Kurdistan Regional Government

Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific

Research Salahaddin University – Erbil
College of Engineering
Civil Engineering Department

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
3rd year
Four hours per week

Six units

Dr. Feirushah
feirushah@gmail.com
Introduction & Objective
Structural Analysis is the science of principles and methods of
analysis of structures for strength, stiffness, impact, and vibration
resistance. The main objects of study in structural analysis are 2D
and 3D rod system and a system of plates and shells. The main
impact on them is static and dynamic loads and temperature
changes. Developed in structural analysis theory calculations is
based on the methods of theoretical mechanics, strength of
materials, elasticity, plasticity and creep. The purpose of the
calculation is determination of forces in the elements of the system
and its displacement of individual points, the establishment of
conditions of strength, stiffness, stability and vibration of the
system.
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Students should know:
- The terminology and basic concepts related to the Structural Analysis (strength of
materials & Engineering mechanics) as the baseline of structures mechanics;
- Basic calculation models for structural elements;
- Method of sections to determine the internal force factors in the cross section of the
element of the structures.
- Basic methods of determining stresses and displacements in the calculation of the
tension-compression, torsion and bending;
- The basis of calculation of strength;
- Basic strength and elastic characteristics of materials and their use in calculations for
strength, rigidity and stability;
- Methods of analysis of statically determinate systems;

Students should be able to:

- Use of reference and technical literature to find the necessary information;
- Solve problems in the discipline;
- Choose computational models for real objects;
- Perform calculations on strength and stiffness in tension-compression, torsion, bending,
with a complex deformation of the beam;
- Perform calculations on the stability of a compressed rod and determine the critical
load.
Relationship with previous disciplines:
- "Higher Mathematics" (Matrices, differential calculus, the definite
integral, the solution of differential equations);
-"Physics" (mechanics, Newton's laws, the kinetic and potential
energy, work and
power);
- Theoretical Mechanics (Statics, elements, force systems, method
of section, method of joints, internal forces, work and energy,
conservation of energy);
-"Materials" (mechanical properties and structural strength of
materials, shear force and
bending moment diagrams, deflection, slope, buckling, ).
Problem solutions are given in SI units.
The presentation of lectures passes from elementary to
more complex cases for a variety of structural elements
subjected to practical conditions of loading and support.
Evaluation Methods:
Students are required to first-semester exam on January, second-
semester exam on April, classroom activities, quizzes, home works
and final exam in June. So that the final grade will be based on the
following criteria:
- First-semester exam -----------------------------------------------17
15% 15%
5%
6666000999
- Second-semester exam --------------------------------------------17
15% 5%
15%
9999000
- Quizzes, --------------------------------------------------------------06 %
10%10
10%
- Final Exam ---------------------------------------------------------60 %
8888800000
60%

This year I will be teaching the third year students the Structural Analysis.
We meet 4 hours in week. The book we are using is Structural Analysis 7th
Edition by R.C. Hibbeler (hard copy and CD), 8th and 9th soft copy
editions.

Course Material
•Lectures & Notes
•Text Book: Hibbeler, Singer, and any other textbook of Structural Analysis
•Internet resources.
Lectures Lectures
Lecture-1 Lecture-12
Lecture-2 Lecture-13
Lecture-3 Lecture-14
Lecture-4 Lecture-15
Lecture-5 Lecture-16
Lecture-6 Lecture-17
Lecture-7 Lecture-18
Lecture-8 Lecture-19
Lecture-9 Lecture-20
Lecture-10
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Lecture-21
Lecture-11
For each new topic the student receives the data for individual
work, and within a week must independently solve the problem
and submit in the form of a report. Also, for each lecture, there
are homework problems from different references, especially,
Hibbeler R.C.
Execution of individual work, homework, assessment tests
and student participation in class are his evaluation efforts.
You can reach me at any time via e-mail at

feirushah@gmail.com.
 Introduction
Type of Structures Structural Analysis is the science of the methods of
- Introduction (Historical Review) calculation of structures for strength, rigidity and
- Structural Elements
- Type of Structures stability. In the initial period of its development,
- Description of: it was not an independent science, and merged
• Trusses
• Cables with the general mechanics. Independently, as
• Arches science Structural Analysis began to develop
• Frames
• Surface Structures successfully only in the first half of the XIX
lecture1 century. lecture1

Structural analysis is the determination of the Introduction to Structural Analysis

effects of loads on physical structures and their
components.
Load
Structural analysis is the prediction of the
performance of a given structure under
prescribed loads and/or other external effects, Structure

such as support movements and temperature

changes. Response

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• Among the notable investigators of that period were Robert Hooke
(1635–1703), who developed the law of linear relationships
between the force and deformation of materials (Hooke’s law);
• Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727), who formulated the laws of motion
and developed calculus;
• John Bernoulli (1667– 1748), who formulated the principle of
virtual work;
• Leonhard Euler (1707–1783), who developed the theory of
buckling of columns;
• C. A. de Coulomb (1736–1806), who presented the analysis of
bending of elastic beams.
• L. M. Navier (1785–1836) published a treatise on elastic behavior
of structures, which is considered to be the first textbook on the
modern theory of strength of materials.
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Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) is generally considered to
be the originator of the theory of structures.
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•B. P. Clapeyron (1799–1864), who formulated the three-moment
equation for the analysis of continuous beams;
• J. C. Maxwell (1831–1879), who presented the method of consistent
deformations and the law of reciprocal deflections;
•Otto Mohr (1835–1918), who developed the conjugate-beam
method for calculation of deflections and Mohr’s circles
•of stress and strain;
•Alberto Castigliano (1847–1884), who formulated
•the theorem of least work;
• C. E. Greene (1842–1903), who developed the moment-area
method;
•H. Muller-Breslau (1851–1925), who presented a principle for
constructing influence lines;
•G. A. Maney (1888–1947), who developed the slope-deflection
method;
•Hardy Cross (1885–1959), who developed the moment-distribution
method in 1924.
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 The availability of computers in the 1950s revolutionized
structural analysis. Because the computer could solve large
systems of simultaneous equations, analyses that took days and Basic Types of Deformation
sometimes weeks in the precomputer era could now be
performed in seconds. The development of the current computer-
oriented methods of structural analysis can be
attributed to, among others, J. H. Argyris, R. W. Clough, S. Kelsey,

Structural engineering is the science and art of planning, designing,

and constructing safe and economical structures that will serve
their intended purposes.
Structural analysis is an integral part of any structural engineering
project, its function being the prediction of the performance of the
proposed structure.

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Structure
A structure refers to a system of connected parts used to
support a load. Important examples related to civil
engineering include buildings, bridges, and towers; and
in other branches of engineering, ship and aircraft
frames, tanks, pressure vessels, mechanical systems,
and electrical supporting structures are important.

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 Issues
Structures • How are they designed?
• How are they built?
• Classification of structures
• Beam structures • How safe are they under earthquake, typhoon, or terrorist attack?
• Arch structures
• Truss structures
• Domes and shells
• Columns and frames
• Structural elements
• Tie rods
• Beams
• Columns

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A typical structural engineering project

Three steps in civil engineering
Government
Planning
(1) Analysis Consultant
Preliminary structural design
(2) Design Contractor
(3) Implementation Load estimation

various phases within each step Structural analysis

No Revised
Safety/serviceability structural
design

Yes

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Constructionlecture1
 Trusses. When the span of a structure is required to be large and its
depth is not an important criterion for design, a truss may be
Structural Analysis selected. Trusses consist of slender elements, usually arranged in
triangular fashion. Planar trusses are composed of members that lie
Planning
Factors: in the same plane and are frequently used for bridge and roof
Preliminary structural design Load, Temperature, etc. support, whereas space trusses have members extending in three
Load estimation dimensions and are suitable for derricks and towers.

Structural analysis
Due to the geometric arrangement of its members, loads that cause
Structure the entire truss to bend are converted into tensile or compressive
Safety/serviceability forces in the members. Because of this, one of the primary
advantages of a truss, compared to a beam, is that it uses less
Yes
Performance material to support a given load. Also, a truss is constructed from
Construction
Deformation, Stress, etc.
long and slender elements, which can be arranged in various ways to
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support a load. lecture1

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• Cables. Cables are usually flexible and carry their loads in tension.
Unlike tension ties, however, the external load is not applied along the • Arches. The arch achieves its strength in compression, since it
axis of the cable, and consequently the cable takes a form that has a
defined sag. Cables are commonly used to support bridges and has a reverse curvature to that of the cable. The arch must be
building roofs. When used for these purposes, the cable has an
rigid, however, in order to maintain its shape, and this results in
advantage over the beam and the truss, especially for spans that are
greater than 46 m. Because they are always in tension, cables will not secondary loadings involving shear and moment, which must
become unstable and suddenly collapse, as may happen with beams or
trusses. Furthermore, the truss will require added costs for be considered in its design. Arches are frequently used in
construction and increased depth as the span increases. Use of cables,
bridge structures, dome roofs, and for openings in masonry
on the other hand, is limited only by their sag, weight, and methods of
anchorage. walls.

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Structure may be classified into rigid and deformable structures

depending on change in geometry of the structure while supporting
the load. Rigid structures support externally applied loads without
appreciable change in their shape (geometry). Beams, trusses and
frames are examples of rigid structures.
Unlike rigid structures, deformable structures undergo changes in their
shape according to externally applied loads. However, it should be
noted that deformations are still small. Cables and fabric structures are
deformable structures. Cables are mainly used to support suspension
roofs, bridges and cable car system. They are also used in electrical
transmission lines and for structures supporting radio antennas. In the
following sections, cables subjected to concentrated load and cables
subjected to uniform loads are considered.
lecture1 lecture1
 • Mainly three types of arches are used in practice: three-hinged, two-
hinged and hingeless arches.

Cable subjected to uniform load.

Cable subjected to Concentrated Loads

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Hokkaido Bridge

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Frames. Frames are often used in buildings and are composed of
beams and columns that are either pin or fixed connected. Like
trusses, frames extend in two or three dimensions. The loading
on a frame causes bending of its members, and if it has rigid joint
connections, this structure is generally "indeterminate" from a
standpoint of analysis. The strength of such a frame is derived
from the moment interactions between the beams and the
columns at the rigid joints. As a result, the economic benefits of
using a frame depend on the efficiency gained in using smaller
beam sizes versus increasing the size of the columns due to the
"beam-column" action caused by bending at the joints.
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• Surface Structures. A surface structure is made from a material

having a very small thickness compared to its other dimensions.
Sometimes this material is very flexible and can take the form of
a tent or air-inflated structure. In both cases the material acts as
a membrane that is subjected to pure tension.
Surface structures may also be made of rigid material such as
reinforced concrete. As such they may be shaped as folded
plates, cylinders, or hyperbolic paraboloids, and are referred to as
thin plates or shells. These structures act like cables or arches
since they support loads primarily in tension or compression,
with very little bending. In spite of this, plate or shell structures
are generally very difficult to analyze, due to the three-
dimensional geometry of their surface.
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lecture1 lecture1

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 What Have You Learnt?
Loads
- Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and other Structures
• structure (ASCE)
• Structures types - Standards and Codes
- Type of Loads and load calculation:
• Dead Load
• Live Load
• Highway Bridge Load
• Railroad Bridge Load
• Impact Load
• Wind Load
• Snow Load
• Earthquake Load
• Hydrostatic and Soil Pressure
• Other Natural Loads
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Loads
The design loading for a structure is often specified in
Structural members may be subjected to complex
loading systems apparently comprised of several
different types of load. However, no matter how
complex such systems appear to be, they consist of
a maximum of four basic load types: axial loads,
shear loads, bending moments and torsion.
codes. In general, the structural engineer works with
two types of codes: general building codes and design
codes. General building codes specify the requirements
of governmental bodies for minimum design loads on
structures and minimum standards for construction.
Design codes provide detailed technical standards and
are used to establish the requirements for the actual
structural design.

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 Loads
• Types of load
• Dead loads
• Weights of various structural members
• Weights of any objects that are
attached to the structure

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 Loads
• Live loads (Imposed loads) Load test of floor slab under design Live Load
• Varies in magnitude & location
• Building loads
0.5kN/m2
• Depends on the purpose for which the building is designed
• These loadings are generally tabulated in local, state or
national code

lecture 2 lecture 2

Load test of floor slab under design Live Load

Load test of floor slab under design Live Load
Deflection and Crack Monitoring
3kN/m2

lecture 2 lecture 2
 Swimming Pool load test • Building Loads. The floors of buildings are assumed to be subjected to
uniform live loads, which depend on the purpose for which the
building is designed. These loadings are generally tabulated in local,
state, or national codes. A representative sample of such minimum live
loadings, taken from the ASCE 7 Standard, is shown in next Table. The
values are determined from a history of loading various buildings. They
include some protection against the possibility of overload due to
emergency situations, construction loads, and serviceability
requirements due to vibration. In addition to uniform loads, some
codes specify minimum concentrated live loads, caused by hand carts,
automobiles, etc., which must also be applied anywhere to the floor
system. For example, both uniform and concentrated live loads must
be considered in the design of an automobile parking deck.
lecture 2 lecture 2

• For some types of buildings having very large floor areas, many codes Loads
will allow a reduction in the uniform live load for a floor, since it is • Highway Bridge loads
unlikely that the prescribed live load will occur simultaneously • Primary live loads are those due to traffic
throughout the entire structure at any one time. For example, ASCE 7- • Specifications for truck loadings are reported in AASHTO
• For 2-axle truck, these loads are designated with H followed by
05 allows a reduction of live load on a member having an influence
the weight of truck in tons and another no. gives the year of the
area (KLL AT) of 37.2 m2 or more. This reduced live load is calculated specifications that the load was reported
using the following equation: 4.57
L = Lo 0.25 +
K LL AT
L-reduced design live load per square meter of area supported by the
member.
Lo-unreduced design live load per square meter of area supported by
the member.
2-axle truck
KLL- Live load element factor. For interior column KLL=4.
AT- Tributary area in square meter. with semi-trailer
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 Loads

• Railroad Bridge Loads. The loadings on railroad bridges are specified in

the Specifications for Steel Railway Bridges published by the American
Railroad Engineers Association (AREA).

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Impact Loads. Moving vehicles may bounce or sidesway as they

Loads
move over a bridge, and therefore they impart an impact to the
• Wind loads
deck. The percentage increase of the live loads due to impact is • Kinetic energy wind  potential energy of pressure
called the impact factor, I. This factor is generally obtained from • Depends on density & flow of air, angle of incidence,
formulas developed from experimental evidence. For example, shape/stiffness of structure & roughness of surface
• Can be treated as static or dynamic
for highway bridges the AASHTO specifications require that

15 .24
I = but not larger than 0.3
L + 38 . 1

L - the length of the span in meters that is subjected to the live load.
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Wind Loads. When structures block the flow of wind, the wind's kinetic
energy is converted into potential energy of pressure, which causes a
wind loading. The effect of wind on a structure depends upon the
density and velocity of the air, the angle of incidence of the wind, the
shape and stiffness of the structure, and the roughness of its surface.
For design purposes, wind loadings can be treated using either a static
or a dynamic approach.
The pressure of wind q is defined by its kinetic energy
1 2
q = ρV
2 • Kz - the velocity pressure exposure coefficient, which is a function of
According to the ASCE 7-05 Standard, this equation is modified to
account for the importance of the structure, its height, and the terrain
in which it is located. It is represented as
qz = 0.613K z K zt K d V 2 I
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(N/m2)
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• ρ - the density of the air.
• V - the velocity in m/s of a 3-second gust of wind measured 10 m above
the ground during a 50-year recurrence period. Values are obtained
from a wind map.
• I - the importance factor that depends upon the nature of the building
occupancy; for example, for buildings with a low hazard to human life,
such as agriculture facilities in a non-hurricane prone region, I=0.87, but
for hospitals, I=1.15.
height and depends upon the ground terrain.
• Kzt - a factor that accounts for wind speed increases due to hills and
escarpments. For flat ground Kzt = 1.
• Kd - a factor that accounts for the direction of the wind. It is used only
when the structure is subjected to combinations of loads. For wind
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acting alone, Kd = 1.
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Design Wind Pressure for Enclosed Buildings. Once the value for qz is
obtained, the design pressure can be determined from a list of
relevant equations listed in the ASCE 7-05 Standard. The choice
depends upon the flexibility and height of the structure, and
whether the design is for the main wind-force resisting system, or
for the building's components and cladding. For example, for a
conservative design wind-pressure on nonflexible buildings of any
height is determined using a two-termed equation resulting from
both external and internal pressures, namely,
p = qGC p - q h (GC pi )
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q = qz for the windward wall at height z above the ground, and q = qh for
the leeward walls, side walls, and roof, where z = h, the mean
height of the roof.
G - a wind-gust effect factor, which depends upon the exposure. For
example, for a rigid structure, G = 0.85.
Cp - a wall or roof pressure coefficient determined from a table. These
tabular values for the walls and a roof pitch of θ= 10° are given
in next Fig. Note in the elevation view that the pressure will vary
with height on the windward side of the building, whereas on
the remaining sides and on the roof the pressure is assumed to
be constant. Negative values indicate pressures acting away from
the surface.
(GCpi) - the internal pressure coefficient which depends upon the type
of openings in the building. For fully enclosed buildings
(GCpi)=±0.18. Here the signs indicate that either positive or
negative (suction) pressure can occur within the building.
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 Design Wind Pressure for Signs. If the structure represents a sign, the
wind will produce a resultant force acting on the face of the sign which is
determined from

F = q z GC f A f
qz - the velocity pressure evaluated at the height z of the centroid of Af.
G - the wind-gust coefficient factor defined previously.
Cf - a force coefficient which depends upon the ratio of the large
dimension M of the sign to the small dimension N Values are
listed in the next Table.
Af - the area of the face of the sign projected into the wind.

