate laterally as well as vertically then it will align itself with the earth’s magnetic field in such @ way that it will “point north” and “dip” towards the actual magnetic pole. This pole is within the earth's crust as shown in the drawing, Incidentally the drawing only shows one half of the field for clarity. If a compass needle is suspended at the equator it will lie in the parallel lines of the earth’s magnetic field. Its north pole will point north (an actual south pole) and it will sit horizontal {ie no dip) When moved towards the poles the compass needle ‘dips’ downwards towards that pole. The angle of dip is the angle between the direction of the earth's magnetic flux and the horizontal. The angle of dip being greatest at the poles and least at the magnetic equator. Dip angle is 0° at the equator and 90° at the poles.MAGNETS As early as 600BC the Greeks knew that a certain form of iron ore known as magnetite, or lodestone, had the property of attracting small pieces of iron. Ifa piece of lodestone was dipped into iron fillings it was noticed that the fillings clung in tufts, usually at two places, few iron fillings were attracted to the centre of the bar. The places where the attractive forces are concentrated are called poles. A lodestone is a natural magnet. A piece of iron stroked with lodestone becomes magnetised itself and forms an artificial magnet. We shall see later how artificial magnets can be made electrically and how other materials are used to form temporary and permanent magnets Properties of a Magnet When a bar magnet is freely suspended it may rotate to and fro for a short period of time but then comes to rest orientated in an approximate North- South direction. Fig. 2 ALIGNMENT OF A BAR MAGNET This is because the earth itself is considered to be a large natural magnet. The freely suspended magnet will have one end pointing to the earth’s north magnetic pole and is called the north-seeking pole or north (N) pole of the magnet, the other end is the south seeking or south (S) pole. If the north pole of a magnet is brought towards the north pole of a suspended magnet the two poles repel each other and the suspended magnet will move away ‘The effect is the same if the two south poles are brought together. However, if the south pole of the suspended magnet is brought close to the north pole of another magnet then attraction occursThe attraction of poles can be summarised in the rule: LIKE POLES REPEL UNLIKE POLES ATTRACT _ ez nae _ o SS a] =p ( Fig. 3 ATTRACTION AND REPULSION ‘The space surrounding a magnet in which a magnetic force is exerted is called a magnetic field. Diagrammatically this may be represented by lines of magnetic flux, drawn to start at the N pole and ending at the S pole, the lines of flux are assumed to pass through the magnet from south to north, so forming a continuous loop. Figure 4 shows the magnetic field and lines of flux for a bar magnet. FLUX UNES Fig. 4 MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND A BAR MAGNET The invisible flux lines may be confirmed by placing a compass near the magnet at many different positions and plotting the direction of the compass needle. If iron fillings or magnetic ink is sprinkling on a piece of paper covering the magnet then the flux line pattern will also be shown. Flux lines have the following properties (a) The direction of a line of magnetic flux is that in which the north pole of a compass needle will point when placed on the line(b) Each line of flux is a closed loop ie, is continuous N to S outside the magnet and S to N inside the magnet. (c)__ Lines of magnetic flux never cross. {4) Lines of flux may be considered in tension, they act like elastic bands, and try to straighten or contract in length (e) Magnetic lines of flux lying side by side and in the same direction tend to repel each other sideways. () Where lines of magnetic flux are close together the flux density is high and where they are further apart the flux density is low. Fig. 5 MAGNETIC FLUX LINES - BOTH MAGNETS ALIGNED SOUTH POLES AT BOTTOM OF DRAWING Figure 5 shows two bar magnets parallel to each other. As the lines of flux are tightly packed between the two magnets (flux density is high) they will repel each other, the magnets will move away from one another until the flux becomes weaker and the repulsion ceases. The force between two magnets is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. If the magnets are arranged as shown in figure 5 their individual fields will joint together and form one field. Some of the flux lines, starting from the N pole of one magnet, will cross to the S pole of the other magnet, pass along its length to the N pole, and then return to the S pole of the first magnet, completing its loop at the N pole where it started. These lines of flux tend to contract in length, resulting in a force of attraction between the magnets.Fig. 6 MAGNETIC FLUX