ADAPTATIONS IN CATADROMOUS AND ANADROMOUS FISHES

Migratory journeys are widespread throughout the animal

kingdom (Dingle and Drake, 2007). Most migration occurs for the
purpose of food gathering, reproduction or adjustment to temperature,
and sometimes referred to simple as feeding, breeding, and wintering
migrations, respectively (Barton, 2007). Reasons advanced by Binder et
al (2011) include variability in the habitat conditions or the changing need
of the population itself. According to Bond (1996), migration enables fish
to take advantage of additional habitat and to avoid adverse conditions.
The objective of this paper is review of migratory activity in fishes.
Fish are categorized into various life cycle groups, depending on
their movement between and within freshwater and marine habitats for
spawning or growth. This includes the potamodromous life cycle,
involving movement wholly within freshwater (e.g. Rainbowfish) and the
diadromous life cycle, where migration occurs between marine and
freshwater habitats.

The diadromous group includes catadromous – migrating

downstream to spawn at sea, while growing in fresh water (e.g.
Barramundi); and anadromous – migrating upstream to freshwater
spawning grounds, growing mostly in saline waters (e.g. Salmon).
Another group (amphidromous life cycle) includes species migrating

1
between marine and freshwater environments (or vice versa) at some
stage in their life cycle but not for the purpose of reproduction (e.g.
Mullet).
Catadromous life cycles are common in fish communities in
Australia’s coastal fringe river systems, where adult fish of moderate
body size pass downstream to spawn and juveniles travel upstream for
growth (Harris 2001). Weakly swimming early life stage catadromous
fish are less able to negotiate barriers to upstream movement than adult
stage anadromous species, which predominate in the Northern
Hemisphere. Many headwater spawning (potamodromous and
anadromous) species in Australia (e.g. Plotosid Catfish), although
having the advantage of upstream migration as adults rather than as
juveniles, also lack the swimming capabilities of Northern Hemisphere
species (e.g. Salmon). Furthermore, some of these species rely on
intermittent rather than perennial streams for spawning, and are
therefore very susceptible to barriers because suitable flow conditions
exist for only a short period of time.

Fish migration

In many fishes migration takes place on an annual basis, but in

others, individuals are involve in certain changes of habitat only at
certain developmental stages. Other migrations are of diurnal nature,
such as the vertical or tidal migrations of mesopelagic fishes in the deep
layer (Barton, 2007). Lucas and Batley (1996) reported the movement of
inland fish species to substantial distance within waterways for
reproduction and feeding. Radio tagging studies have reported
migrations to natal spawning ground to range between 100km and
300km (Lucas and Baras, 2001). Migratory habits of fishes may vary with
latitude; the three-spine stickleback (Gastrosteus aculeatus) is marine in
the cold waters of the north but to the south, it becomes predominantly
a freshwater dweller (Lagler et al., 1977).

2
Direction of migratory movement

The first is denatant/downstream movement, swimming or

migrating with the current. Behaviour and ecological factors influencing
variability of downstream migration of fish larvae and fry are still poorly
understood (Pavlov et al., 2008). The second is contranatant/upstream
movement, swimming or migrating against the current. Upstream
phased of migration are activities with high-energy demands and are
directed by a variety of cues (Northcote, 1998). Johnson and Hasler
(2006) examined the role of imprinted chemical cues in the homing
migration. Methods of migratory movement include drifting, random
locomotive movements, and oriental swimming. The types of migration
are feeding (alimentary) migration, spawning (gametic) migration,
weathering (climatic) migration and osmoregulatory migration.

Terminology used to describe fish migration

i) Oceanodromous fishes

These are migratory fishes which live and migrate wholly in the
sea such as those performed by tunas, white sharks ( Carcharodon
carcharias), and plaice (Pleuronectes platessa). Migrations of this sort
are
usually pursued by pelagic species of the open ocean. Many large
marine fishes move in schools north and south on an annual basis,
following seasonal temperature profiles (Barton, 2007).

ii) Potadromous fishes

These are migratory fishes whose migration occurs solely in lakes

(for example lake trout, Salvelinus namaycush), rivers and streams (for
example brook lampreys Lampetra spp), or can span both lake and
fluvial habitats (for example white suckers, Catostomus commersoni).