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Snow Loads. In some parts of the country, roof loading due to snow can
be quite severe, and therefore protection against possible failure is of
ICICLES
primary concern. Design loadings typically depend on the building's
general shape and roof geometry, wind exposure, location, its
importance, and whether or not it is heated. Like wind, snow loads in
the ASCE 7-05 Standard are generally determined from a zone map
reporting 50-year recurrence intervals of an extreme snow depth. For
example, on the relatively flat elevation throughout the mid-section of
Illinois and Indiana, the ground snow loading is 0.96 kN/m2..

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If a roof is flat, defined as having a slope of less than 5%, then the
pressure loading on the roof can be obtained by modifying the ground
snow loading, pg, by the following empirical formula

pf = 0 . 7 C e C t Ip g
If pg ≤ 0.96 kN/m2, then use the largest value for
Ce - an exposure factor which depends upon the terrain. For example, -
for a fully exposed roof in an unobstructed area, Ce = 0.8, pf , either computed from the above equation or
whereas if the roof is sheltered and located in the center of a
large city, then Ce = 1.3. from pf = Ipg. If pg > 0.96 kN/m2 then use
Ct = a thermal factor which refers to the average temperature within the
building. For unheated structures kept below freezing Ct = 1.2, pf=I(0.96 kN/m2).
whereas if the roof is supporting a normally heated structure,
then Ct = 1.0.
I = the importance factor as it relates to occupancy. For example, I = 0.8
for agriculture and storage facilities, and I = 1.2 for hospitals.
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 Loads For small structures, a static analysis for earthquake design may be
satisfactory. This case approximates the dynamic loads by a set of
• Earthquake loads externally applied static forces that are applied laterally to the
• Earthquake produce loadings through its interaction with the structure. One such method for doing this is reported in the ASCE
ground & its response characteristics 7-05 Standard. It is based upon finding a seismic response
• Their magnitude depends on amount & type of ground coefficient, Cs, determined from the soil properties, the ground
acceleration, mass & stiffness of structure
• During earthquake, the ground accelerations, and the vibrational response of the structure. This
vibrates both horizontally & vertically coefficient is then multiplied by the structure's total dead load W
to obtain the "base shear" in the structure, The value of Cs is
actually determined from

S DS
Cs =
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R/I lecture 2

SDS - the spectral response acceleration for short periods of vibration.

R = a response modification factor that depends upon the ductility of the
structure. Steel frame members which are highly ductile can have a
value as high as 8, whereas reinforced concrete, having low ductility, can
have a value as low as 3.
I - the importance factor that depends upon the use of the building. For
example, I = 1 for agriculture and storage facilities, and I = 1.5 for
hospitals and shelters.

With each new publication of the Standard, values of these

coefficients are updated as more accurate data about
earthquake response become available.
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 Structural Design

Hydrostatic & Soil Pressure • Material uncertainties occur due to

• The pressure developed by these loadings when the • variability in material properties
structures are used to retain water or soil or granular • residual stress in materials
materials • intended measurements being different from fabricated
• E.g. tanks, dams, ships, bulkheads & retaining walls sizes
Other natural loads • material corrosion or decay
• Effect of blast • Many types of loads can occur simultaneously on a
• Temperature changes structure
• Differential settlement of foundation

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• In working-stress design, the computed elastic stress in the
material must not exceed the allowable stress along with
the following typical load combinations as specified by the
ASCE 7 Standard
• Dead load
• 0.6 (dead load) + wind load
• 0.6 (dead load) + 0.7(earthquake load)
Structural Design
• Ultimate strength design is based on designing the ultimate
strength of critical sections
• This method uses load factors to the loads or combination of
loads
• 1.4 (Dead load)
• 1.2 (dead load) + 1.6 (live load) + 0.5 (snow load)
• 1.2 (dead load) + 1.5(earthquake load)+ 0.5 (live load)

In all these cases, the combination of loads is thought to

provide a maximum, yet realistic loading on the structure.

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 What Have You Learnt?

• Load
• Loads types
• codes

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Analysis of Statically Determinate Structures

Analysis of Statically Determinate Structures
- Idealized Structure In this chapter we will direct our attention to the most common
- Analytical Models form of structure that the engineer will have to analyze, and that
• Line Diagram
is one that lies in a plane and is subjected to a force system that
• Connections
• Supports lies in the same plane. We begin by discussing the importance of
- Tributary Loadings choosing an appropriate analytical model for a structure so that
• One way Slab
the forces in the structure may be determined with reasonable
• Two Way Slab
- Determinacy accuracy. Then the criteria necessary for structural stability are
- Stability discussed. Finally, the analysis of statically determinate, planar,
pin-connected structures is presented.

Lecture 3 Lecture 3
 Forces-support Idealized Structure
reactions
In the real sense an exact analysis of a structure can never

Internal
External be carried out, since estimates always have to be made of
(support reactions)
the loadings and the strength of the materials composing
At Sections the structure. Furthermore, points of application for the
Between Bodies
(N, V, M, T) loadings must also be estimated. It is important, therefore,
that the structural engineer develop the ability to model
Methods or idealize a structure so that he or she can perform a
practical force analysis of the members. In this section we

Energetically will develop the basic techniques necessary to do this.

Statically Kinematically
Lecture 3 Lecture 3

Idealized Structure ANALYTICAL MODELS

• To model or idealize a structure so that structural analysis can be
performed
If all the members of a structure as well as the
applied loads lie in a single plane, the
structure is called a plane structure.
The analysis of plane, or two-dimensional,
structures is considerably simpler than the
analysis of space, or three-dimensional,
structures. Fortunately, many actual three-
dimensional structures can be subdivided
into plane structures for analysis.
Lecture 3 Lecture 3
 Lecture 3 Lecture 3

Line Diagram Connections

The analytical model of the two- or three-dimensional body selected
for analysis is represented by a line diagram. On this diagram, each Two types of connections are commonly
member of the structure is represented by a line coinciding with its
used to join members of structures:
centroidal axis. The dimensions of the members and the size of the 1- rigid connections
connections are not shown on the diagram. Note that two lines 2- flexible, or hinged, connections.
are sometimes used to represent members on the line diagrams. 3- semirigid connection, although
This is done, when necessary, for clarity of presentation; in such recognized by structural steel design
cases, the distance between the lines does not represent the codes.
member depth.

Lecture 3 Lecture 3
 Connection of
Two Rigid Bodies
1 Hinge

Rigid Connection of
Three Rigid Bodies
No Hinge
Connection of
Four Rigid Bodies
Lecture 3
3 Hinges Lecture 3

Lecture 3 Lecture 3
 Support Connections M
 Pin connection (allows slight rotation) q
 Roller support (allows slight rotation/translation)
 Fixed joint (allows no rotation/translation)

M
q2
q1

Lecture 3 Lecture 3

Supports

Supports for plane structures are commonly

idealized as either fixed supports, which do not
allow any movement; hinged supports, which can
prevent translation but permit rotation; or roller, or
link, supports, which can prevent translation in
only one direction.

Lecture 3 Lecture 3
Lecture 3 Lecture 3

Lecture 3 Lecture 3
 Idealized Structure
No thickness for the components
The support at A can be modeled as a fixed support

Lecture 3 Lecture 3

Idealized Structure Tributary Loadings

• Idealized Structure
• Consider the framing used to support
a typical
floor slab in a building
• The slab is supported by floor joists •Tributary Loadings
located at even intervals • There are 2 ways in which the load on surfaces
• These are in turn supported by 2 side can transmit to various structural elements
girders AB & CD • 1-way system
• 2-way system
• Idealized Structure
• For analysis, it is reasonable to
assume that the joints are pin
and/or roller connected to girders
& the girders are pin and/or roller
connected to columns
Lecture 3 Lecture 3
One-Way System. A slab or deck that is supported such that it
delivers its load to the supporting members by one-way
action, is often referred to as a one-way slab.

Lecture 3 Lecture 3

Two-Way System. If, according to the ASCE 7-05 Standard the support
ratio in next Fig. is (L2/L1) < 2, the load is assumed to be delivered to
the supporting beams and girders in two directions. When this is the
case the slab is referred to as a two-way slab.

Lecture 3 Lecture 3
 Lecture 3 Lecture 3

Principle of Superposition
The total displacement or internal loadings (stress) at a point in a Principle of Superposition
structure subjected to several external loadings can be determined by
adding together the displacements or internal loadings (stress) caused
by each of the external loads acting separately. For this statement to
be valid it is necessary that a linear relationship exist among the loads,
stresses, and displacements.
Two requirements must be imposed for the principle of superposition to y (x)
apply:  y1( x )  y2 ( x )

=
1. The material must behave in a linear-elastic manner, so that
Hooke's law is valid, and therefore the load will be proportional to
displacement. y1( x )
2. The geometry of the structure must not undergo significant change
when the loads are applied, i.e., small displacement theory applies.
Large displacements will significantly change the position and
orientation of the loads. An example would be a cantilevered thin
rod subjected to a force at its end. y2 ( x )
Lecture 3 Lecture 3
Equations of Equilibrium Determinacy and Stability
Determinacy. The equilibrium equations provide both the
For 3D problem
necessary and sufficient conditions for equilibrium. When
ΣFx = 0 ΣM x = 0 all the forces in a structure can be determined strictly
ΣFy = 0 ΣM y = 0 from these equations, the structure is referred to as
ΣM 0 statically determinate. Structures having more unknown
ΣFz = 0 z =
forces than available equilibrium equations are called
For 2D problem statically indeterminate.
ΣFx = 0
r = 3n, statically determinate
ΣFy = 0
r > 3n, statically indeterminate
ΣM o = 0
n- parts, r- force and moment reactions
Lecture 3 Lecture 3

Equilibrium and Determinacy

• For a 2D structure

No. of components (parts)

r  3n, statically determinate

r  3n, statically indeterminate
r  3n : degree of indeterminacy
No. of unknown forces

• The additional EQs needed to solve for the unknown forces are
referred to as compatibility EQs

Lecture 3 Lecture 3
 Statically Determinacy
Stability
Type Degree example
(a) Beam or rigid 3n + r= 3j
frame with no
internal hinges
•To ensure equilibrium (stability) of a structure or its
(b) Beam or rigid 3n+r= 3j+ h+2s members:
frame with internal
hinges or rollers • Must satisfy equilibrium EQs
(c) Rigid frame 3n+r= 3j+c • Members must be properly held or constrained by their
with internal
hinges at a node supports
• There is a unique set of values for reaction forces and
internal forces
n-number of members
r- number of external restraints
j-number of nodes in the rigid frame before the introduction of hinges
h-number of internal hinges
s-number of rollers introduced
c- number of releases introduced
Lecture 3 Lecture 3

Partial constraints Improper Constraints.

• Fewer reactive forces than equilibrium EQs • In some cases, unknown forces may equal equilibrium EQs
• Some equilibrium EQs can not be satisfied • However, instability or movement of structure could still occur if
support reactions are concurrent at a point
• Structure or Member is unstable

thus rotation about point O

ΣM o ≠ 0 will take place.
ΣFX= 0 not satisfied the member will be unstable
Lecture 3 Lecture 3
 Determinacy and Stability Another way in which improper constraining leads to
instability occurs when the reactive forces are all parallel.
• Improper constraints

Parallel

ΣFx ≠ 0
motion along axis X

Concurrent
Lecture 3 Lecture 3

If the structure is unstable, it does not matter if it is

statically determinate or indeterminate. In all cases
such types of structures must be avoided in practice.

Lecture 3 Lecture 3

PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS
Free-Body Diagrams
• Disassemble the structure and draw a free-body diagram of each
member. Also, it may be convenient to supplement a member free-
body diagram with a free-body diagram of the entire structure. Some
or all of the support reactions can then be determined using this
diagram.
• Recall that reactive forces common to two members act with equal
magnitudes but opposite directions on the respective free-body
diagrams of the members.
• All two-force members should be identified. These members,
regardless of their shape, have no external loads on them, and
therefore their free-body diagrams are represented with equal but
opposite collinear forces acting on their ends.
• In many cases it is possible to tell by inspection the proper arrowhead
sense of direction of an unknown force or couple moment; however, if
this seems difficult, the directional sense can be assumed.
Lecture 3
Lecture 3
Equations of Equilibrium
• Count the total number of unknowns to make sure that an equivalent
number of equilibrium equations can be written for solution. Except
for two-force members, recall that in general three equilibrium
equations can be written for each member.
• Many times, the solution for the unknowns will be straightforward if
the moment equation ΣM0 = 0 is applied about a point (O) that lies at
the intersection of the lines of action of as many unknown forces as
possible.
• When applying the force equations Σ FX = 0 and Σ Fy = 0, orient the x
and y axes along lines that will provide the simplest reduction of the
forces into their x and y components.
• If the solution of the equilibrium equations yields a negative
magnitude for an unknown force or couple moment, it indicates that
its arrowhead sense of direction is opposite to that which was assumed
on the free-body diagram.
Lecture 3
Lecture 3
 Lecture 3 Lecture 3

What Have You Learnt?

Analysis of Statically Determinate Trusses
• Idealization & Modeling - Common Types of Trusses
• Type of supports and connections • Roof Trusses.
• Tributary Loadings • Bridge Trusses
• Determinacy and Stability of beam and frame - Clas140sification of Coplanar Trusses and Methods of
Analysis:
• Simple Truss
• Compound Truss
• Complex Truss
- Determinacy
- Stability
- Space Trusses
Lecture 3 Lecture 4
 Common Types of Trusses
• Truss: composed of slender members joined together at
their end points
• Connections: bolt or weld the ends of the members to a
common plate called gusset
• Planar trusses is often used to support roof or bridges

Lecture 4 Lecture 4

Lecture 4 Lecture 4
Roof Trusses
• Used as part of an industrial building frame
• Roof load is transmitted to
the truss at the joints by
means of a series of purlins
• To keep the frame rigid, knee braces are sometimes used
at the supporting column

Lecture 4 Lecture 4

Roof Trusses

Lecture 4 Lecture 4
Lecture 4 Lecture 4

•Bridge Trusses
• Load on the deck is transmitted to the stringers floor
beams joints of supporting side truss
• Top & bottom cords of these side trusses are connected
by top & bottom lateral bracing resisting lateral forces
• For a long span truss, a roller is used at one end for
thermal expansion

Lecture 4 Lecture 4
Lecture 4 Lecture 4

Lecture 4 Lecture 4
 Lecture 4 Lecture 4

Assumptions for Design. Classification of Coplanar Trusses

1. The members are joined together by smooth pins.
• Three types: Simple , Compound or Complex Truss
2. All loadings are applied at the joints. • Simple Truss
Each truss member acts as an axial force member • The simplest framework that is rigid or stable is a triangle

Lecture 4 Lecture 4
• Compound Truss: connecting 2 or more simple trusses
• Type 1: Connected by a common joint & bar Type 1. The trusses may be connected by a common
• Type 2: Joined by 3 bars
• Type 3: Main + secondary
joint and bar. An example is given in Fig., where the
shaded truss ABC is connected to the shaded truss
CDE in this manner.