WITH UNLIKE POLES OPPOSITE EACH OTHER Magnetic Field Due to an Electrical Current When a conductor carries a current a magnetic field is produced around that conductor. Assuming we are looking at the conductor end on, then current flowing into the conductor (away from the reader into the page) is represented by across @. Current flowing out of the page towards the reader is indicated by a dot 0. ‘This may be remembered by the “William Tell arrow”, If it is coming towards you (hopefully not), you will see the point of the arrow as a dot. If it is going away from you, you will see the tail flights or feathers of the arrow as a cross. To determine the direction of the magnetic field around a conductor the CORKSCREW RULE is used “A corkscrew (as when opening a bottle of wine) advancing in the direction of the current turns in the direction of the magnetic field (clockwise)” ‘The strength of the magnetic field round a conductor depends on the current, but even at high currents it is comparatively weak. If two conductors carrying current in the same direction are close to each other then the fields combine to give a force of attraction. If the current is in the opposite direction the two fields oppose each other to cause repulsion between the two conductors.CURRENT FLOWING CURRENT FLOWING INTO PAPER OUT OF PAPER Fig. 7 FLUX LINES AROUND A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR ATTRACTION REPULSION Fig. 8 ATTRACTION/REPULSION BETWEEN CONDUCTORS The Solenoid To obtain a stronger magnetic field from a conductor we need to wind the conductor in the form of a coil, where the magnetic effects of each winding in the coil are added. When a dc current is passed through the coil the flux pattern is similar to that of a bar magnet Fig. 9 AN ELECTROMAGNET 6-The polarity of this magnetic field is found by using the RIGHT HAND GRASP RULE. “If the solenoid is grasped in the right hand with the fingers in the direction of the current, then the extended thumb points to the north pole”. Refer to figure 9 We now need to introduce some more magnetic terms, and recap on those already discussed Flux is measured in WEBERS (wb) (pronounced Vayber) and has the symbol ® (phi). It is the total flux emitted from the poles of a magnet. ( The flux density is the flux per unit area | 2) and is measured in TESLA (T) \AJ and has the symbol B. The magneto motive force (mmf) is the force that establishes the flux around a coil due to current flow through the turns of the coil. It is measured in Ampere turns (At) mmf = I (amps) x N (Turns) At Example. If a coil has 20 turns and has a current of SA passing through it, the mmf is: 5 x 20 = 100At ‘The mmf sets up a flux in the coil, but we want to know how strong this magnetic field is. For instance, a 100 turn coil having a length of 0.1m would have a stronger magnetic field than the same 100 turn coil which was 0.5m long. In the second case the same flux is stretched over a longer distance So to get some idea of the strength of the field we need to look at the mmf per metre length of the magnetic circuit, and this is called the MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH (also called MAGNETISING FORCE) it has the symbol H and the unit At/m WA) XN (turns) _ 4 jon 1 (metres) where | is the mean length of the magnetic flux path. The solenoid can have its magnetic field strength increased significantly by putting a core between the coil - typically made of soft iron. This is the principle of the electromagnet, which is used in relays, contactors, motors and generators for example.Permeability ‘This is the ability of a material to accept lines of flux and increase them. So when we passed current through a coil which has an air core then the flux produced is directly proportional to the magnetic field strength. The ratio of B (Flux Density) to H (magnetic field strength) is a constant and is called the PERMEABILITY OF FREE SPACE, given the symbol jis (Greek letter ‘mu) i 2 = 4nx 107 H/m (Henry/metre} If we now place a soft iron bar inside the coil the flux will increase significantly. The ratio of the flux produced with a soft iron core to the flux produced with an air core is called RELATIVE PERMEABILITY and has the symbol p,, So this effectively tells us the flux multiplying power of the material for the same magnetic field strength Air has a ir = 1, the value of p, for other materials is not a constant, it varies depending on the magnetic field strength (H). It is usual to represent the relationship between flux density (B) and magnetic field strength graphically for various materials. seer STEEL m ° MAGNETIC FIEGE STRENGHT (AU) Fig. 10 GRAPH OF FLUX DENSITY AGAINST FIELD STRENGTH &Looking at the graph you can see that at 3000 At/m magnetic field strength is approximately 0.004T while that of sheet steel is 1.67, therefore, relative permeability is: flux density in material ae flux density in air for same