3
iii) Diadromous fishes

Are migratory fishes which migrate between seas and freshwater

to breed for example Pacific salmonids, Onchorynchus spp. According
to Barton (2007) diadromous migrations are remarkable
because fishes move from one medium to another and the distance often
require amazing feats of orientation, navigation, and precise recognition
of home spawning areas. Diadromy is said to occur in about 230 species
of fish (McDowall, 1988). Diadromous fishes are divided into three
namely anadromous fishes which feed and grow in salt waters, fully
grown adults move back into the freshwater to spawn (for example
Pacific salmon). Secondly, catadromous fishes most of their feeding and
growth take place in freshwaters and the fully grown adults move back
into the salt water to spawn (example eels of the genus Anguilla). Thirdly
amphidromous fishes, which carryout brief excursion from freshwater to
seawater during the juvenile stage, but the majority of feeding and
growth and spawning occurs in
freshwaters. This is common with fishes inhabiting islands in the
tropics and subtropics (examples Sicydiine gobies, Sicydium spp). The
result from a study by Chino and Arai (2010) suggest that Anguilla
marmorata has a flexible pattern of migration with an ability to adapt to
various habitats and salinities. Lucas and Baras (2001) reviewed
migratory behavior of arctic, subarctic, temperature and tropical
freshwater fishes for 44 taxonomic groupings. Some 36 species of fish,
probably representing over 350 species, show well documented
migration in inland waters. Over 64 of these species (mainly sharks,
rays, mullets, and goboids) are diadromous, over 84 (mainly lampreys,
sturgeons, anchovies, northern smelt and salmonids) are anadromous,
and over 25 (mainly freshwater eels) are catadromous. Potadromy
occurs in over 169 species and no doubt this form of migration is greatly
underestimated in minnows, characins and catfishes. Twenty-nine of the
36 species of fish (81%) have migrant species in temperate inland
waters.

4
Osmoregulation and fish migration

Many marine fishes, especially from tropical families, frequently

move into and out of freshwater, some at certain life history stages, but
some in a more spontaneous fashion. These fishes must be able to
switch abruptly from water conserving water to filtering out large volumes
through the kidney, and must turn from the excretion of excess salt to
their conservation. There are freshwater species of pipefishes and
toadfishes, which apparently are impermeable and can increase their
urine flow through a mechanism that is not well known (Barton, 2007).

Orientation and migration

A mechanism whereby fishes position themselves in a particular

direction in response to an external stimulus is termed orientation.
Navigation is a mechanism whereby fishes plot a course to a particular
location. Tunas have a well-developed pineal “eye” on top of the skull
that may function in orientation (Barton, 2007). It is well known that
Pacific salmon orient to their natal stream largely by smell. Johnstone et
al., (2001) identified seven differentially expressed olfactory related
genes in juveniles
anadromous salmon compared to returning adults in both
populations of anadromous Atlantic Salmon. Vrieze (2010) reported that
migratory Petromyzon marinus rely heavily on olfactory cues, of which a
larval pheromone is presumably one, to locate river mouths and to a
lesser to promote upstream movement within rivers. According to Barton
(2007) fishes may orient using information derived from changes in the
sun’s azimuth, angle of the sun in the horizontal plane, and /or altitude,
angle of the sun in the vertical plane. Migrant salmon can memorize the
complex odours of a natal stream for their entire seaward migration,
which can last for several years (Hickman et al., 2008). Differences in
water temperature and salinity create vertical layers and each layer has
a distinct origin, presumably with its own unique home stream ‘olfactory
5
bouquet’, which plays a dominant role during the final stages of locating
the natal streams (Binder et al., 2011). The tendency to orient in a
current is called rheotaxis.