Lecture 4 Lecture 4

Type 2. The trusses may be joined by three bars, as in Type 3. The trusses may be joined where bars of a large
the case of the shaded truss ABC connected to the simple truss, called the main truss, have been substituted
larger truss DEF. by simple trusses, called secondary trusses.

Lecture 4 Lecture 4
 Complex Truss. A complex truss is one that cannot be classified as being
either simple or compound. Trusses: Determinacy & Stability
• Determinacy
• Comparing no. of unknowns and no. of equilibrium eqns
• No. of unknowns = no. of members (member forces) b+
no. of external support reactions r
• Each joint provides 2 equilibrium eqns

For j joints, there are 2j eqns

 Fx  0 and  Fy  0
b  r  2 j statically determinate 
 stable/unstable
b  r  2 j statically indeterminate
Lecture 4
b  r  2 j unstable Lecture 4

Trusses: Determinacy & Stability External Stability

• Stability A truss is externally unstable if all of its reactions are

• A truss can still be unstable even if it is statically determinate or
statically indeterminate concurrent or parallel.
• Stability has to be determined through inspection or by force
analysis

b  r  2 j statically determinate 
 stable/unstable
b  r  2 j statically indeterminate 
b  r  2 j unstable
All stable structures should have ONE unique solution!
All forces can be determined uniquely!

Lecture 4 Lecture 4
Improper Supports: Equilibrium is violated under two conditions:
- The applied loads are not balanced (in the case of a floating truss in
space), or
- The truss is improperly restrained at its support locations.
•Internal Stability
• The internal stability can be checked by careful inspection of the
arrangement of its members
• A simple truss will always be internally stable
• If a truss is constructed so that it does not hold its joints in a fixed
position, it will be unstable

L L L

P
2P/3 P/3
Lecture 4 Lecture 4

•Internal Stability •Internal Stability

• To determine the internal stability of a compound truss, it is
necessary to identify the way in which the simple truss are
connected together
• The truss shown is unstable since the inner simple truss ABC is
connected to DEF using 3 bars which are concurrent at point O
• For complex truss, it may not be possible to determine its stablity
• The instability of any form of truss may also be noticed by using a
computer to solve the 2j simultaneous eqns for the joints of the
truss
• If inconsistent results are obtained, the truss is unstable

Lecture 4 Lecture 4
 Examples

Classify each of the trusses as stable, unstable, statically determinate or

statically indeterminate. The trusses are subjected to arbitrary external
loadings that are assumed to be known & can act anywhere on the
trusses.

Externally stable
Externally stable b = 15, r = 4, j = 9
Reactions are not concurrent or parallel
b + r = 19 >2j
b = 19, r = 3, j = 11 Truss is statically indeterminate
b + r =2j = 22 By inspection, the truss is internally stable
Truss is statically determinate
Chapter 3: Analysis of Statically Determinate Trusses
By inspection, the truss is internally stable
Lecture 4 Structural Analysis 7th Edition Lecture 4
© 2009 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

If a truss is identified as complex, it may not be possible

to tell by inspection if it is stable. For example, it can be
shown by the analysis that the complex truss in next Fig.
is unstable or has a "critical form" only if the dimension
d = d'. If d ≠ d' it is stable.
The instability of any form of truss, be it simple,
compound, or complex, may also be noticed by using a
Externally stable computer to solve the 2j simultaneous equations written
b = 12, r = 3, j = 8
b + r = 15 < 2j for all the joints of the truss. If inconsistent results are
The truss is internally unstable obtained, the truss will be unstable or have a critical
Lecture 4 form. Lecture 4
 Bear in mind
if a truss is unstable, it does
not matter whether it is
statically determinate or
indeterminate. Obviously,
the use of an unstable truss
is to be avoided in practice.

Unstable trusses: (a) improper configuration; (b) inadequate number of

Lecture 4 members; (c) inadequate number of support
Lecture 4 reactions.

b = 2 j – 3.
b < 2 j – 3, unstable

b = 4; j= 4,
since
b = 4 < 2j – 3 = 5.
Lecture 4 Lecture 4
 b = 2j – 3.

b = 4; j = 4,
since
b = 4 < 2j – 3 = 5.
Lecture 4 Lecture 4

If b < 2 j – 3, unstable If b > 2j – 3, stable , but statically indeterminate

b = 2j – 3. b = 6 > 2j – 3 = 5. stable, but there is

redundant member

Lecture 4 Lecture 4
 Statically Determinacy
The truss is statically determinate if the number of Compound Trusses
unknowns equals to the number of equilibrium
equations. For the truss, which has j joints can Occasionally this type of truss is best analyzed by
form 2j independent equations of equilibrium. Among applying both the method of joints and the method of
the unknowns are forces in the members of the truss
and the three reactions of external supports. Thus, sections.
the truss will be statically determinate if the condition
b = 2j – 3,
which, as can be seen, coincides with the condition of
stability.

Lecture 4 Lecture 4

Procedure For Analysis

Type 2. Simple trusses connected together with
Type1. Simple trusses connected together by a common
joint and a bar. Determine the external reactions on the
truss, and then, using the method of sections, cut the
truss through the bar connecting the two simple trusses
so that this bar force may be obtained when one of the
sectioned parts is isolated as a free body. Once this force
is obtained, proceed to analyze the simple trusses using
the method of joints.
Lecture 4
three bars. Determine the external reactions on
the truss. Use the method of sections and cut
each of the three bars that connect the two
simple trusses together. From a free-body
diagram of one of the sectioned parts,
determine each of the three bar forces.
Proceed to analyze each simple truss using the
method of joints.
Lecture 4
Type 3. Large trusses composed of secondary trusses pin
connected to form a main truss. Although many of these types of
trusses can be analyzed using the method of sections combined
with the method of joints, we will instead use a more general
method. Remove the secondary trusses and replace them by
dashed members so as to construct the main truss. The loads
that the secondary trusses exert on the main truss are also
placed on the main truss at the joints where the secondary
trusses are connected to the main truss. Determine the forces in
the dashed members of the main truss using the method of joints
or the method of sections. These forces are then applied to the
joints of the secondary trusses and then, using the method of
joints, the bar forces in the secondary trusses can be obtained.
Lecture 4
Lecture 4
Complex Trusses
The member forces in a complex truss can be determined
using the method of joints; however, the solution will
require writing the two equilibrium equations for each of
the j joints of the truss and then solving the complete set of
2j equations simultaneously This approach may be
impractical for hand calculations, especially in the case of
large trusses. Therefore, a more direct method for analyzing
a complex truss, referred to as the method of substitute
members, will be presented here.
Lecture 4
Remove External Loading from Simple Truss. Consider the simple
truss without the external load P. Place equal but opposite
collinear unit loads on the truss at the two joints from which the
member was removed. If these forces develop a force si in the ith
truss member, then by proportion an unknown force x in the
removed member would exert a force xsi in the ith member.
From Fig. the equal but opposite unit loads will create no reactions
at A and C when the equations of equilibrium are applied to the
entire truss. The si forces can be determined by analyzing the
joints in the same sequence as before, namely, joint A, then joints
F,D,E, and finally B.
Lecture 4
Superposition. If the effects of the above two loadings are
combined, the force in the ith member of the truss will
Space Trusses
be
Si = S’i+ xsi (1) A space truss consists of members joined together at their
ends to form a stable three-dimensional structure.
In particular, for the substituted member EC in Fig. the
force SEC = S'EC + xsEC. Since member EC does not actually
exist on the original truss, we will choose x to have a
magnitude such that it yields zero force in EC. Hence,
S'EC + xsEC = 0 (2)
or x = -S’EC/sEC. Once the value of x has been determined,
the force in the other members i of the complex truss can
be determined from Eq. (1). Lecture 4 Lecture 4

Loading Dock Boom

A space truss can be analyzed

by the same methods used to
analyze a planar truss.

Lecture 4 Lecture 4
Loading Dock Boom Determinacy and Stability. Realizing that in three

dimensions there are three equations of equilibrium

available for each joint (ΣFx = 0 ,ΣFy = 0, ΣFz = 0), then for a

space truss with j number of joints, 3j equations are

available. If the truss has b number of bars and r number

of reactions, then like the case of a planar truss we can

write
b + r < 3j unstable truss
b + r = 3j statically determinate—check stability
b + r > 3j statically indeterminate—check stability
Lecture 4 Lecture 4

x, y, z, Force Components.
Since the analysis of a space truss is
three-dimensional, it will often be
necessary to resolve the force F in a
member into components acting
along the x, y, z axes. For example,
in Fig. member AB has a length l and
known projections x, y, z along the
coordinate axes. These projections
can be related to the member's
length by the equation

l = x2 + y2 + z2
Lecture 4 Lecture 4
 Zero-Force Members
Since the force F acts along the axis of the member, then
Case 1. If all but one of the members connected to a joint
the components of F can be determined by proportion as
lie in the same plane, and provided no external load acts
follows: on the joint, then the member not lying in the plane of the
other members must be subjected to zero force.

x y z
Fx = F Fy = F Fz = F
l l l

F = Fx2 + Fy2 + Fz2

Lecture 4 Lecture 4

Case 2. If it has been determined that all but two of several
members connected at a joint support zero force, then the
two remaining members must also support zero force,
provided they do not lie along the same line.
Lecture 4
PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS
Method of Sections. If only a few member forces are to be determined,
the method of sections may be used. When an imaginary section is
passed through a truss and the truss is separated into two parts, the
force system acting on either one of the parts must satisfy the six
scalar equilibrium equations: ΣFX = 0, ΣFy= 0, ΣFz= 0, ΣMX= 0, ΣMy = 0,
ΣMZ= 0. By proper choice of the section and axes for summing forces
and moments, many of the unknown member forces in a space truss
can be computed directly, using a single equilibrium equation. In this
regard, recall that the moment of a force about an axis is zero provided
the force is parallel to the axis or its line of action passes through a
point on the axis. Lecture 4
Method of Joints. Generally, if the forces in all the members
of the truss must be determined, the method of joints is
most suitable for the analysis. When using the method of
joints, it is necessary to solve the three scalar equilibrium
equations ΣFX = 0, ΣFy = 0, ΣFZ = 0 at each joint. Since it is
relatively easy to draw the free-body diagrams and apply the
.

equations of equilibrium, the method of joints is very

consistent in its application.
Statically indeterminate trusses.
Lecture 4 Lecture 4

Zero-Force Members Zero-Force Members

• Analysis can be simplified if zero-force members can be
identified first
• These zero-force members may be necessary for the stability
of the truss during construction & to provide support if the
applied loading is changed
• The zero-force members of a truss can generally be
determined by inspection of the joints & they occur in 2
cases.
• Case 1
• The 2 members at joint C are connected together at a right angle &
there is no external load on the joint
• The free-body diagram of joint C indicates that the force in each
member must be zero in order to maintain equilibrium
• Any other zero-force members?

Lecture 4 Lecture 4
 Zero-Force Members What Have You Learnt?
• Case 2
• Truss structure
• Zero-force members also occur at joints having a geometry as joint
D • Truss types
• Any other zero-force member? • Determinacy and stability
• Truss analysis
• Zero-force member

Lecture 4 Lecture 4

Internal Loadings Developed in

Structural Members
Internal Loadings Developed in Structural Unlike trusses, considered in the preceding chapter, whose members

Members are always subjected to only axial forces, the members of rigid frames
- Internal Loadings at a Specified Point and beams may be subjected to shear forces and bending moments as
- Sign Convention well as axial forces under the action of external loads. The
- Shear Force and Bending Moment Functions
determination of these internal forces and moments (stress resultants)
- Shear and Moment Diagrams for a Beam
- Shear and Moment Diagrams for a Frame is necessary for the design of such structures. The objective of this
- Moment Diagrams Constructed by the Method of chapter is to present the analysis of internal forces and moments that
Superposition
may develop in beams, and the members of plane frames, under the
- Qualitative Deflected Shapes
action of coplanar systems of external forces and couples.
Lecture 5 Lecture 5

Before a structural member can be proportioned, it is necessary to determine the force and
moment that act within it. In this chapter we will develop the methods for finding these
loadings at specified points along a member's axis and for showing the variation graphically
using the shear and moment diagrams. Applications are given for both beams and frames.
Lecture 5
The internal load at a specified point in a member can be
determined by using the method of sections. In general, this
loading for a coplanar structure will consist of a normal force
N, shear force V, and bending moment M. It should be
realized, however, that these loadings actually represent the
resultants of the stress distribution acting over the
member's cross-sectional area at the cut section. Once the
resultant internal loadings are known, the magnitude of the
stress can be determined provided an assumed distribution
of stress over the cross-sectional area is specified.
Lecture 5

Sign Convention Internal loadings at a cross section

The positive normal force tends to elongate the segment, positive shear tends to
P w
rotate the segment clockwise, and positive bending moment tends to bend the
segment concave upward, so as to "hold water." A
Ax B

Ay By
P w w
V
M M
Ax N
Ay w V w By
+y
Sign +x
Convention + -
Lecture 5 Lecture 5
Coordinates
Example
The design of a beam requires a detailed knowledge of the variations
of the internal shear force V and moment M acting at each point
along the axis of the beam. The internal normal force is generally not
considered for two reasons: (1) in most cases the loads applied to a
beam act perpendicular to the beam's axis and hence produce only
an internal shear force and bending moment, and (2) for design
purposes the beam's resistance to shear, and particularly to bending,
is more important than its ability to resist normal force.
An important exception to this occurs, however, when beams are
w w subjected to compressive axial forces, since the buckling or instability
Sign that may occur has to be investigated.
Convention + Lecture 5
- Lecture 5

The variations of V and M as a function of the position Force, Shear and Bending Moment
x of an arbitrary point along the beam's axis can be
obtained by using the method of sections discussed in w
previous section. Here, however, it is necessary to dV
w
locate the imaginary section or cut at an arbitrary V dx
M M+dM
distance x from one end of the beam rather than at a
specific point. + dM
V
dx
dx V+dV

P w D D
 C
dV  VD  VC   wdx
C

A B D D

CV DV 
C
dM  M D  M C   Vdx
C
C D

Lecture 5 Lecture 5
Force, Shear and Bending Moment Shear Force & Bending Moment Diagram
P L/2 P L/2 dV
P B w
V
A dx
V
dM
x +P/2 V
V-P dx
dx V-P Shear force moves toward V M d2y
negative direction 
-P/2 EI dx 2
Mo +PL/4
Mo M
M  curvature
EI
M M-Mo M
+M
+ x -M
M-Mo
dx Moment moves toward
Need to know deflectionLecture
shape
Lecture 5
Negative direction qualitatively
5

Shear & Moment Diagrams for a Beam

Shear Force & Bending Moment Diagram
Structure under loads Sign
dV Convention
w Slope of V = load w
dx
Shear force diagram
dM +
V Slope of M = V
dx w
Bending moment diagram
M d2y -

EI dx 2 dV
Qualitative deflection shape
w
dx

Bending moment diagram dM

(plotted on the compression side) V
dx
Lecture 5 Lecture 5

Example
Lecture 5
• Keep all distributed loadings, couple moments, and forces
acting on the member in their exact location, then pass an
imaginary section through the member, perpendicular to its
axis at the point where the internal loading is to be
determined.
• After the section is made, draw a free-body diagram of the
segment that has the least number of loads on it. At the
section indicate the unknown resultants N, V, and M acting
in their positive directions. Lecture 5
PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS
Support Reactions
• Before the member is "cut" or sectioned, it may be necessary to
determine the member's support reactions so that the equilibrium
equations are used only to solve for the internal loadings when the
member is sectioned.
• If the member is part of a pin-connected structure, the pin reactions can
be determined using the equations of equilibrium.
Lecture 5
Equations of Equilibrium
• Moments should be summed at the section about axes that
pass through the centroid of the member's cross-sectional
area, in order to eliminate the unknowns N and V and
thereby obtain a direct solution for M.
• If the solution of the equilibrium equations yields a quantity
having a negative magnitude, the assumed directional sense
of the quantity is opposite to that shown on the free-body
diagram.
Lecture 5
Shear and Moment Functions
• The horizontal members on this power line support frame were
designed once the shear and moment within the members were
established. Since beams are used primarily to resist bending stress, it is important
• Specify separate coordinates x and associated origins, extending into that the moment diagram accompany the solution for their design. In
regions of the beam between concentrated forces and/or couple
moments, or where there is a discontinuity of distributed loading. previous Sec. the moment diagram was constructed by first drawing
• Section the beam perpendicular to its axis at each distance x, and from the shear diagram. If we use the principle of superposition, however,
the free-body diagram of one of the segments determine the
unknowns V and M at the cut section as functions of x. On the free- each of the loads on the beam can be treated separately and the
body diagram, V and M should be shown acting in their positive
moment diagram can then be constructed in a series of parts rather
directions, in accordance with the sign convention given in Fig. 4-1.
• V is obtained from ΣFy = 0 and M is obtained by summing moments than a single and sometimes complicated shape. It will be shown later
about the point S located at the cut section, ΣMS = 0. in the text that this can be particularly advantageous when applying
• The results can be checked by noting that dM/dx = V and dV/dx = w,
where w is positive when it acts upward, away from the beam. These geometric deflection methods to determine both the deflection of a
relationships are developed in next Sec. beam and the reactions on statically indeterminate beams.
Lecture 5 Lecture 5

Software

Lecture 5 Lecture 5
 Example Solution

Draw shear force and bending moment diagrams

9m

Anticlockwise moment as - ve :
V 0
Ms  0
1  20   1   5.20    5.20 
   Fy  0  30    x  x  0  30(5.20)  20  5.20  M  0
2  9   2   9   3 
Lecture 5
x  5.20m M Lecture
 104 5
kNm

QUALITATIVE DEFLECTED SHAPES

A qualitative deflected shape (elastic curve) of a structure is
simply a rough (usually exaggerated) sketch of the neutral
surface of the structure, in the deformed position, under the
action of a given loading condition.
According to the sign convention, a positive bending moment
bends a beam concave upward (or toward the positive y
direction), whereas a negative bending moment bends a
beam concave downward (or toward the negative y
direction). Thus, the sign (positive or negative) of the
curvature at any point along the axis of a beam can be
obtained from the bending moment diagram.
Lecture 5 Lecture 5
Lecture 5 Lecture 5

What Have You Learnt?