magnetic field strength - 26 0.04 oF 400 ie the flux density is increase 400 times. Some materials can have a ur of 100,000. Note for air po = 3 H for magnetic material pope = 2 H hor is known as the ABSOLUTE PERMEABILITY and is given the symbol p. MAGNETIC MATERIALS Materials can broadly be classified as being either magnetic or non-magnetic but, between these two extremes lie a number of groups of magnetic materials. (a) Ferromagnetic The relative permeability of these materials is very high, which include iron, steel, nickel, cobalt as well as a number of alloys. These materials may be further classified as ‘HARD’ or ‘SOFT’. The harder the material, the harder it is to be magnetised, but once magnetised will retain its magnetism so they are suitable for permanent magnets eg, steel. Soft materials retain their magnetism while still under the influence of the magnetising field eg, soft iron placed in a coil, but once the soft iron is removed it returns to an un-magnetised state, so these materials are le for temporary magnets. suil 9(b) Paramagnetic These materials have a relative permeability whose value is slightly greater than unity and become weakly magnetised in the direction of the magnetising field eg, aluminium, chromium, manganese, platinum and glass. (c) Diamagnetic These materials have a relative permeability of less than unity, they become weakly magnetised but in the opposite direction to that of the magnetising field eg, antimony, copper, gold, silver and zinc. MAGNETISATION Domain Theory ‘The basic theory is that the electrons spinning around the atom’s nucleus of a ferromagnetic material also spin on their own axis, each having a small magnetic field. A number of these atoms group together to form domains. In an un-magnetised state these domains have a magnetic axes that is randomly oriented, so magnetised domains tend to cancel each other out. The overall effect is the material shows no polarity. If however the material (eg, steel) is placed inside a current carrying solenoid these magnetic domains coincide with the mmf of the solenoid, therefore increasing the flux density. ‘There is an initial rise of flux as most of the domains ‘ine up’ very quickly, then a very slow increase as the next line up, and a point is reached where any further increase of the magnetic field has lit:le effect on increa.ing flux density This is known as SATURATION (see figure 11). B SATURATION FLUX DENSITY | a H MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH Fig. 11 GRAPH OF MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH AGAINST FLUX DENSITYSo, to magnetise a steel bar we place the bar in a current carrying solenoid. The polarity of the magnet can be found by the right hard grasp rule, as shown in figure 12. Grasp the coil with the right hand with the fingers pointing in the direction if the current - the thumb points to the north pole of the magnet an |) —_——— Fig. 12 SOLENOID MAGNET STEEL BAR Fig. 13 STROKING METHOD OF MAKING MAGNETS A steel bar can be magnetised by stroking the bar with a magnet as shown in figure 13. Note the polarity produced at the end of the bar where the stroking is finished is at the opposite polarity to that of the stroking pole. Ifa magnet is broken into two halves, each half will have two poles as shown in figure 14 hs) m3 es Fig. 14 BREAKING A MAGNETDEMAGNETISATION ‘The best way to achieve this is to use a circuit as shown in figure 15. Place the magnet inside a solenoid which is carrying alternating current. While the current is still flowing the magnet is withdrawn slowly to a distance of several metres in an E-W direction ac supply Step-down transformer - Specimen withdrawn a long distance Solénoic Fig. 15 DEMAGNETISATION So fifty times a second (with a SOHz supply) the material is subjected to reversing magnetic cycles. The magnet is held E-W so that it will not have any residual magnetism due to the earth’s magnetic field. This is sometimes called de-Gaussing (Karl Friedrich - German mathematician 1777-1855). CARE OF MAGNETS Any vibration or rough treatment such as dropping or hammering will cause weakening of the magnetism, also excessive heat can destroy the magnetism. ‘A bar magnet tends to become weaker with age due to self demagnetisation, the magnetic domains at the poles tend to reverse polarity. To prevent this, bar magnets are stored in pairs with their opposite poles adjacent, with small pieces of soft iron called keepers placed across their ends. These keepers become strong induced magnets keeping the magnetic domains in line via the closed loop of the magnets and keepers.Magnet, Soft iron keeper / Pairs of poles neutralise one another Fig. 16 BAR MAGNETS WITH KEEPERS MAGNETIC SHIELDING (SCREENING) It is sometimes necessary to isolate equipment from the effects of magnetic fields. As there are no known insulators from magnetic lines of flux, another technique is required. Typically the