Energetics of migration

Long-distance migrations are energetically demanding; and

feeding during this migration is rare. The reason for this is that feeding
imposes several constraints on migration. Migrating fishes use reserved
energy to fuel their upstream migration (Hinch et al., 2006). Standen et
al. (2002) observed that very little is known about the mechanisms
responsible for high levels of energy use. Energy exhaustion is believed
to be a factor causing post-spawning mortality in some stocks (Rand et
al., 2006). Binder et al., (2011) noted that there are no repeat spawners
among American shad (Alosa sapissima) migrating upstream the fish
which deplete as much as 75-82% of their total stored energy reserves.
Energy for migratory activities is stored as proteins, lipids and
carbohydrates. Tudorache et al., (2007) listed protein lipid and glycogen
as energy stores of migrating Stickle backs studied.

Environmental impact of migration

Animals use the length of the day or photoperiod to time their

seasonal development, reproduction, migration and dormancy
(Bradshaw and Holzapfel, 2007). Moreover, the relative importance of
each environmental factor may be dependent on the local characteristic
of the habitat in which migration is occurring. Photoperiod has been
shown to have significant effect on maturation, spawning time and
development in salmonids (Stanewskey, 2003). Pavet (2000)
demonstrated that circadian rhythms are fundamental features of all
living organisms. According to Rand et al., (2006) high water
temperatures or increased river velocity may create particular
challenging conditions with potential impact on migration success.
Temperature can trigger and synchronize migratory activity in fishes.
6
When temperature acts as trigger, migration can be viewed as a form of
behavioral thermoregulation. (Binder et al., 2011)

Anthropogenic impact on migration

Human activities have a long history of interfering with fish

migration. Probably the most obvious way in which our activities disrupt
migration is through the construction of dams and other structures (for
example weirs) that acts as a barrier to migration in streams and rivers
(Lucas and Bara, 2001). Humans have constructed dams for variety of
reasons: water storage, flood prevention, electricity generation,
irrigation, navigation, and recreation (Fracisco, 2004). Barriers disrupt
stream continuity, may reduce the abundance and quality of suitable
stream habitat (Baxter, 1977). Some species may also be exposed to
additional predators (Fracisco, 2004). Another problem caused by dam
is genetic isolation (Neraas and Spruell, 2001). Toxicants and other
chemical contaminants may mask the odours that some fishes use to
identify the home stream (Binder et al., 2011).
Alteration to natural fish migration behaviour at road crossings or other
waterway structures may
affect the fish community in the waterway in many ways, including:
risk of injury and mortality during passage
increased metabolic cost of passage under conditions of severe
physical demand
excessive delays in migration leading to loss of stored energy
necessary for successful
migration, maturation and spawning
delay in access to or isolation of fish from spawning or growth
habitats, with inability to fulfil critical life cycle requirements
concentration of fish downstream of obstruction leading to starvation,
disease, and increased
predation by other fish or animal prey, particularly for juveniles
reduced species diversity and abundance
impact on genetic diversity through isolation
7
FISH SPECIES MOVEMENT BEHAVIOUR

In order to provide for fish passage at road crossings and other

waterway structures where hydraulic barriers prevent upstream fish
movement through the structure, an understanding is required of the
movement behaviour of the various species within the fish community
present at the site. This includes information on the movement
characteristics of these fish both spatially (upstream, downstream) and
temporally (season, flood stage), and the swimming capabilities of the
fish to negotiate the flow conditions at the waterway crossings.
Information on the movement behaviour of the fish community
(movement between habitats, life cycle stage and maturity, movement
capability through the waterways) is most commonly established from
general data in the literature, supplemented in some cases by local data
where available. Classification of fish movement groups assists with
establishing fish movement characteristics for the fish community.
Categorization assists with evaluation of the range of fish species that
8
are likely to be migrating through any particular reach of a waterway, the
life stage and maturity of the fish at the time of movement, the direction
of movement, the time of movement in relation to seasonal flow and flood
stage in the stream, and the fish species size and swimming ability. To
assist with rationalization, correlation within and between groups is
sought for migration timing, migration movements and zones, and fish
species size and swimming ability. The following sections (derived from
Kapitzke 2006a) outline a classification framework for fish movement
group and fish movement direction, and describe fish swimming modes
and swim behavior characteristics for use in fish passage design (see
Chapter 4). Examples of fish movement group classification and fish
movement behavior characteristics for the Tully Murray catchment in
coastal north Queensland are presented. These data are included for
illustration only, and the applicability of this information to other fish
communities in other regions or catchments should be checked before
use elsewhere.