• Draw SFD & BMD for beam

• Draw NFD, SFD, & BMD for frame

Lecture 5 Lecture 5
 Cables: Assumptions
• Cable is perfectly flexible & inextensible
Cables and Arches • No resistance to shear/bending: same as truss bar
• The force acting the cable is always tangent to the cable at points along
- Cables Subjected to the Concentrated Loads its length
- Arches, Type of Arches
- Analysis of Three-Hinged Arches

Lecture 6
Only axial force! Lecture 6

Solution
Example - Under Concentrated Forces
Determine the tension in each segment of the cable. Also, what is the M A  0
dimension h? TCD (3 / 5)( 2m)  TCD ( 4 / 5)(5.5m)  3kN ( 2m)  8kN ( 4m )  0
4 unknown external reactions (Ax, Ay, Dx and Dy) TCD  6.79kN
3 unknown cable tensions
Joint equilibrium at C
1 geometrical unknown h
6.79kN (3 / 5)  TBC cosq BC  0
8 unknowns
6.79kN ( 4 / 5)  8kN  TBC sinq BC  0
8 equilibrium conditions
q BC  32.3o and TBC  4.82kN
qBA qBC
Similarly, Joint equilibrium at B
q BA  53.8o and TBA  6.90kN

Finally , h  ( 2m) tan 53.8o  2.74m

Lecture 6 Lecture 6
 Cable subjected to a uniform distributed load Cable subjected to a uniform distributed load
• Consider this cable under distributed vertical load wo
• The cable force is not a constant. d(T cos q)
 0 eqn 1
dx
d(T sin q)
 w o eqn 2
dx
dy
wo • From
dx
Eqn
 tan q 1eqnand
3 let T = FH at x = 0:
Tsinq
T
FH
T cos qEqn
• Integrating  cons  FTsinq
tan tthat
2 realizing H eqn= 0 4at x = 0:
FH

Fx  0
d (T cosq )
 T cos q  (T  T ) cos(q  q )  0  0 eqn 1
dx
FH   F y  0
d (T sin q )
 wo eqn 2
• Eqn 5/Eqn 4: T sin q  wo x eqn 5
 T sin q  wo (x )  (T  T ) sin(q  q )  0
dx
T cosq   T cosq  T cos(q  q )  cosq 
dy
 tan q eqn 3
With anti - clockwise as  ve dx
M 0  0 dy wo x
wo (x)(x / 2)  T cos qy  T sin qx  0 tan q   eqn 6
Lecture 6 dx FH
Lecture 6

Cable subjected to a uniform distributed load Cable subjected to a uniform distributed load
Tmax
• Where and what is the max tension? qmax

T cos q  FH eqn 4

T sin q  wo x eqn 5
dy wo xwith y = 0 at x = 0 yields
• Performing an integration • T is max when x=L
T  FH 2  ( wo x ) 2
tan q   eqn 6 FH
dx FH FH

Tmax  FH 2  ( wo L )2 eqn 10
wo 2 y = h at x = L wo L2 wo L2
y x eqn 7 FH  eqn 8 FH  eqn 8
2 FH 2h 2h

Cable profile: y
h 2
x eqn 9
Tmax  wo L 1  ( L / 2h )2 eqn 11
2
parabola LLecture 6 Lecture 6
 Cable subjected to a uniform distributed load Cable subjected to a uniform distributed load

• Neglect the cable weight which is uniform along the length

T cos q  FH • A cable subjected to its own weight will take the form of a catenary
curve y  a cosh x 
T sin q  wo x a
• This curve ~ parabolic for small sag-to-span ratio
dy wo x
tan q   Hangers are close and
dx FH T uniformly spaced
q
w L2
FH  o
2h If forces in the hangers are known
FH then the structure can be analyzed
h 2 1 degree of indeterminacy
y x
L2
Determinate structure
Tmax  wo L 1  ( L / 2h )2
Lecture 6 Lecture 6
hinge

Example Solution
The cable supports a girder which weighs 12kN/m. Determine the The origin of the coordinate axes is established at point B, the lowest
tension in the cable at points A, B & C. point on the cable where slope is zero,
wo 2 12kN/m 2 6 2
y x  x  x (1)  0.0389 x 2
2 FH 2 FH FH
Assuming point C is located x’ from B:
6 2
6 x'  FH  1.0 x'2 (2)  154.4kN FH
FH

From B to A:
6
12  [(30  x ' )]2
FH
6
12  [(30  x ' )]2
12kN/m 1.0 x'2 FH
2
Lecture 6 x' 60 x'900  0  x'  12.43m Lecture 6
Solution Example
TA T cos q  FH
• Determine the max tension in the cable IH
y  0.0389 x 2 TC
qA Assume the cable is parabolic
qC (under uniformly distributed load)

dy FH=154.4kN
tan q   0.0777 x
dx
17.57m 12.43m

dy dy
tan qC   0.966 tan q A   1.366
dx x 12.43 dx x  17.57

qC  44.0o q A  53.79o  M C  0  I y  Ay  0.667 FH

FH 154.4 FH FH  28.13 kN
TC    214.6kN TA   261.4kN
cos qC cos 44.0o cos q A
Lecture 6  M B  0  I y  AyLecture
 186 .75

Cable and Arch

FH

flip
FH  28.13 kN
wo L2 FH
FH 
2h
wo  3.13 kN / m
What if the load direction reverses?

Tmax  wo L 1  ( L / 2h )2  46.9 kN
Lecture 6 Lecture 6
 Arches
• An arch acts as inverted cable so it receives compression
Arches
• An arch must also resist bending and shear depending upon how it is loaded &
shaped • Types of arches

indeterminate

indeterminate

indeterminate
determinate

Lecture 6 Lecture 6

Problem
Three-Hinged Arch Determine reactions at A and C and the cable force
3 global Eqs
1 hinge condition

Bx
Ax
By
Ay
Ax

Ay Bx
By
Cy

T
Ax

Ay
Lecture 6 Lecture 6
 Geometric Parameters of Circular Arches Geometric Parameters of Parabolic Arches

Lecture 6 Lecture 6

Internal Forces
Design diagram of a three-hinged symmetrical arch with intermediate
hinge C at the highest point of the arch and with supports A and B on
one elevation is presented in Fig. The span and rise of the arch are
labeled as l and f , respectively; equation of central line of the arch is
y=y(x)

Lecture 6 Lecture 6
 Internal Forces • where Pi are forces which are located at the left side of the
section k; xi are corresponding abscises of the points of
application; xk, yk are coordinates of the point k; and φk is angle
between the tangent to the center line of the arch at point k
and a horizontal.

These equations may be represented where expressions Mk0 and Vk0 represent the bending moment
in the following convenient form
and shear force at the section k for the reference beam (beam’s
bending moment and beam’s shear).

Lecture 6 Lecture 6

Example
The three-hinged arch bridge has a parabolic shape and supports the
uniform load. Assume the load is uniformly transmitted to the arch ribs.
Show that the parabolic arch is subjected only to axial compression at an
intermediate point such as point D.

Lecture 6 Lecture 6
 Solution
y

8 kN/m x

 10
10 m
=160 kN y x2
20 2
=160 kN
=160 kN =160 kN

dy  20
tan q D   x  0.5
dx ( 20 )2 x 10m
160 kN =
q D  26.6o

0= N D  178.9kN
VD  0
=160 kN
MD  0
=160 kN
Lecture 6 Lecture 6

What Have You Learnt?

Influence Lines for Statically Determinate Structures
• Internal tensile force in cables - Influence Lines
• Draw NFD, SFD, & BMD for three-hinged arch - Procedure for Analysis
- Influence Lines for Beams
- Qualitative Influence Lines
- Influence Lines for Floor Girders
- Influence Lines for Trusses
- Application of Influence Line for:
• A Single Moving Concentrated Load
• A Series of Moving Concentrated Loads

Lecture 6 lecture 7
 If a structure is subjected to a live or moving load, however, the
Influence lines have important application for the design
of structures that resist large live loads. In this chapter we
will discuss how to draw the influence line for a statically
determinate structure. The theory is applied to structures
subjected to a distributed load or a series of concentrated
forces, and specific applications to floor girders and bridge
trusses are given. The determination of the absolute
maximum live shear and moment in a member is
discussed at the end of the chapter.
lecture 7
variation of the shear and bending moment in the member is best
described using the influence line. An influence line represents the
variation of either the reaction, shear, moment, or deflection at a
specific point in a member as a concentrated force moves over the
member. Once this line is constructed, one can tell at a glance where
the moving load should be placed on the structure so that it creates
the greatest influence at the specified point. Furthermore, the
magnitude of the associated reaction, shear, moment, or deflection at
the point can then be calculated from the ordinates of the influence-
line diagram. For these reasons, influence lines play an important part
in the design of bridges, industrial crane rails, conveyors, and other
structures where loads move across their span.
lecture 7

Influence lines represent the effect of a moving load only at a specified

point on a member, whereas shear and moment diagrams represent the Shear force and moment diagrams
effect of fixed loads at all points along the axis of the member. Fixed loads
V M

x
V and M at different locations of the beam
x
An influence line is a graph of a response function of a
Influence Lines Load moves along the beam
structure as a function of the position of a downward unit
load moving across the structure.
V M

x
x
Location of downward unit load V and M at a fixed location
lecture 7 lecture 7
 1) Point-by-point calculation
Constructing Influence Lines Tabulate Values
• Place a unit load at various locations, x, along the member,
1) Point-by-point calculation
and at each location use statics to determine the value of the
2) Influence-line equation
3) Graphical approach: Müller Breslau Principle function (reaction, shear, or moment) at the specified point.
• If the influence line for a vertical force reaction at a point on a
beam is to be constructed, consider the reaction to be
positive at the point when it acts upward on the beam.
• If a shear or moment influence line is to be drawn for a point,
take the shear or moment at the point as positive according
to the same sign convention used for drawing shear and
moment diagrams.

lecture 7 lecture 7

• All statically determinate beams will have influence lines that

consist of straight line segments. After some practice one
Point-by-point calculation
should be able to minimize computations and locate the unit
load only at points representing the end points of each line • Construct the influence line for Ay
segment.
• To avoid errors, it is recommended that one first construct a
table, listing "unit load at x" versus the corresponding value
of the function calculated at the specific point; that is,
"reaction R," "shear V," or "moment M." Once the load has
been placed at various points along the span of the member,
the tabulated values can be plotted and the influence-line
segments constructed.
lecture 7 lecture 7
 2) Influence-Line Equations Influence-line equation

• The influence line can also be constructed by placing the unit load at a
variable position x on the member and then computing the value of R,
V, or M at the point as a function of x. In this manner, the equations of M B  0
the various line segments composing the influence line can be  Ay (10)  (10  x)(1)  0
determined and plotted. 1
Ay  1  x
10

Linear function of x

lecture 7 lecture 7

3) Müller-Breslau Principle

• Influence line for any action (reaction, internal shear/moment) in a

structure is equal to the deflection curve when we remove the action and
replace it with a corresponding unit displacement or rotation

Influence line = properly disturbed shape

lecture 7 lecture 7
 Draw IL for reaction at A

lecture 7 lecture 7

Draw IL for Shear Force at section C

Draw IL for reaction at B

Guess The IL for By

lecture 7 lecture 7
 Draw IL for Bending Moment at section D
lecture 7
Since the
numerical values of a function for
an influence line are determined
using a dimensionless unit load,
then for any concentrated force F
acting on the beam at any position
x, the value of the function can be
found by multiplying the ordinate
of the influence line at the position
x by the magnitude of F.
lecture 7
Since beams (or girders) often form the main load-
carrying elements of a floor system or bridge deck, it is
important to be able to construct the influence lines for
the reactions, shear, or moment at any specified point
in a beam.
Loadings. Once the influence line for a function
(reaction, shear, or moment) has been constructed, it
will then be possible to position the live loads on the
beam which will produce the maximum value of the
function. Two types of loadings will now be considered.
lecture 7
As shown, each dx segment of this load creates a
concentrated force of dF = wo dx on the beam. If dF is located at x,
where the beam's influence-line ordinate for some function (reaction,
shear, moment) is y, then the value of the function is (dF)(y) = (w0dx)y.
The effect of all the concentrated forces dF is determined by
integrating over the entire length of the beam, that is, ∫w0ydx =
w0∫ydx. Also, since ∫ydx is equivalent to the area under the influence
line, then, in general, the value of a function caused by a uniform
distributed load is simply the area under the influence line for the
function multiplied by the intensity of the uniform load.
lecture 7
 Caution
Principle is only valid for force response functions.
Releases:
Support reaction - remove translational support restraint.
Internal shear - introduce an internal glide support to allow
differential displacement movement.
Bending moment - introduce an internal hinge to allow
differential rotation movement.

lecture 7 lecture 7

Qualitative Influence Lines

In many practical applications, it is necessary to determine only the general shape of the
influence lines but not the numerical values of the ordinates. Such an influence line
diagram is known as a qualitative influence line diagram.
An influence line diagram with numerical values of its ordinates is known as a quantitative
influence line diagram.
NOTE: An advantage of constructing influence lines using the
Muller-Breslau Principle is that the response function of interest
can be determined directly. It does not require determining the
influence lines for other functions, as was the case with the
equilibrium method. lecture 7
Occasionally, floor systems are constructed as shown in Fig.,
where it can be seen that floor loads are transmitted from slabs
to floor beams, then to side girders, and finally supporting
columns.
The influence line for a specified point on the girder can be
determined using the same statics procedure as in previous
Sec.; i.e., place the unit load at various points x on the floor
slab and always compute the function (shear or moment) at the
specified point P in the girder, Fig.
lecture 7
 Influence Lines for Floor Girders
• Draw the influence line for the shear in panel CD of the
floor girder

Internal moment at P: M P = F1 d - F B ( d _ s )

Internal shear throughout the panel BC: VP = F1 - F B

lecture 7 lecture 7

Influence Lines for Trusses

Trusses are often used as primary load-carrying elements for bridges.
Hence, for design it is important to be able to construct the influence
lines for each of its members. As shown in Fig., the loading on the
bridge deck is transmitted to stringers, which in turn transmit the
loading to floor beams and then to the joints along the bottom cord of
the truss. Since the truss members are affected only by the joint
loading, we can therefore obtain the ordinate values of the influence
line for a member by loading each joint along the deck with a unit load
and then use the method of joints or the method of sections to
calculate the force in the member. The data can be arranged in tabular
form, listing "unit load at joint" versus "force in member." As a
convention, if the member force is tensile it is considered a positive
value; if it is compressive it is negative. The influence line for the
member is constructed by plotting the data and drawing straight lines
between the points. The following examples illustrate the method of
construction.
lecture 7 lecture 7
 Example 6.15