piece of equipment might be surrounded with soft iron, Magnetic lines of flux will pass easily through soft iron. Materials which will pass lines of flux easily are said to have LOW RELUCTANCE - example - soft iron. Air has HIGH RELUCTANCE. Magnetic lines of flux will take the path of least reluctance so they will pass through the soft iron rather than through the air. SOFT IRON \ Fig. 17 MAGNETIC SCREENING OF SENSITIVE INSTRUMENTS IN A MAGNETIC FIELD Reluctance The high values of u, in ferromagnetic materials implies that a small air gap in a ferrornagnetic circuit will greatly reduce the flux. This is true, and an air gap is said to have high RELUCTANCE (S). Reluctance in magnetic circuits can be likened to resistance in electrical circuits. It is the opposition of a circuit to the magnetic fluxFERROMAGNETIC ‘Air Gap Uv Fig. 18 EFFECT OF AN AIR GAP ON A MAGNETIC CIRCUIT The Hysteresis Cycle Ifa magnetic material is taken through a complete cycle of magnetisation and demagnetisation and a graph plotted of flux density (B) against magnetic field strength (H) then the graph figure 19 is the result Points on the graph explained. OtoQ __ Initial magnetisation curve from start to saturation. QtoR The magnetisation force is reduced to zero. The length O-R represents the remanence or residual magnetism (RETENTIVITY). RtoS To reduce the flux density to zero the magnetising force is reversed and the length O-S represents the COERCIVE FORCE. StoT Increasing the reversed magnetising force causes the magnetic material to reach saturation in the reverse direction, TtoQ Reversal of magnetising force again makes material saturated in the original direction (Pinetree) Fig. 19 THE HYSTERESIS LOOPHysteresis Loss Energy is required to magnetise and demagnetise a piece of magnetic material and this energy is dissipated in the form of heat. The area bounded by the curve represents the energy loss for each cycle of magnetisation and demagnetisation. Low loss material ‘small coercive force 8 low remanence ie. Temporary magnet such a5 Stalloy" large loss material large coercive force ‘high remanence ie Permanent magnet such as Ticonal" Fig. 20 GRAPH HYSTERESIS LOSS INDUCTANCE When a conductor is in a changing magnetic field an emf is produced in it. This can be shown by moving a magnet into a coil, holding it in the coil and then withdrawing it. Figure 21 shows a voltmeter connected to a coil. As the magnet is moved into the coil the voltmeter will register, but only when there is movement. If it is now held motionless in the coil the voltmeter will show zero. If it is withdrawn, the voltmeter will again register but in the opposite sense. N COIL Fig. 21 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 15The result would be the same if the coil is moved and the magnet is stationary. When magnetic lines of flux cut or are cut by the coil an emf is said to be induced into the coil, this is the basis of a fundamental law of electromagnetic induction known as FARADAY'S LAW which states: “When a conductor cuts or is cut by a magnetic field an emf will be induced into the conductor. The magnitude of the emf is proportional to the rate of change of flux” What will make the induced emf larger? The most important point to remember is that the greater the rate at which the magnetic field changes, that is the faster the magnet is moved, the greater is the induced voltage. If the number of turns on the coil is increased then more flux ‘cutting’ will take place, then again the emf would increase. If the strength of the magnetic field is increased (a stronger magnet) then once again the emf would increase. So the induced voltage depends on: (1) rate of change of flux (2) number of turns (3) magnetic field strength Mutual Induction We have just seen that a change of flux through a coil induces a voltage in the coil. This can be achieved without any physical motion by varying the current through the coil ‘SWITCH (OPEN) mereR V cous. Fig. 22 MUTUAL INDUCTION - 1Consider two coils as shown in figure 22. When the switch is closed the current rises, therefore the magnetic field is changing, this changing field in coil A ‘cuts’ coil B inducing an emf into B. When the current reaches its steady de value, there is no changing flux, so no emf is induced. [AS SWITCH IS CLOSED CURRENT INCREASES, MAGNETIC FLUX CHANGING THROUGH COL B. METER DEFLECTS. INDUCTION occurs. (CURRENT STEADY. FLUX STEADY. NO INDUCTION. Fig. 23 MUTUAL INDUCTION - 2 When the switch is opened, the current starts to fall, there is a changing flux, therefore an emf is induced. When the current falls to zero, there is no magnetic field and no induced emf. [AS SWITCH OPENS CURRENT FALLS. MAGNETIC FLUX CHANGING BACK, ‘THROUGH COIL B. METER DEFLECT: IN OPPOSITE DIRECTION. INDUCTION NO CURRENT, NO MAGNETIC FLUX ‘occurs. NO INDUCTION Fig. 24 MUTUAL INDUCTION - 3 The effect of changing current in one coil and the resultant