Fish movement group classification

The fish movement group classification presented here provides

a further subdivision of the conventional life cycle and spawning
movement categorization (anadromous, catadromous, potamodromous,
amphidromous) outlined above. For species commonly found in
Queensland, seven movement groupings are defined in terms of
migrations between spawning and growth habitat zones within various
stream zones (upland / headwater; intermediate / transfer; lowland /
floodplain / freshwater wetland; estuary / coastal / tidal wetland
Migration is a coordinated movement that is evolutionarily
advantageous because of the fitness benefits associated with movement
to an alternate habitat (Hen - dry et al. 2004; Binder et al. 2011). Fishes
in particular are well known for extraordinary migrations that can be
classified based on the aquatic biomes through which they move.
Diadromy is a type of migration in which the marine–fresh water
boundary is crossed (Binder et al. 2011), and anadromy is a unique type
9
of diadromy, in which fishes hatched in fresh water subsequently migrate
to marine habitats for feeding and, eventually, undertake a return
migration to fresh water for spawning, overwintering, or both (McDowall
1997, 2007). This life history strategy is exemplified in the salmonid
fishes and is typically more prevalent at higher latitudes (Gross et al.
1988; McDowall 2008). Anadromous mi - gra tions within this group can
be quite remarkable, rang ing from thousands of kilometres (Stephenson
et al. 2005) to just hundreds of metres (Harris et al. in press). Among
salmonids, Lake Trout (Salvelinus namaycush) are generally thought to
be the least tolerant of saltwater conditions (Quinn 2005).
Lake Trout were typically believed to be invariably non-
anadromous (Hendry et al. 2004), but were recently shown to be able to
survive salinities equal to that of full-strength sea water (i.e., 30%, Hiroi
and McCormick 2007). Lake Trout have been observed sporadically,
although rarely, in marine waters (dating back to the 1950s and reviewed
in Martin and Olver 1980), and recent data from otolith microchemistry
and stable isotope analyses confirm that some coastal Canadian Arctic
populations of Lake Trout do make annual migrations to marine
environments (Swanson et al. 2010). Among four study populations,
27% of Lake Trout made annual migrations to the sea, and anadromous
Lake Trout were in better condition and had lower concentrations of
mercury than fresh water resident Lake Trout (Swanson and Kidd 2009;
Swanson et al. 2010). Further study using isotope mixing models found
that marine prey items constituted a large proportion (66%) of the diet of
anadromous Lake Trout (Swanson et al. 2011).
Despite this recent increase in our knowledge of anadromy in the Lake
Trout, much remains unknown
regarding the distribution of its life history across the northern range of
the species and the magnitude of the migrations it undertakes. Where
anadromy has been confirmed in Lake Trout, migration distances have
been relatively short (< 3 km, Swanson et al. 2010), suggesting that Lake
Trout employing this life history tactic are associated with systems in
which the distance to marine waters is short.

10
CONCLUSION

Fishes are widely distributed in both fresh and marine

environment. Most authors believe that fishes like any other animal move
from one habitat to another. A good understanding of the migratory
behavior of fishes is an important means of controlling over exploitation
of fish stock whereby young and brood fish are caught at their spawning
grounds or along their migratory route. Catches in the feeding area may
increase following reduction of harvesting at the spawning area. Dam
construction should be provided with bye-passes and ways, which
enable fish change habitat thereby completing life cycle.

11
Multiple Choice Questions MCQs

1. These fishes migrating upstream to freshwater spawning

grounds, growing mostly in saline waters
(a) catadromous (b) Anadromous
(c) none (d) All
2. These fishes are migrating downstream to spawn at sea,
while growing in fresh water
(a) catadromous (b) Anadromous
(c) none (d) All
3. Adaptive radiation in fishes started about number of million
years ago:
(a) 1200 (b) 500
(c) 1000 (d) 1500
4. Bony armor fishes are:
(a) Placoderms (b) Ostracoderms
(c) Elasmobranchs (d) None
5. The fish remained buried in the mud and sand is:
(a) Ostracoderms (b) Lamprey
(c) Hag Fishes (d) Sharks
6. Sucking mouth and rasping tongue is present in :
a) Ostracoderms (b) Hag fishes
(c) Lampreys (d) Sharks
7. The larva of Lamprey is:
(a) Trochophore (b) Tadpole
(c) Ammocoete (d) Tonaria
8. The number of semicircular canals in Gnathostomes are:
(a) 2 (b) 3
(c) 4 (d) 5
9. The armored fishes are:
(a) Chondrichthyes (b) Osteichtliyes
(c) Placoderms (d) Acanthodians