• Draw the influence line for member force GB

lecture 7 lecture 7

Example
• Draw the influence line for the member force GB Application of Influence Lines
1- Determine the maximum values of response functions at particular
locations in structures due to variable loads.
2- Procedures for evaluating the absolute maximum value of a response
function that may occur anywhere in a structure.

lecture 7 lecture 7
Application of Influence Lines P Distributed Loads
1 1

Concentrated

Concentrated
Concentrated
wl  dx
VB wl

Live Load

Live Load
Live Load
MB Distributed LiveLive
Distributed LoadLoad Distributed Live Load
A
B C D
Dead Load
A
B C D
VB
P

y
P
MB
a b
M B  y  w l  dx

M B  aby  w l  dx   w l  abydx

lecture 7
w l  const lecture 7

P
Application of Influence
Live Load Lines Given dead load Application of Influence Lines
Concentrated

Distributed
1 wl and live loads
Live Load

Find maximum forces

wd • Max shear force at C?
A
B C D

VB

MB

lecture 7 lecture 7
 Application of Influence Lines
RESPONSE AT A PARTICULAR LOCATION DUE
TO A SINGLE MOVING CONCENTRATED LOAD
1- The value of a response function due to any single concentratedload
Case•1Max
: shear force at C? can be obtained by multiplying the magnitude of the load by the
(VC )1  4.5(0.75)  18(0.625)  18(0.5)  23.63kN
ordinate of the response function influence line at the position of
Case 2 : the load.
(VC ) 2  4.5( 0.125)  18(0.75)  18( 0.625)  24.19kN
2- To determine the maximum positive value of a response function due
Case 3 : to a single moving concentrated load, the load must be placed at the
(VC )3  4.5(0)  18( 0.125)  18(0.75)  11.25kN
location of the maximum positive ordinate of the response function
influence line, whereas to determine the maximum negative value of
the response function, the load must be placed at the location of the
maximum negative ordinate of the influence line.
lecture 7 lecture 7

RESPONSE AT A PARTICULAR LOCATION DUE

TO A UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LIVE LOAD
1. The value of a response function due to a uniformly distributed load applied
over a portion of the structure can be obtained by multiplying the load
intensity by the net area under the corresponding portion of the response
function influence line.
2. To determine the maximum positive (or negative) value of a response
function due to a uniformly distributed live load, the load must be placed
over those portions of the structure where the ordinates of the response
function influence line are positive (or negative).

lecture 7 lecture 7
 RESPONSE AT A PARTICULAR LOCATION DUE TO A
SERIES OF MOVING CONCENTRATED
LOADS
How the influence line for a response function can be used to determine:
1. The value of the response function for a given position of a series of
concentrated loads.
2. The maximum value of the response function due to a series of moving
concentrated loads.

lecture 7 lecture 7

Determine the maximum positive shear at point B due to

the series of four concentrated loads shown in the figure.

lecture 7 lecture 7
 VB=69.28kN VB=41.68kN

lecture 7 lecture 7

Use a trial-and-error procedure to

determine the value of the
maximum positive shear at B.
Maximum positive VB =82.32 kN

VB=0.742kN

lecture 7 lecture 7
 Absolute Maximum Shear and Moment Absolute Maximum Shear and Moment
Assume that the maximum moment occurs under F2

For a cantilevered beam Vmax

For simply supported beams V max

Find FR dd

For a cantilevered beam Mmax

lecture 7 lecture 7

Absolute Maximum Shear and Moment

Absolute Maximum Shear and Moment
Assume that the maximum moment occurs under F2

The absolute maximum moment in a simply supported beam occurs

under one of the concentrated forces, such that this force is
positioned on the beam so that it and the resultant force of the
system are equidistant from the beam’s centerline.

lecture 7 lecture 7
Absolute Maximum Shear and Moment Bridge Load Test

lecture 7 lecture 7

What Have You Learnt?

• What is influence line?

• Constructing Influence Lines
Deflection of Beam – Geometric Method
1) Point-by-point calculation - Qualitative deflection shape for a structure under
2) Influence-line equation loads
3) Graphical approach: Müller Breslau Principle
- Conjugate-Beam Method
• What is the use of influence line?
Maximum
Absolute maximum

lecture 7 Lecture 8
 Deflection- Displacement & Rotation Deflection Diagrams/Shapes

• Deflections maybe due to loads, temperature, fabrication errors or settlement

• Linear elastic behavior: linear stress-strain relationship and small deflection
• Need to:
• Plot qualitative deflection shapes before/after the analysis.
• Calculate deflections at any location of a structure.

M
 curvature
EI
+M
-M
tensile side

Lecture 8 Lecture 8 tensile side

Example Example
 

Draw the deflected shape of each of the beams.

negligible
Need to show 1st order (slope) and 2nd order (curvature) information All members are
tensile side axially inextensible!

tensile side
Inflection point M=0 M≠0
No curvature

Straight line
(why?) Straight line
(why?)

Lecture 8 Lecture 8
 Conjugate-Beam Method
The conjugate-beam method was developed by H. Muller-Breslau in The conjugate-beam method is based on the analogy
between the relationships among load, shear, and
1865.
bending moment and the relationships among M=EI,
• Mathematical analogy slope, and deflection.

M
-slope-deflection Load-shear-moment
EI

dθ M dV V = ∫ wdx
 w
dx EI dx 
dy dM M
θ V θ = ∫ EI dx
dx dx

d2y M d 2M
 w
dx 2 EI dx 2
Lecture 8 Lecture 8

From the above comparisons, we can state two

• Mathematical equivalence
theorems related to the conjugate beam, namely,

• Theorem 1: The slope at a point in the real beam is numerically equal to the
shear at the corresponding point in the conjugate beam.
M
• Theorem 2: The displacement of a point in the real beam is numerically equal -slope-deflection Load-shear-moment
EI
to the moment at the corresponding point in the conjugate beam.
M w
EI

θ V

y M

Lecture 8 Actual beam Conjugate beam

Lecture 8
Actual beam Conjugate beam
θ0
y0
θ0
y0
P V 0
M 0
V 0
M 0
 or

?
PL PL PL  x 
1 
EI  L 
EI EI
M w
EI PL  x 2 
P EI 
x
2 L 

θ V
PL  x 2 x 3 

EI  2 6 L 
y M
Lecture 8 Lecture 8

Conjugate beams are mathematical/imaginative beams

No need to worry about their stability
Just use EQ concept to obtain V and M from w

Lecture 8 Lecture 8
 Example
Determine the max deflection of the steel beam. The reactions have been computed.
Take E = 200GPa, I = 60(106)mm4

Max disp Max M

Lecture 8 Lecture 8

Solution Conjugate-Beam

Conjugate beam: Max Moment dM 5 kN/m

Note: V  0 3 kN/m
dx
when M  M max A F
B C D E
45 1  2 x  20m 20m 50m 20m 20m
   x  0
EI 2  EI  M
M
x  6.71m (0  x  9m) OK EI
2 45  1  2(6.71)  1
x (6.71)    6.71 (6.71)  M '  0
EI EI  2  EI  3
Conjugate
 max  M ' 
201.2kNm 3 beam
EI F
 201.2kNm 3 B C D M E

6.71 [ 200(106 ) kN / m 2 ][60(106 ) mm 4 (1m 4 /(103 ) 4 mm 4 )] V =y
 0.0168m  16.8mm
Lecture 8 =q
Lecture 8
Conjugate Beam
• Draw the conjugate beam for the real beam. This beam has the same
length as the real beam and has corresponding supports as listed in
previous Table.
• In general, if the real support allows a slope, the conjugate support
must develop a shear, and if the real support allows a displacement,
the conjugate support must develop a moment.
• The conjugate beam is loaded with the real beam's M/EI diagram.
This loading is assumed to be distributed over the conjugate beam
and is directed upward when M/EI is positive and downward when
M/EI is negative. In other words, the loading always acts away from
the beam. Lecture 8
Remember!
VB’=θB
MC’=ΔC
Lecture 8
Equilibrium
• Using the equations of equilibrium, determine the
reactions at the conjugate beam's supports.
• Section the conjugate beam at the point where the slope θ
and displacement Δ of the real beam are to be
determined. At the section show the unknown shear V’
and moment M' acting in their positive sense.
• Determine the shear and moment using the equations of
equilibrium. V’ and M' equal θ and Δ respectively, for the
real beam. In particular, if these values are positive, the
slope is counterclockwise and the displacement is upward.
Lecture 8
What Have You Learnt?
• Can you plot a qualitative deflection shape for a structure under
loads?
• Can you calculate structural deformation (displacement & rotation)
using
•Conjugate-beam method?
Lecture 8
 Deflections of Trusses, Beams, and Frames:
Work–Energy Methods
In this lecture, we develop methods for the analysis of deflections of

Deflection -Work–Energy Methods statically determinate structures by using some basic principles of
- Principle of virtual work work and energy. Work–energy methods are more general than the
- Method of virtual work: Trusses
geometric methods considered in the previous lecture in the sense
- Method of virtual work: Beams & Frames
that they can be applied to various types of structures, such as trusses,

beams, and frames. A disadvantage of these methods is that with each

application, only one deflection component, or slope, at one point of

the structure can be computed.

Lecture 9 Lecture 9

External Work & Strain Energy

If the material’s elastic limit is not exceeded, the elastic strain energy will
Law of Conservation of Energy - Energy can neither be created nor return the structure to its undeformed state when the loads are removed.
destroyed; rather, it transforms from one form to another

For more complicated loadings or for structures such as trusses & frames, it
is suggested that energy methods be used for the computations.
Most energy methods are based on the conservation of energy principal. External Work – force.
Work done by all external forces acting on a structure, Ue is transformed into When a force F undergoes a displacement dx in the
internal work or strain energy Ui same direction as the force, the work done is
dUe = Fdx
Ue = Ui If the total disp is x, the work becomes:

Lecture 9 Lecture 9
 Consider the effect caused by an axial force applied to the end of Suppose P is already applied to the
a bar as shown in Fig. bar & that another force F’ is
F is gradually increased from 0 to some limiting value F = P. now applied, so that the bar
The final elongation of the bar becomes Δ. deflects further by an amount
If the material has a linear elastic response, then F = (P/ Δ)x. Δ‘ as shown in Fig.

Substituting into previous The work done by P when the bar undergoes the
equation and integrating from further deflection is then
0 to Δ, we get: Ue’ = P Δ’
Here the work represents the shaded rectangular area
in Fig.
In this case, P does not change its magnitude since Δ’ is
1 caused only by F’.
U e = PΔ Work = force x displacement
2
which is the shaded area under Fig.
Lecture 9 Lecture 9

When a force P is applied to the bar, followed

by an application of the force F’, the total The work of a moment = magnitude of the moment (M) x the angle (dθ)
through which it rotates.
work done by both forces is represents by the dUe = Mdθ
triangular area ACE in Fig. If the total angle of
The triangular area ABG represents the work rotation is θ radian,
of P that is caused by displacement Δ. the work becomes

The triangular area BCD represents the work of

F’ since this force causes a displacement Δ’.
Lastly the shaded rectangular area BDEG
represents the additional work done by P.
θ
Ue = ∫ Mdθ
0

Lecture 9 Lecture 9
If the moment is applied gradually to a structure having a linear elastic Strain Energy-Axial Force
response from 0 to M, then the work done is
When an axial force N is applied gradually to the bar
in Fig., it will strain the material such that the
1
However, if the moment is already applied to the structure & other loadings external work done by N will be converted into strain
Ue Mθ
further distort the=structure an amount θ’, then M rotates θ’ and the work
energy.
done is 2
Provided the material is linearly
elastic, Hooke’s Law is valid.
σ = Eε
If the bar has a constant x-
sectional area A and length L.
U ' e = Mθ'
Lecture 9 Lecture 9

Strain Energy-Bending

• The normal stress is σ = N/A Consider the beam shown in Fig.

• The final strain is ε = Δ/L
P & w are gradually apply.
• Consequently, N/A = E(Δ/L)
• Final deflection: These loads create an internal moment M in the beam at a section

• Substituting into equation PNL located a distance x from the left support.
Δwith
=
= N,
AE The resulting rotation of the dx, can be found from
1
U e =
2
PΔ equation
dθ = (M.EI)dx
N 2L
Ui =
2 AE
Lecture 9 Lecture 9
 Principle of Work & Energy
Consequently, the strain energy or work stored in the element is determined
from equation
Consider finding the displacement at a point where the
force P is applied to the cantilever beam in Fig.
1 The external work:
Ue = Mθ 1
since the internal moment is gradually
2 developed. U e = PΔ
Hence, 2 energy, we must first
To obtain the resulting strain
determine the internal moment as a function of position
M 2 dx x in the beam and apply equation . L M 2 dx
dU =
The strain energy for thei beam is determined by integrating this result over Ui = ∫
the beam’s length.
2 EI 0 2 EI

M 2 dx
L
Ui = ∫
0 2 EI
Lecture 9 Lecture 9

In this case, M = - Px so that: Limitations

It will be noted that only one load may be applied to the structure.
LM 2 dx 2
L (- Px ) dx 1 P 2 L3 Only the displacement under the force can be obtained.
U 
Equating the
i ∫0 2 EI
external  ∫0
work to internal 
strain energy and solving for the
unknown displacement, we have: 2 EI 6 EI

Ue = Ui
1 1 P 2 L3
PΔ =
2 6 EI
3
PL
Δ=
3EI
Lecture 9 Lecture 9
 Principle of virtual work
In general, the principle states that:

If we take a deformable structure of any shape or size ∑ PΔ = ∑ uδ

& apply a series of external loads P to it, it will cause Work of Work of
internal loads u at points throughout the structure. Ext. loads Int. loads
Consider the structure (or body) to be of
It is necessary that the external and internal loads be
arbitrary shape as shown in Fig.
related by the equation of equilibrium.
Suppose it is necessary to determine the
As a consequence of these loadings, external displacement Δ of point A on the body
displacement Δ will occur at the P loads and internal caused by the “real loads” P1, P2 and P3.
displacement δ will occur at each point of internal
loads u.
• It is to be understood that these loads cause no
In general, these displacement do not have to be elastic,
movement of the supports. They can strain the material
and they may not be related to the loads.
Lecture 9
beyond the elastic limit. Lecture 9

• Since no external load acts on the
body at A and in the direction of Δ,
the displacement Δ, the displacement can
be determined by first placing on the body
a “virtual” load such that this force P’ acts
in the same direction as Δ shown in Fig.
We will choose P’ to have a unit magnitude, P’ =1.
Once the virtual loadings are applied, then the
body is subjected to the real loads P1, P2 and
P3 as shown in Fig. Point A will be displaced an
amount Δ causing the element to deform an
amount dL. Lecture 9
As a result, the external virtual force P’ & internal load u “ride along”
by Δ and dL & therefore, perform external virtual work of 1. Δ on
the body and internal virtual work of u.dL on the element.
1.Δ = ∑ u.dL
By choosing P’ = 1, it can be seen from the solution for Δ follows
directly since Δ= ΣudL.
A virtual couple moment M’ having a unit magnitude is applied at
this point.
P' = 1 = external virtual unit load acting in the direction of Δ .
u = internal virtual load acting on the element in the direction of dL.
Δ = external displacement caused by the real loads.
dL = internal deformation of the element caused by the real loads.
By choosing P' = 1, it can be seen that the solution for Δ follows
directly, since Δ= ΣudL.
Lecture 9
 This method for applying the principle of virtual work is often
This couple moment causes a virtual load uθ in one of the referred to as the method of virtual forces, since a virtual force
elements of the body.
is applied resulting in the calculation of a real displacement.
Assuming that the real loads deform the element an amount The equation of virtual work in this case represents a
dL, the rotation θ can be found from the virtual –work
compatibility requirement for the structure. Although not
equation.
important here, realize that we can also apply the principle of
1.θ = ∑ u θ .dL
virtual work as a method of virtual displacements. In this case

M' = 1 - external virtual unit couple moment acting in the virtual displacements are imposed on the structure while the
direction of θ. structure is subjected to real loadings. This method can be
Ue-internal virtual load acting on an element in the direction of
used to determine a force on or in a structure, so that the
dL.
θ - external rotational displacement or slope in radians caused equation of virtual work is then expressed as an equilibrium
by the real loads. requirement.
dL - internal deformation of the element caused by the real
loads. Lecture 9 Lecture 9

Method of virtual work: Trusses Applying equation

1.Δ = ∑ u.dL
the virtual work equation of the truss is:

External loading
Consider the vertical displacement Δ of joint B in Fig. nNL
If the applied loadings P1 & P2 cause a linear elastic material response, the element 1.Δ = ∑
will deform.
AE
1 = ext virtual unit load acting on the truss joint in the stated direction
of Δ
n = int virtual normal force in a truss member caused by the ext
ΔL = NL / AE virtual unit load
Δ = ext joint disp caused by the real loads on the truss
N = internal normal force in a truss member caused by the real load
L = length of the member
A = cross - sectional area of member
Lecture 9 E = modulus elasticity of a member Lecture 9
 Temperature
In some cases, truss members may change their length due to temperature.