change of flux inducing an emf into a coil close to the first coil is called MUTUAL INDUCTION and the two coils are said to have mutual inductance (M)‘The unit of inductance is the henry (H) and the mutual inductance of two circuits is one henry when a current changing at the rate of one ampere per second in one circuit produces a mutually induced voltage of one volt in the other circuit. Another way of expressing this is: If two circuits posses mutual inductance (M) of M henrys and there is a rate of change of current with respect to time (3); the emf induced in the other circuit is: di e=M& volts dt Example A circuit posses a mutual inductance of 4H and the current changes at a rate of 50 Amps/sec then the emf induced is: e= Me volts dt e=4x50 = 200 volts How can the magnitude of the voltage induced in the second coil be improved? (increase the mutual inductance) (a) By increasing the number of tums on the first coil, produces a larger flux for the same current (b) Increasing the turns on the second coil, flux cutting more turns so more emf induced. (c) By placing the coils closer together, this ensures nearly all the flux in the first coil, cuts the second coil (4) By placing the coils on top of one another on an iron core, the permeability of the iron will increase the flux produced by the first coil. (e) The rate of change of current in the first coil, if this is increased, increased cutting of the second coil takes place and more emf is induced If the first coil (primary) was connected to ac where there is a continual rate of change of current then a steady voltage would be induced in the second coil (secondary). This is the basis of the transformer which will be discussed later. It should also be noted that the position at the coils with respect to each other the mutual inductance (M) also effect 18-If the second coil is at right angles to the first then very little of the first coils flux is cutting the second coil, the flux being parallel to the coil, therefore emf induced is low and mutual inductance is low. Coupling Coefficient When two coils are placed together, most of the flux produced by one coil passes to the other and the coils are said to be ‘tightly coupled’. If the coils are placed well apart then only a small fraction of the flux of one coil is linked with the other and they are said to be ‘loosely coupled’. When there is linkage the mutual inductance (M) can be found from the formula: M= KyLiL> Where K is the coupling coefficient (a number between 0 and unity) which is the proportion of the flux linkage with the secondary winding. Example ‘Two coils wound in a common magnetic circuit have inductances of 1H and 0.64H. If 50% of the flux is transferred, find the mutual inductance M= KVLilz M= 0.5 Vix0.64 M=0.4H Lenz’s Law “The direction of an induced emf is always such as to oppose the effect producing it”. In other words a sort of resistance. So in the case of a circuit with mutual inductance, the emf induced in the second coil, and assuming we have a complete circuit, will drive a current in the second coil circuit to oppose the increase of flux due to the increase of current in the first coil circuit. ‘This law is a fundamental law of electrical theory, more examples will follow. 19Self Inductance Figure 25 (a) shows steady current flowing through a coil producing a steady flux. If the switch is now opened (b} the current will fall to zero, however in doing so there is a flux change and therefore there must be a self induced voltage across the coil. fallte aera across cal ems) wien clases say RS eas te cavent 1!) BS aaa eal o o ston closed wie BN tux rise ant cutest nite oO Fig. 25 SELF INDUCTANCE Where a voltage is self induced due to change of current in the coil itself, this is known as SELF INDUCTION. By Lenz’s Law this self induced voltage will oppose what produced it, so this voltage will oppose the fall in current and try to keep the current flowing, as the circuit is open circuit no current should flow. However, if the voltage is high enough it may be able to drive a current across the switch producing an are In figure (c), when the switch is closed again, flux is rising, this changing flux cuts the coil inducing an emf, by Lenz's Law this induced emf is in opposition to the battery voltage and therefore opposes the rise of the current in the circuit. This self induced voltage acting in opposition to the applied voltage is often referred to as a BACK EMF Any circuit that has a voltage induced in it by a change of current through the circuit itself has self inductance. The property of self inductance is to oppose any change of current by virtue of the back emf. It is in fact an additional resistance in an ac circuit where coils are concerned.The unit of self inductance (symbol L) is the henry (H). One henry is produced when a self induced voltage of one volt is produced by a current changing at the rate of