12
10. The extinct bony fishes are:
(a) Chondrichthyes (b) Osteichthyes
(c) Placoderms (d) Acanthodians
11. Cartilaginous fishes are:
(a) Placoderms (b) Acanthodians
(c) Chindrichythyes (d) Osteichthyes
12. Placoid scales are present in:
(a) Salmons (b) Lamprey
(c) Sharks (d) Hag Fishes
13. Rat fishes are:
(a) Salmons (b) Lamprey
(c) Sharks (d) Chimeras
14. Number of species of Osteichthyes are:
( a) 10, 000 (b) 15, 000
(c) 20, 000 (d) 25,000
15. The lung fish found in tropical Africa is:
(a) Neoceratodus (b) Protopterus
(c) Lepidosiren (d) None
16. The fish live in stagnant water is:
(a) Lepidosiren (b) Protopterus
(c) Neoceratodus (d) None
17. Which fish of the following aestivate?
( a) Neoceratodus (b) Protopterus
(c) Lepidosiren (d) None
18. Which fish is important for caviar?
(a) Lepidosiren (b) Protopterus
(c) Neoceratodus (d) Sturecons
19. The number of species of TELEOST fishes are:
(a) 10.000 (b) 15.000
(c ) 20.000 (d) 25.000
20. Large rostrum is found in:
(a) Paddle fishes (b) Lamprey
(e) Sharks (d) Chimeras
13
21. The number of chambers in the heart of fishes are:
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 4
22. Number of afferent vessels are:
(a)1 (b) 2
(c) 4 (d) 5
23. Which of the followings aortic arches form pulmonary artery
in lung fishes?
(a) IV (b) III
(b) V (d) VI
24. The major osmoregulatory organ in fishes is:
(a) Gills (b) Kidney
(c) Liver (d) Stomach
25. Elasmobranchs remove sodium chloride through:
(a) Gills (b) Kidney
(c) Liver (d) Rectal glands
26. Some elasmobranchs have modified pelvic fin for copulation
called:
(a) Penis (c) Cloaca
(c) Clasper (d) None
27. Which of the following fishes is viviparous?
(a) Salmons (b) Lamprey
(c) Sharks (d) Chimeras

14
 True/ False

1. Cladistic analysis indicates that bony fishes are the most primitive
vertebrates.
2. The fossils of the group of ancient animal conodonts were
discovered. Conodonts were eel-like animals.
3. The mouth of myxini has 7 pairs of tentacles.
4. Members of the genus Lampetra are called book lampreys.
5. Egg are hatched in three weeks and ammocoete larvae are formed
in lamprey.
6. Root of teeth are adapted for tearing prey or for crushing the shells
of molluscs.
7. Neoceratodus lives in fresh waters of Queensland. Australia.
8. Hiberrnation is a dormant state that helps an animal to withstand hot.
dry periods.
9. Most sturgeons live in the sea. They migrate into rivers to breed.
10. Sharks and other elasmobranchs have a spiral valve in their
intestine.
11. Oxygenation takes place and blood is collected by afferent vessels.
12. This opposite flow is called countercurrent mechanism.
13. Rete mirabile is a blood vascular network.
14. Electroreception is the detection of electrical fields that the fish or
another organism generates in the environment.
15. The elasmobranchs possess a rectal gland. It removes excess
sodium chloride from the blood into the cloaca.

15
Ans:

1. F: Hag
2. T
3. F :4
4. F: brook
5. T
6. F:Crowns
7. T
8. F: Aestivation
9. T
10. T
11. F: efferent
12. T
13. T
14. T
15. T

16
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