The external virtual load creates internal virtual forces n in each of the members. The displacement of a selected truss joint may be written as
The real loads caused the truss joints to be displaced Δ in the same direction as
the virtual unit load. ΔL = αΔTL
Each member is displacement NL/AE in the same direction as its respective n force.
Hence, ext virtual work = sum of int. (virtual) strain energy stored in truss
members.
1.Δ = ∑ nαΔTL
Δ = ext joint disp caused by temperature change
α = coefficient of thermal expansion of member
ΔT = change in temperature of a member

Lecture 9 Lecture 9

Fabrication errors & camber

Errors in fabricating the lengths of the members of a truss may occur. The displacement of a truss joint from its expected position can be written as:
Truss members may also be made slightly longer or shorter in order to give the truss a
camber.
Camber is often built into bridge truss so that the bottom cord will curve upward by
the same amount equivalent to the downward deflection when subjected to the
bridge’s full dead weight. 1.Δ = ∑ nΔL
nNL
A combination of right sides of these 1.Δ = ∑
AE
equations may be necessary if both 1.Δ = ∑ nαΔTL
external loads, thermal change & 1.Δ = ∑ nΔL
fabrication errors are taking place.

Δ = external joint displacement caused by fabrication errors

ΔL = difference in length of the member from its intended
Lecture 9
size as caused by fabrication error Lecture 9
 Method of virtual work: Beams & Frames
The Principle of virtual work may be formulated for beam & frame
deflections by considering the beam shown in Fig. L mM
To compute Δ a virtual unit load acting in the direction of Δ is placed on 1.Δ = ∫ dx
the beam at A. 0 EI
The internal virtual moment m is determined by the method of
sections at an arbitrary location x from the left support, Fig.
1 external virtual unit load acting on the beam or frame in the direction of Δ
When point A is displaced Δ, the element dx deforms or rotates
dθ=(M/EI)dx. m internal virtual moment in the beam or frame, expressed as a function of x
& caused by the ext virtua l unit load
Δ ext disp of the point caused by real loads acting on the beam or frame
M int moment in the beam or frame, expressed as a function of x & caused
by the real loads
E modulus of elasticity of the material
I- = moment of inertia of cross - sectional area, computed about the neutral axis

Lecture 9 Lecture 9

If concentrated forces or couple moments act on the beam or the

distributed load is discontinuous, separate x coordinates will have to
chosen within regions that have no discontinuity of loading.
If the tangent rotation or slope angle θ at a point on the beam’s elastic curve
is to be determined, a unit couple moment is applied at the point.
The corresponding internal moment mθ have to be determined.

L mθ M
1.θ = ∫ dx
0 EI

Lecture 9 Lecture 9
Virtual-Work Equation
• Apply the equation of virtual work to determine the
desired displacement Δ or rotation θ. It is important to
retain the algebraic sign of each integral calculated within
its specified region.

• If the algebraic sum of all the integrals for the entire

beam or frame is positive, Δ or θ is in the same
direction as the virtual unit load or unit couple
moment, respectively. If a negative value results, the
direction of Δ or θ is opposite to that of the unit load
or unit couple moment. Lecture 9 Lecture 9

What Have You Learnt?

• Can you calculate structural deformation (displacement & rotation)

using
• Virtual work method?

Lecture 9 Lecture 9
 Virtual Strain Energy Caused by Axial Load, Shear,
Torsion, and Temperature

Axial Load. For members having a constant cross-

Deflection -Work–Energy Methods sectional area, we have
- Castigliano's Theorem nNL
- Castigliano's Theorem: Trusses Un =
AE
- Castigliano's Theorem: Beams & Frames
n = internal virtual axial load caused by the external virtual unit load.
N = internal axial force in the member caused by the real loads.
E = modulus of elasticity for the material.
A = cross-sectional area of the member. L = member's length.

Lecture 10 Lecture 10

Shear. In order to determine the virtual strain energy in a beam

For the entire beam, the virtual strain energy is determined by
due to shear, we will consider the beam element dx shown in Fig.
integration.
The shearing distortion dy of the element as caused by the real
loads is dy= ϒdx. If the shearing strain ϒ is caused by linear elastic
L vV
material response, then Hooke's law applies, ϒ= τ/G .Therefore, Us = ∫0 K GA dx
dy=(τ/G)dx. We can express the shear stress as τ =K(V/A), where K
is a form factor that depends upon the shape of the beam's cross-
sectional area A. Hence,

we can write dy=K(V/GA)dx.

The internal virtual work done by a virtual

shear force v, acting on the element

while it is deformed dy, is therefore dUs = vdy = v(KV/GA)dx .
Lecture 10 Lecture 10
Torsion. Often three-dimensional frameworks are subjected to torsional If a virtual unit load is applied to the structure that causes an
loadings. If the member has a circular cross-sectional area, no warping internal virtual torque t in the member, then after applying the
of its cross section will occur when it is loaded. As a result, the virtual real loads, the virtual strain energy in the member of length dx
will be
strain energy in the member can easily be derived. To do so consider tTdx
dU t = tdθ =
an element dx of the member that is subjected to an applied torque T. GJ
Integrating over the length L of the
γ=
(cdθ) member yields tTL
This torque causes a shear strain of Ut =
dx GJ
Provided linear elastic material τ Tc
γ= τ=
response occurs, then G J t - internal virtual torque caused by the external virtual unit load.
T - internal torque in the member caused by the real loads.
Thus, the angle of twist G - shear modulus of elasticity for the material.
J - polar moment of inertia for the cross section, J = pcAl2, where

dθ =
(γdx) τ
dx =
T
dx
c is the radius of the cross-sectional area.
= L - member's length.
c Gc GJ
Lecture 10 Lecture 10

If we plot the temperature profile, Fig. it will be noted that the

Temperature. In previous sections we considered the effect of a
mean temperature is
uniform temperature change ΔT on a truss member and
indicated that the member will elongate or shorten by an
amount (T1 + T2 )
Tm =
ΔL = αΔTL 2

In some cases, however, a structural member can be subjected

to a temperature difference across its depth, as in the case of
the beam shown in Fig. If T1 > T2 , the temperature difference at
the top of the element causes strain
elongation, while that at the bottom
causes strain contraction. In both cases
the difference in temperature is
ΔTm = T1-Tm = Tm- T2
Lecture 10 Lecture 10
 • Since the thermal change of length at the top and bottom m - internal virtual moment in the beam expressed as a
is δx = αΔTm dx, then the rotation of the element is function of x and caused by the external virtual unit load
αΔTm dx or unit couple moment.
dθ =
c
α - coefficient of thermal expansion.
If we apply a virtual unit load at a point on the beam
where a displacement is to be determined, or apply a ΔTm - temperature difference between the mean
virtual unit couple moment at a point where a temperature and the temperature at the top or bottom of
rotational displacement of the tangent is to be the beam.
determined, then this loading creates a virtual
c - mid-depth of the beam.
moment m in the beam at the point where the
element dx is located. When the temperature
gradient is imposed, the virtual strain energy in the
beam is then L mαΔT dx
m
U temp = ∫
Lecture 10
0 c Lecture 10

Castigliano's Theorem To derive Castigliano's second theorem, consider a body

In 1879 Alberto Castigliano, an Italian railroad engineer, published a (structure) of any arbitrary shape which is subjected to a series
book in which he outlined a method for determining the deflection of n forces P1; P2 , … , Pn. Since the external work done by these
or slope at a point in a structure, be it a truss, beam, or frame. This
method, which is referred to as Castigliano's second theorem, or loads is equal to the internal strain energy stored in the body,
the method of least work, applies only to structures that have we can write Ui = Ue
constant temperature, unyielding supports, and linear elastic
material response. If the displacement of a point is to be The external work is a function of the external loads U e = Σ ∫ P dx
determined, the theorem states that it is equal to the first partial
derivative of the strain energy in the structure with respect to a
force acting at the point and in the direction of displacement. In a Ui = Ue = f ( P1 , P2 , ..., Pn )
similar manner, the slope at a point in a structure is equal to the if any one of the forces, say Pi ,is increased by a differential amount
first partial derivative of the strain energy in the structure with dPi , the internal work is also increased such that the new strain
respect to a couple moment acting at the point and in the direction
energy becomes
of rotation.
∂Ui
U i + dU i = U i + dPi
∂ Pi
Lecture 10 Lecture 10
 This value, however, should not depend on the sequence in Since these two equations must be equal, we require

which the n forces are applied to the body. For example, if we

∂ Ui
apply dPi to the body first, then this will cause the body to be Δi 
∂ Pi
displaced a differential amount dΔi in the direction of dPi .By
Eq. (Ue = PΔ/2) the increment of strain energy would be
dPidΔi/2 . This quantity, however, is a second-order differential
which proves the theorem; i.e., the displacement Δ, in
and may be neglected. Further application of the loads
the direction of Pi is equal to the first partial derivative
P1; P2, ... ,Pn, which displace the body Δ1; Δ2, ... , Δn, yields the of the strain energy with respect to Pi .
strain energy.
U i + dU i = U i + dPi Δ i

Ui is the internal strain energy in the body, caused by the

loads P1 , P2, ... ,Pn, and dUi = dPi Δi is the additional strain
energy caused by dPi (Ue= PΔ’)
Lecture 10 Lecture 10

Castigliano's Theorem for Trusses

∂ Ui Δ - external joint displacement of the truss.

N 2L Δi =
Ui = ∂ Pi P - external force applied to the truss joint in the
2 AE
direction of Δ.
2
∂ N L
Δ = ∑ N - internal force in a member caused by both the force
∂ P 2 AE
P and the loads on the truss.
It is generally easier to perform the differentiation prior to
L - length of a member.
summation. In the general case L, A, and E are constant for a given
member, and therefore we may write A - cross-sectional area of a member.
∂ N  L E - modulus of elasticity of a member.
Δ  ∑ N 
 ∂ P  AE
Lecture 10 Lecture 10
 PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS Castigliano's Theorem for Beams and Frames
External Force P
• Place a force P on the truss at the joint where the desired displacement is to be The internal bending strain energy for a beam or frame
determined. This force is assumed to have a variable magnitude and should be
directed along the line of action of the displacement.
M 2 dx ∂Ui
Internal Forces N Ui   2 EI Δi 
• Determine the force N in each member caused by both the real (numerical) ∂ Pi
loads and the variable force P. Assume tensile forces are positive and
compressive forces are negative.
• Compute the respective partial derivative ∂N/∂P for each member.
• After N and ∂N/∂P have been determined, assign P its numerical value if it has L
replaced a real force on the truss. Otherwise, set P equal to zero.  M 2 dx
Castigliano's Theorem
Δ
P 
0
2 EI
• Apply Castigliano's theorem to determine the desired displacement Δ. It is
important to retain the algebraic signs for corresponding values of N and ∂N/∂P
when substituting these terms into the equation.
• If the resultant sum ΣN(∂N/∂P)L/ AE is positive, Δ is in the same direction as P. If
a negative value results, Δ is opposite to P.
Lecture 10 Lecture 10

Rather than squaring the expression for internal moment M,

If the slope θ at a point is to be determined, we must
integrating, and then taking the partial derivative, it is
generally easier to differentiate prior to integration. Provided find the partial derivative of the internal moment M
E and I are constant, we have with respect to an external couple moment M' acting
L  ∂ M  dx at the point, i.e., L  ∂ M  dx
Δ  ∫ M  θ  ∫ M ' 
0
 ∂ P  EI
0
 ∂ M  EI
Δ - external displacement of the point caused by the real loads The strain energies and their derivatives are, respectively,
acting on the beam or frame.
P - external force applied to the beam or frame in the direction of Δ. L V 2 dx ∂Us L V ∂ V 
M - internal moment in the beam or frame, expressed as a function Us  K ∫ ∫  dx
0 2 AG ∂ P 
0 AG ∂ P

of x and caused by both the force P and the real loads on the beam.
E - modulus of elasticity of beam material.
I - moment of inertia of cross-sectional area computed about the 2
L T dx ∂Ut L T ∂ T 
neutral axis. Ut  ∫ ∫  dx
0 2 JG ∂ P 0 JG ∂ P
Lecture 10 Lecture 10
 
 PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS
External Force P or Couple Moment M'
• Place a force P on the beam or frame at the point and in the direction of the desired
displacement.
• If the slope is to be determined, place a couple moment M' at the point.
• It is assumed that both P and M' have a variable magnitude.
Internal Moments M
• Establish appropriate x coordinates that are valid within regions of the beam or
frame where there is no discontinuity of force, distributed load, or couple moment.
• Calculate the internal moment M as a function of P or M' and each x coordinate.
Also, compute the partial derivative ∂M/∂P or ∂M/∂M' for each coordinate x.
• After M and ∂M/∂P or ∂M/ ∂M' have been determined, assign P or M' its numerical
value if it has replaced a real force or couple moment. Otherwise, set P or M' equal
to zero.
Castigliano's Theorem
• Apply Eq. 9-28 or 9-29 to determine the desired displacement Δ or slope θ. It is
important to retain the algebraic signs for corresponding values of M and ∂M/∂P or
∂M/∂M'.
• If the resultant sum of all the definite integrals is positive, Δ or θ is in the same
direction as P or M'. Lecture 10 Lecture 10

The Derivations For Shear And Torsion

Approximate Analysis of Statically Indeterminate

Structures
- Trusses
- Vertical Loads on Building Frames
- Portal Frames and Trusses
- Pin Supported.
- Fixed supported
- Partial Fixity

Lecture 10 Lecture 11
 Comparison
Structures Due to settlement

Statically Determinate Statically Indeterminate

Determinate Indeterminate

Lecture 11 No Effect Serious Effect

Lecture 11

Rise in Temperature Due to Loading

Statically Determinate Statically Indeterminate

Statically Determinate Statically Indeterminate

No Effect Lecture 11 Serious Effect which one is more economical?

Lecture 11
 Deflection Stability

Statically Determinate Statically Indeterminate Statically Determinate Statically Indeterminate

P L3 P L3
48 E I 4 192 E I
Lecture 11
1 Lecture 11

Use of Approximate Methods

When a model is used to represent any structure, the analysis
Unlike the exact methods, which are general in the sense that they
can be applied to various types of structures subjected to various
loading conditions, a specific method is usually required for the
approximate analysis of a particular type of structure for a particular
loading. For example, a different approximate method must be
employed for the analysis of a rectangular frame under vertical
(gravity) loads than for the analysis of the same frame subjected to
lateral loads. Numerous methods have been developed for
approximate analysis of indeterminate structures.
These methods can be expected to yield results within 20% of the
exact solutions. Lecture 11
of it must satisfy both the conditions of equilibrium and
compatibility of displacement at the joints. The compatibility
conditions for a statically indeterminate structure can be
related to the loads provided we know the material's
modulus of elasticity and the size and shape of the members.
For an initial design, however, we will not know a member's
size, and so a statically indeterminate analysis cannot be
considered. For analysis a simpler model of the structure
must be developed, one that is statically determinate. Once
this model is specified, the analysis of it is called an
approximate analysis. Lecture 11
 Realize that, in a general sense, all methods of Trusses
the truss shown in Fig. is statically indeterminate to the third
structural analysis are approximate, simply because
degree (using b + r > 2j, or 16 + 3 > 8(2)) and therefore we must
the actual conditions of loading, geometry, material
make three assumptions regarding the bar forces in order to
behavior, and joint resistance at the supports are
reduce the truss to one that is statically determinate. These
never known in an exact sense. In this text, however,
assumptions can be made with regard to the cross-diagonals,
the statically indeterminate analysis of a structure will
realizing that when one diagonal in a panel is in tension the
be referred to as an exact analysis, and the simpler
corresponding cross-diagonal will be in compression.
statically determinate analysis will be referred to as
the approximate analysis.