one ampere per second. The self induced voltage can be increased by: (a) Increasing the number of turns on the coil. (b) Putting the coil on an iron core (increasing permeability) (c) Increasing the rate at which current changes through the coil. Mathematically this can be expressed as: di . inductance times rate of change of current with respect to time. nae rat N = number of turns times the rate of change of flux with respect to time. ‘The negative sign indicating the opposing effect of the self induced emf (back emi) The ability of a coil to produce a back emf when there is a current change is a design factor and depends on the: (a) Number of turns (N) (b) Cross sectional area (a) in m? (co) Length ( in m (4) Permeability of the core material These factors are related in the equation: 2 i henrys Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field ‘The total amount of energy used during the time that the current changes from zero to its maximum value is given by the formula: ‘ALP joulesInductors When a coil is used specifically to provide inductance and thus oppose any change of current in a circuit it is called an ‘inductor’ or ‘choke’, The circuit symbol is shown in figure 26. OTT» OTT M10 AIR CORED IRON CORED Fig. 26 INDUCTOR SYMBOLS When used in an ac circuit, where current is changing all the time so the magnetic field is changing alll the time, there is therefore always an induced voltage in the coil and a permanent opposition to the current. ‘Types of Inductor Iron Cored. These are generally used where a large inductance is required When used on ac circuits the flux is continually changing and by Faradays Law an emf will be induced into the iron giving rise to small circulating currents known as eddy currents. This causes the core to become hot, which gives an energy loss known as eddy current loss. To overcome this problem the iron core is split into very thin slices or “laminations” each of which is separated from the next by an insulating film. ‘The path of the eddy currents is thus broken up and the loss reduced. {EDDY CURRENTS ARE BROKEN UP BY THE LAMINATIONS: Fig. 27 IRON CORED CHOKEThe iron core is generally used in low frequency circuits eg, ‘smoothing chokes in mains power supply units, typical value 10H (large inductance). Air Cored. These are used in high frequency circuits such as radio tuning circuits and have a small inductance. Iron Dust and Ferrite Cored. The iron based cores can be used at high frequencies if the material is made into a powder form which is then coated with an insulator and pressed together. Used in radio frequency turned circuits. Ferrite cores are used at high frequencies. They are made up of ferric oxide combined with other oxides such as nickel oxide. Figure 28 shows the Rod Type and the Pot Type. Space for coil fad former oot" cover Fecne od coil trom dust Fig. 28 FERRITE CORES These types of cores increase the inductance considerably over the air-cored coil and their eddy current losses are also much reduced. Inductors are also used in filters and suppressers which will be discussed later. THE PRACTICAL INDUCTOR IN A DC (LR) CIRCUIT Effect of Inductance (L) and Resistance (R) Most electrical equipment has resistance and inductance. When a voltage is applied to a circuit containing resistance and inductance the current does not rise to maximum immediately because there is a self induced emf (Lenz's Law) which opposes the build up of current Growth of Current in an LR Circuit , v With no inductance the current would rise to maximum (I=) immediately but with inductance the current rises as shown below in figure 29eve Ve Current] max | | | | value t tere | =V/R xX LR | a L 63.2%] exponential Vswitch of max rise of current Fig. 29 GROWTH OF CURRENT IN AN LR CIRCUIT Time Constant ‘The time constant of the circuit is the time taken to reach 63.2% of its maximum value. The time constant can be found by: t= © seconds R The current reaches its maximum value in five times the time constant and the curve is an exponential curve. Decay of Current in an LR Circuit The decay of current shows a similar pattern to the growth of current except that the induced emf tries to keep the current flowing. The value after one time constant is 36.8% of maximum value (ie, it falls by 63.2% of is maximum value). The current reduces to zero after five times the time constant. v Current = ‘urrent rR | ™ + Time [in L/R) aR wm k 3 — Fig. 30 GRAPH OF DECAY OF CURRENT IN AN AIR CIRCUITInductors in Series and Parallel To work out the total induction in a circuit the following formulas are used: Series Li La Ls $9 $0 809 y TOTAL INDUCTANCE Lr = Li + Lo +Ls Parallel L3 TOTAL INDUCTANCE ‘The total inductance would then be worked out in a similar way to resistors in parallel by adding all the L values using a common denominator. Once all the addition has been completed both sides of the equation can then be inverted to give Lr.