Lecture 11 Lecture 11

Structural Analogy Structural Analogy

3 degrees of indeterminacy
12 m
P1 P2

20 kN 20 kN 20 kN 20 kN 20 kN C=T=67.5 kN
V=30 kN
6@9 m= 54 m M=810 kN∙m
12 m
20 kN 20 kN 20 kN 20 kN 20 kN
Fy=30 kN
R1 R2

F cosq  shear  10 FBK=37.5 kN

50 kN 50 kN
Stiff diagonal members
assume Fa=Fb

Shear Weak diagonal members

(kN) assume Fb=0 (no compression)

moment
(kN∙m)
Lecture 11 Lecture 11
 This is evident from Fig., where the "panel shear" V is carried by Example
the vertical component of tensile force in member a and the • Determine (approximately) the forces in the members of the
vertical component of compressive force in member b. Two truss. The diagonals are designed to support both tensile and
methods of analysis are generally acceptable. compressive forces

Lecture 11 Lecture 11

• Method 1: If the diagonals are intentionally designed to be long

and slender, it is reasonable to assume that they cannot support
a compressive force; otherwise, they may easily buckle. Hence
the panel shear is resisted entirely by the tension diagonal,
whereas the compressive diagonal is assumed to be a zero-force
member.

• Method 2: If the diagonal members are intended to be

constructed from large rolled sections such as angles or channels,
they may be equally capable of supporting a tensile and
compressive force. Here we will assume that the tension and
compression diagonals each carry half the panel shear.
Lecture 11 Lecture 11
InflectionPoints
Pointsof zero moment: internal hinges Inflection Points
(Deflection shape: zero curvature)

Clamped BC
Under UDL

Lecture 11 Lecture 11

Inflection Points Inflection Points

Assumed clamped 0.2L 0.2L

Location: 0.2L

Lecture 11 Lecture 11
 Vertical Loads on Building Frames Assumptions for Approximate Analysis

The column supports at A and B will each

Building frames often consist of girders that are rigidly exert three reactions on the girder, and
connected to columns so that the entire structure is therefore the girder will be statically
indeterminate to the third degree (6
better able to resist the effects of lateral forces due to reactions - 3 equations of equilibrium)
wind and earthquake

and the deflection curve for the girder

Lecture 11 Lecture 11

Using one of the methods presented in

next Chapters, an exact analysis In summary then, each girder of length L may be modeled
reveals that for this case inflection
points, or points of zero moment, by a simply supported span of length 0.8L resting on two
occur at 0.21L from each support. If, cantilevered ends, each having a length of 0.1L. The
however, the column connections at A following three assumptions are incorporated in this model:
and B are very flexible, then like a
simply supported beam, zero moment 1.There is zero moment in the girder, 0.1L from the left
will occur at the supports support.
2.There is zero moment in the girder, 0.1L from the right
support.
In reality, however, the columns will 3.The girder does not support an axial force.
provide some flexibility at the
supports, and therefore we will
assume that zero moment occurs at
the average point between the two
extremes, i.e., at (0.21L+0)/2≈0.1L
from each support,
Lecture 11 Lecture 11
 Frames under Horizontal Loads
Portal Frames and Trusses
Example
Determine (approximately) the moment at the joints E Inflection
and C. point
1 degree
indeterminacy

hinge

Lecture 11 Lecture 11

Frames under Horizontal Loads Frames under Horizontal Loads

Fixed
Partial Fixity

Lecture 11 Trusses Lecture 11

Example
Determine (approximately) the forces acting in the
members of the Warren portal.
What Have You Learnt?
• Structural analogy
• What are inflection points?
• How to analyze frames under vertical loads?
• How can inflection points be used to simplify the analysis of the frames
under horizontal or vertical load?
• What are portal method and cantilever method?

Lecture 11 Lecture 11

Approximate Methods of Analysis of Tall Buildings

under Lateral Loads
- Portal Frame Method
- Cantilever Method

Lectur 12 Lectur 12
 Portal Frame Method A building bent deflects in the same F
way as a portal frame and
therefore it would be appropriate
 6EI to assume inflection points occur
L2 at the center of the columns and
girders.
M=0

M M
M
M
1- Put intermediate hinge
in the mid of each member
M M
6EI
L2

Lectur 12 Lectur 12

P F

P/2 P/2

P
F/2 F/2

P/2 P/2 F/4 F/4 F/4 F/4

P/2 P/2

Lectur 12 Lectur 12
F/2 F/2
In summary, the portal method for analyzing fixed-
supported building frames requires the following
F/4 F/4 F/4 F/4 assumptions:
1. A hinge is placed at the center of each girder, since
F this is assumed to be a point of zero moment.
2. A hinge is placed at the center of each column, since
this is assumed to be a point of zero moment.
F/4 F/2 F/4 3. At a given floor level the shear at the interior column
hinges is twice that at the exterior column hinges,
since the frame is considered to be a superposition of
2- When frame is subjected to lateral loads portals.
the interior column carries the double of the exterior column

Lectur 12 Lectur 12

8P
8P H

H
4P
4P H

L L

L L

Lectur 12 Lectur 12
 8P

H
8P
4P
H/2
H
V1 2V1 V1
 Fx = 0
L L
4V1 = 8P
V1 = 2P

Lectur 12 Lectur 12

8P 8P

2P 4P 2P

4P 2P 4P 2P

4P

V2 2V2 V2
3P 6P 3P

 Fx = 0
3P 6P 3P
4 V2 = 12P
V2 = 3P

Lectur 12 Lectur 12
 Disadvantages of Portal Frame Method
 Do not take the variation
in column section into
4 consideration
A 2A
8P N3 Use:

V3  Fx = 0  Do not take the distance

H/2
between columns into
 Fy = 0
2P consideration
 M= 0
N1 Find:
N1 , N3 , V3

Lectur 12 Lectur 12

Frames under Horizontal Loads

• Portal method
• Inflection points
• Shear forces

Lectur 12 Lectur 12
 In a similar manner, the lateral loads on a frame
Lateral Loads on Building Frames: Cantilever Method
The cantilever method is based on the same action as a
long cantilevered beam subjected to a transverse load. It
may be recalled from mechanics of materials that such a
loading causes a bending stress in the beam that varies
linearly from the beam's neutral axis.
tend to tip the frame over, or cause a rotation of
the frame about a "neutral axis" lying in a
horizontal plane that passes through the columns
at each floor level. To counteract this tipping, the
axial forces (or stress) in the columns will be
tensile on one side of the neutral axis and
compressive on the other side. Like the
cantilevered beam, it therefore seems reasonable
to assume this axial stress has a linear variation
from the centroid of the column areas or neutral
axis. The cantilever method is therefore
appropriate if the frame is tall and slender, or has
columns with different cross-sectional areas.

Lectur 12 Lectur 12

In summary, using the cantilever method, the following

assumptions apply to a fixed-supported frame.
1. A hinge is placed at the center of each girder, since this
is assumed to be a point of zero moment.
2. A hinge is placed at the center of each column, since this
is assumed to be a point of zero moment.
3. The axial stress in a column is proportional to its
distance from the centroid of the cross-sectional areas of
the columns at a given floor level. Since stress equals
force per area, then in the special case of the columns
having equal cross-sectional areas, the force in a column
is also proportional to its distance from the centroid of
the column areas.
These three assumptions reduce the frame to one that is
both stable and statically determinate.

Lectur 12 Lectur 12
Frames under Horizontal Loads
P
• Cantilever method
• Inflection points
• Axial forces

N1 N2 N3

A1 A2 A3

s3
s1 s2

Lectur 12 Lectur 12

P
P

N1 N2 N3

A1 A2 +CG A3
A1 A2 A3
s3
s1 s2
Ax
xCG = N1 N2 N3
A s1 = s2 = s3 =
A1 A2 A3

Lectur 12 Lectur 12
 What Have You Learnt?
• What are the portal method and cantilever method?
Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Structures by
the Force Method
- Beam
- Frame
- Truss
- Composite Structures

Lectur 12 Lecture 13

Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Structures Statically Indeterminate Structures

by the Force Method
Advantages & Disadvantages
For a given loading, the max stress and deflection of an indeterminate structure
In this chapter we will apply the force or flexibility method are generally smaller than those of its statically determinate counterpart.
Statically indeterminate structure has a tendency to redistribute its load to its
(method of consistent deformations) to analyze statically redundant supports in cases of faulty designs or overloading.
indeterminate trusses, beams, and frames.

The method, which was introduced by James C. Maxwell in

1864, essentially involves removing enough restraints from
the indeterminate structure to render it statically
determinate. This determinate structure, which must be
statically stable, is referred to as the primary structure.
Lecture 13 Lecture 13
 Although statically indeterminate structure can support loading with
thinner members & with increased stability compared to their
statically determinate counterpart, the cost savings in material must
be compared with the added cost to fabricate the structure since
often it becomes more costly to construct the supports & joints of
an indeterminate structure.
One has to careful of differential displacement of the supports as well.

Lecture 13 Lecture 13

Method of Analysis Force vs Displacement Methods

To satisfy equilibrium, compatibility and force-displacement requirements for the • Force methods
structure.
• Find degree of Statically indeterminacy.
1. Force Method
• Choose redundant forces
2. Displacement Method • Use compatibility conditions or least work principle to solve these
redundant forces
• Displacement methods
• Choose degrees of freedom (DOFs: displacement or rotation angles)
• Relate internal forces to DOFs
• Use equilibrium to solve DOFs
• Obtain internal forces from DOFs

qB

By

Lecture 13 Lecture 13
Force Method of Analysis: General Procedure
This will allow the beam to be
Consider the beam shown in Fig. statically determinate and stable.
From free-body diagram, there would be 4 unknown support Here, we will remove the rocker at B.
reactions 3 equilibrium equations. The Beam is As a result, the load P will cause B to
indeterminate to first degree to obtain the additional be displaced downward.
equation, use principle of superposition & consider the By superposition, the unknown
compatibility of displacement at one of the supports. reaction at B causes the beam at B
to be displaced upward.
This is done by choosing one of the support reactions as
redundant & temporarily removing its effect on the beam

Lecture 13 Lecture 13

Assuming positive displacements act upward, we write the necessary

compatibility equation at the rocker as: Using methods in Chapter 8 or 9 to solve for ΔB and fBB, By
can be found.
Reactions at wall A can then be determined from equation
of equilibrium.
The choice of redundant is arbitrary.
Δ'BB - Upward displacement at B
By - Unknown reaction at B
fBB - Linear flexibility coefficient

Substitution Eq. (2) into

Eq.(1), we get:

Lecture 13 Lecture 13
 The moment at A, Fig. can be determined directly by removing the
capacity of the beam to support moment at A, replacing fixed Similarly, θ' AA = M A α AA
support by pin support.
As shown in Fig., the rotation at A caused by P is θA.
The rotation at A caused by the redundant MA at A is θ’AA. Compatibility requires :

0 = θ A + M A α AA

In this case, MA = -θA/αAA, a negative value,

which simply means that acts in the opposite
direction to the unit couple moment.

Lecture 13 Lecture 13

+↓ 0 = Δ B + B y f BB + C y f BC

+↓ 0 = ΔC + By f CB + C y f CC

Once the load-displacement relations are established using the

the beam is indeterminate to the second degree and methods of Chapter 8 or 9, these equations may be solved
therefore two compatibility equations will be necessary for the simultaneously for the two unknown forces By and Cy
solution. We will choose the vertical forces at the roller supports, B
and C, as redundants. The resultant statically determinate beam
deflects as shown when the redundants are removed. Each
redundant force, which is assumed to act downward, deflects this
beam as shown in Fig.
Lecture 13 Lecture 13
PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS
• Principle of Superposition. Determine the number of degrees n to
which the structure is indeterminate. Then specify the n unknown
redundant forces or moments that must be removed from the
structure in order to make it statically determinate and stable.
Using the principle of superposition, draw the statically
indeterminate structure and show it to be equal to a series of
corresponding statically determinate structures. The primary
structure supports the same external loads as the statically
indeterminate structure, and each of the other structures added
to the primary structure shows the structure loaded with a
separate redundant force or moment. Also, sketch the elastic
curve on each structure and indicate symbolically the
displacement or rotation at the point of each redundant force or
moment.
Lecture 13
Maxwell’s Theorem of Reciprocal
Displacement: Betti’s Law
The displacement of a point B on a structure due to a unit
load acting at point A is equal to the displacement of
point A when the load is acting at point B.
BA f = f
AB using the
Proof of this theorem is easily demonstrated
principle of virtual work.
The theorem also applies for reciprocal rotations.
The rotation at point B on a structure due to a unit couple
moment acting at point A is equal to the rotation at
point A when the unit couple is acting at point B.
Lecture 13
• Compatibility Equations. Write a compatibility equation for the
displacement or rotation at each point where there is a redundant
force or moment. These equations should be expressed in terms of the
unknown redundants and their corresponding flexibility coefficients
obtained from unit loads or unit couple moments that are collinear
with the redundant forces or moments.
Determine all the deflections and flexibility coefficients using the table
on the inside front cover or the methods of Chapter 8 or 9. Substitute
these load-displacement relations into the compatibility equations and
solve for the unknown redundants. In particular, if a numerical value
for a redundant is negative, it indicates the redundant acts opposite to
its corresponding unit force or unit couple moment.
• Equilibrium Equations. Draw a free-body diagram of the structure.
Since the redundant forces and/or moments have been calculated, the
remaining unknown reactions can be determined from the equations
of equilibrium.
Lecture 13
When a real unit load acts at A, assume that the internal moments
in the beam are represented by mA. To determine the flexibility
coefficient at B, that is, fBA , a virtual unit load is placed at B, and the
internal moments mB are computed.
m m
B A
f BA = ∫ EI dx
Likewise, if the flexibility coefficient
fAB is to be determined when a real
unit load acts at B, then mB
represents the internal moments in
the beam due to a real unit load.
Furthermore, mA represents the m m
A B
internal moments due to a virtual f AB = ∫ EI dx
unit load at A.
Lecture 13
Force Method of Analysis: Beams Force Method of Analysis: Frames

Lecture 13 Lecture 13

Force Method of Analysis: Trusses

The degree of indeterminacy of a truss can usually be determined

by inspection; however, if this becomes difficult b + r> 2j. Here the
unknowns are represented by the number of bar forces (b) plus
the support reactions (r), and the number of available equilibrium
equations is 2j since two equations can be written for each of the
(j) joints.

The force method is quite suitable for analyzing trusses that are
statically indeterminate to the first or second degree.

Lecture 13 Lecture 13
Composite Structures
Composite structures are composed of some members
subjected only to axial force, while other members are
subjected to bending. If the structure is statically
indeterminate, the force method can conveniently be
used for its analysis. The following example illustrates
the procedure.
Lecture 13
Additional Remarks on the Force Method of
Analysis
Now that the basic ideas regarding the force method have been
developed, we will proceed to generalize its application and
discuss its usefulness.
When computing the flexibility coefficients, fij (or aij), for the
structure, it will be noticed that they depend only on the material
and geometrical properties of the members and not on the
loading of the primary structure. Hence these values, once
determined, can be used to compute the reactions for any
loading.
For a structure having n redundant reactions, Rn, we can write n
compatibility equations, namely:
Lecture 13

To simplify computation for structures having a large degree of

Δ1 + f 11 R 1 + f 12 R 2 + + f 1n R n = 0 indeterminacy, the above equations can be recast into a matrix form,

Δ2 + f 21 R 1 + f 22 R 2 + + f 2n R n = 0

Δn + f n1 R 1 + f n2 R2 + + f nn R n = 0

Here the displacements, Δ1 ,..., Δn, are caused by both the real
loads on the primary structure and by support settlement or
dimensional changes due to temperature differences or
fabrication errors in the members.
Lecture 13
In particular, note that fij = fji(f12= f21 , etc.), a consequence of
Maxwell's theorem of reciprocal displacements (or Betti's law).
Hence the flexibility matrix will be symmetric, and this feature is
beneficial when solving large sets of linear equations, as in the case
of a highly indeterminate structure.
Lecture 13
 Symmetric Structures
A structural analysis of any highly indeterminate structure, or for that
matter, even a statically determinate structure, can be simplified
provided the designer or analyst can recognize those structures that
are symmetric and support either symmetric or antisymmetric
loadings. In a general sense, a structure can be classified as being
symmetric provided half of it develops the same internal loadings and
deflections as its mirror image reflected about its central axis. Realize that this would not be the case for the frame, if the fixed
support at A was replaced by a pin, since then the deflected shape and
Normally symmetry requires the material composition, geometry,
internal loadings would not be the same on its left and right sides.
supports, and loading to be the same on each side of the structure.
However, this does not always have to be the case. Notice that for
horizontal stability a pin is required to support the beam and truss in
Figs. Here the horizontal reaction at the pin is zero, and so both of
these structures will deflect and produce the same internal loading as
their reflected counterpart. As a result, they can be classified as being
symmetric.
Lecture 13 Lecture 13

Sometimes a symmetric structure supports an antisymmetric loading,

that is, the loading on its reflected side has the opposite direction, such
as shown by the two examples in Fig. 10-19. Provided the structure is
symmetric and its loading is either symmetric or antisymmetric, then a What Have You Learnt?
structural analysis will only have to be performed on half the members
of the structure since the same (symmetric) or opposite (antisymmetric) • Degree of statically indeterminacy.
results will be produced on the other half. If a structure is symmetric
and its applied loading is unsymmetrical, then it is possible to transform • Compatibility equations.
this loading into symmetric and antisymmetric components. To do this, • Analysis of the beam, frame, and truss
the loading is first divided in half, then it is reflected to the other side of by using force method.
the structure and both symmetric and antisymmetric components are
produced. For example, the loading on the beam in Fig. 10-20a is divided
by two and reflected about the beam's axis of symmetry. From this, the
symmetric and antisymmetric components of the load are produced as
shown in Fig. 10-206. When added together these components produce
the original loading. A separate structural analysis can now be
performed using the symmetric and antisymmetric loading components
and the results superimposed to obtain the actual behavior of the
structure.
Lecture 13 Lecture 13
 Displacement Method of Analysis:
slope-deflection equation
Displacement Method of Analysis: In this lecture, we consider a classical formulation of the
slope-deflection equation displacement method, called the slope-deflection method. An
- General Procedure alternative classical formulation, the moment-distribution
- DOF method, is presented in the next chapter, followed by an
- FEM introduction to the modern matrix stiffness method in
- Slope-Deflection Equation future.
- Analysis of Beam we will briefly outline the basic ideas for analyzing structures
- Analysis of Frame-No Sidesway using the displacement method of analysis. Once these
- Analysis of Frame-Sidesway concepts have been presented, we will develop the general
equations of slope deflection and then use them to analyze
Lecture 14 statically indeterminate beams and frames.
Lecture 14

Force vs Displacement Methods DOF

• Force methods
• Choose redundant forces (find the degree of statically indeterminacy)
• Use compatibility conditions or least work principle to solve these
redundant forces
• Displacement methods
• Choose degrees of freedom (DOFs: displacement or rotation angles)
• Relate internal forces to DOFs
• Use equilibrium to solve DOFs
Ux, Uy, Uz qx, qy, qz
• Obtain internal forces from DOFs Translational Rotational

qB

Axial Shear Bending Torsional

By (Membrane) (Flexural)
Lecture 14 Lecture 14
 Degrees of Freedom (DOFs)
One degree of freedom Nodes, members (elements/components) and DOFs

Nodes Member
DOF
4 degree of qB
freedom

C qB

3 DoF C
qC

Lecture 14 Lecture 14

Slope-Deflection Equation Continuous beam is subjected to external load

Slope deflection method requires less work both to write the
necessary equation for the solution of a problem & to solve these
equation for the unknown displacement and associated internal
loads.
The slope-deflection method was originally developed by Heinrich
Manderla and Otto Mohr for the purpose of studying secondary
stresses in trusses. Later, in 1915, G. A. Maney developed a
refined version of this technique and applied it to the analysis of
indeterminate beams and framed structures.

Lecture 14 Lecture 14
General Case. The slope-deflection method is so named since it relates the
unknown slopes and deflections to the applied load on a structure. We wish to
relate the beam’s internal end momentsMAB andMBA in terms of its three
degrees of freedom, namely, its angular displacements θA and θB and linear
displacement Δ which could be caused by a relative settlement between the
supports. Since we will be developing a formula, moments and angular
displacements will be considered positive when they act clockwise on the span.
Furthermore, the linear displacement Δ is considered positive as shown, since
this displacement causes the cord of the span and the span’s cord angle ψ to
rotate clockwise.
The slope-deflection
equations can be obtained
by using the principle of
superposition by
considering separately the
moments developed at each
support due to each of the
displacements, θA , θB , and
Δ, and then the loads. Lecture 14 Lecture 14

Angular Displacement at A, θA
Consider node A of the member shown in Fig. to rotate θA while
Source of Moments : its end node B is held fixed.
To determine the moment MAB needed to cause this
displacement, we will use the conjugate beam method.
The conjugate beam is shown in Fig.

Load
Left Rotation

Settlement Right Rotation

Lecture 14 Lecture 14
Notice that the end shear at A' acts downward on the beam, since θA is From which we obtain the following:
clockwise. The deflection of the "real beam“ is to be zero at A and B,
and therefore the corresponding sum of the moments at each end A'
4 EI
and B' of the conjugate beam must also be zero. This yields M AB = θA (1)
L

2 EI
M BA = θA (2)
L

Lecture 14 Lecture 14

Angular Displacement at B, θB
Similarly, end B of the beam rotates to its final position while end A is held fixed.
Relative linear displacement, Δ.
We can relate the applied moment MBA to the angular displacement θB and the reaction If the far node B if the member is displaced relative to A, so that the cord of the
moment MAB at the wall. member rotates clockwise and yet both ends do not rotate then equal but
opposite moment and shear reactions are developed in the member.
Moment M can be related to the displacement using conjugate beam method.

The results are:

4 EI
M BA = θ B (3)
L

2 EI
M AB = θ B (4)
L
Lecture 14 Lecture 14
 The conjugate beam is free at both ends since the real member is fixed support.
The displacement of the real beam at B, the moment at end B’ of the conjugate
beam must have a magnitude of Δ as indicated.

- 6 EI
M AB = M BA = M = Δ (5)
L2

Lecture 14 Lecture 14

Fixed End Moment (FEM)
In general, linear and angular displacement of the nodes are
caused by loadings acting on the span of the member.
To develop the slope-deflection equation, we must transform
these span loadings into equivalent moment acting at the nodes
and then use the load-displacement relationships just derived.
For example, consider the fixed supported member shown in Fig.
Since we require the slope at each end to be zero,
This moment is called a fixed-end moment (FEM). Note that according
to our sign convention, it is negative at node A (counterclockwise) and
positive at node B (clockwise). For convenience in solving problems,
fixed-end moments have been calculated for other loadings and are
tabulated on the inside back cover of the book. Assuming these FEMs
have been computed for a specific problem

M AB = ( FEM ) AB M BA = ( FEM ) BA (6 )

Lecture 14 Lecture 14
Slope-deflection equation The results can be expressed as a single equation.
If the end moments due to each displacement (Eq.1-5) and loadings (Eq.6) are added
together, the resultant moments at the ends can be written as: MN = 2 Ek ( 2θ N + θ F - 3ψ) + ( FEM ) N (8)
for Internal Span or End Span with Far End Fixed

MN = internal moment at the near end of the span

I
E, k = modulus of elasticity & span stiffness. K =
L
θN ,θF = near and far end slopes or angular disp of the span at the supports

Δ
ψ = span rotation of its cord due to a linear displacement. Ψ =
L
( FEM ) N = fixed end moment at the near end support

Lecture 14 Lecture 14

Pin supported end span Since far end is pinned, (FEM)F = 0

Sometimes an end span of a beam or frame is supported by a (FEM)N can be obtained USING TABLE
pin or roller at its far end.
The moment at the roller or pin is zero provided the angular
displacement at this support does not have to be determined.
Applying previous two equations, we have: Multiplying the first equation by 2 and subtracting
the second equation from it eliminates the
unknown θF and yields:

M N = 3 Ek ( θ N - ψ ) + ( FEM ) N (10 )

M N  2 Ek ( 2θ N  θ F - 3ψ)  ( FEM ) N
Only for End Span with Far End Pinned
or Roller Supported
0  2 Ek (2θ N  θ F - 3ψ)  0 (9)
Lecture 14 Lecture 14
 Analysis of Beams
Slope-Deflection Equations. The slope-deflection equations relate
PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS the unknown moments applied to the nodes to the displacements
Degrees of Freedom. Label all the supports and joints (nodes) in of the nodes for any span of the structure. If a load exists on the
order to identify the spans of the beam or frame between the span, compute the FEMs using the table given on the inside back
nodes. By drawing the deflected shape of the structure, it will be cover. Also, if a node has a linear displacement, Δ, compute ψ = Δ
possible to identify the number of degrees of freedom. Here each /L for the adjacent spans. Apply Eq. 8 to each end of the span,
node can possibly have an angular displacement and a linear thereby generating two slope-deflection equations for each span.
displacement. Compatibility at the nodes is maintained provided However, if a span at the end of a continuous beam or frame is
the members that are fixed connected to a node undergo the
pin supported, apply Eq. 10 only to the restrained end, thereby
same displacements as the node. If these displacements are
generating one slope-deflection equation for the span.
unknown, and in general they will be, then for convenience
assume they act in the positive direction so as to cause clockwise
rotation of a member or joint.
Lecture 14 Lecture 14

Equilibrium Equations. Write an equilibrium equation for each unknown

Structures with Cantilever Overhangs
degree of freedom for the structure. Each of these equations should
be expressed in terms of unknown internal moments as specified by
the slope-deflection equations. For beams and frames write the
moment equation of equilibrium at each support, and for frames also
write joint moment equations of equilibrium. If the frame sidesways or
deflects horizontally, column shears should be related to the moments
at the ends of the column. This is discussed in Sec. 11-5.
Substitute the slope-deflection equations into the equilibrium equations
and solve for the unknown joint displacements. These results are then
substituted into the slope-deflection equations to determine the
internal moments at the ends of each member. If any of the results are
negative, they indicate counterclockwise rotation; whereas positive
moments and displacements are applied clockwise.
Lecture 14 Lecture 14
Analysis of Frames: No Sidesway
A frame will not sidesway, or be displaced to the left or right,
provided it is properly restrained. Examples are shown in Fig. Also,
no sidesway will occur in an unrestrained frame provided it is
symmetric with respect to both loading and geometry, as shown
in Fig. For both cases the term Ψ in the slope-deflection
equations is equal to zero, since bending does not cause the joints
to have a linear displacement.
Lecture 14
Lecture 14
Analysis of Frames: Sidesway
A frame will sidesway when it or the
loading acting on it is nonsymmetric.
Consider the frame shown in Fig.
Here the loading P causes an unequal
moments at joint B & C.
MBC tends to displace joint B to the right.
MCB tends to displace joint C to the left.
Since MBC > MCB, the net result is a
sidesway of both joint B & C to the right.
Lecture 14
When applying the slope-deflection equation to each
column, we must consider the column rotation,  as
an unknown in the equation.
As a result, an extra equilibrium equation must be
included in the solution.
The techniques for solving problems for frames with
sidesway is best illustrated by examples.
Lecture 14
 What Have You Learnt? Displacement Method of Analysis: Moment
• DOF. Distribution
• FEM. - Method Formulation
• Slope-Deflection Equation. - General Principles and Definitions
• Sidesway and no sidesway frame. • FEM
• MSF & MRSF
• DF
• COF
- Procedure of Analysis

Lecture 14 Lecture 15

DOF
One degree of freedom

4 degree of
Ux, Uy, Uz qx, qy, qz freedom
Translational Rotational

Axial Shear Bending Torsional 3 DoF

(Membrane) (Flexural)
Lecture 15 Lecture 15
Remember !
Degrees of Freedom (DOF) Displacement Method of Analysis:
Moment Distribution
The moment-distribution method is a displacement
method of analysis that is easy to apply once certain
elastic constants have been determined. In this chapter
we will first state the important definitions and concepts
Ux, Uy, Uz for moment distribution and then apply the method to
solve problems involving statically indeterminate beams
and frames. Application to multistory frames is discussed
in the last part of the chapter.
qx, qy, qz
Lecture 15 Lecture 15

This method, which was initially developed by Hardy Cross in 1924,

was the most widely used method for analysis of structures from
1930, when it was first published, through the 1960s. Since the early
1970s, with the increasing availability of computers, the use of the
moment-distribution method has declined in favor of the computer-
oriented matrix methods of structural analysis.

Lecture 15 Lecture 15
Method Formulation:

Lecture 15 Lecture 15

Relative Stiffness

Relative
Stiffness

Lecture 15 Lecture 15
 General Principles and Definitions Sign Convention. We will establish the same sign
The method of analyzing beams and frames using moment distribution convention as that established for the slope-deflection
was developed by Hardy Cross, in 1930. At the time this method was
first published it attracted immediate attention, and it has been equations: Clockwise moments that act on the member
recognized as one of the most notable advances in structural analysis
during the twentieth century.
are considered positive, whereas counterclockwise
As will be explained in detail later, moment distribution is a method of moments are negative.
successive approximations that may be carried out to any desired
degree of accuracy. Essentially, the method begins by assuming each
joint of a structure is fixed. Then, by unlocking and locking each joint in
succession, the internal moments at the joints are "distributed" and
balanced until the joints have rotated to their final or nearly final
positions. It will be found that this process of calculation is both
repetitive and easy to apply. Before explaining the techniques of
moment distribution, however, certain definitions and concepts must
be presented.
Lecture 15 Lecture 15

Fixed-End Moments (FEMs). The moments at the "walls" or fixed

Sign Convention. joints of a loaded member are called fixed-end moments. These
moments can be determined from the table, depending upon the
type of loading on the member. For example, the beam loaded as
shown in Fig. has fixed-end moments of FEM = PL/8 = 800(10)/8 =
1000 N-m. Noting the action of these moments on the beam and
applying our sign convention, it is seen that MAB = -1000 N-m and
MBA = +1000 N-m.

Lecture 15 Lecture 15
Member Stiffness Factor. Consider the beam in Fig., which is pinned at Joint Stiffness Factor. If several members are fixed connected to a joint
one end and fixed at the other. Application of the moment M causes and each of their far ends is fixed, then by the principle of
the end A to rotate through an angle θA. Using the conjugate-beam
superposition, the total stiffness factor at the joint is the sum of the
method, M =(4EI/L) θA.
member stiffness factors at the joint, that is, KT=ΣK. For example,
consider the frame joint A in Fig. The numerical value of each member
4 EI
K = stiffness factor is determined from previous Eq. and listed in the figure.
L
Far End Fixed Using these values, the total stiffness factor of joint A is KT = ΣK = 4000
+ 5000 + 1000 = 10 000. This value represents the amount of moment
needed to rotate the joint through an angle of 1 rad.
This is referred to as the stiffness factor at A and can be defined
as the amount of moment M required to rotate the end A of the
beam θ A = 1 rad.

Lecture 15 Lecture 15

Distribution Factor (DF). If a moment M is applied to a fixed
connected joint, the connecting members will each supply a portion
of the resisting moment necessary to satisfy moment equilibrium at
the joint. That fraction of the total resisting moment supplied by the
member is called the distribution factor (DF).
To obtain its value, imagine the joint is fixed connected to
n members. If an applied moment M causes the joint to
rotate an amount θ, then each member i rotates by this
same amount. If the stiffness factor of the ith
member is Ki then the moment contributed by the
member is Mi = Kiθ. Since equilibrium requires
M=M1+Mn = K1θ+ Knθ= θΣKi then the distribution factor
for the i-th member is
M i K iθ
D Fi = =
M θΣ K i

K
or D F =
ΣK
Lecture 15 Lecture 15
 For this example: DF

If M=2000N.m acts at joint A

The equilibrium moments

3 1
exerted by the members 2
on the joint:
1+2+3 1+2+3
1+2+3
1 1 1
Lecture 15 2 3
Lecture 15 6

Member Relative-Stiffness Factor. Quite often a continuous beam or a Carry-Over Factor. Consider the beam in Fig. we know that
frame will be made from the same material so its modulus of elasticity MAB=(4EI/L)θA and MBA=(2EI/L)θA. Solving for θA and equating
E will be the same for all the members. If this is the case, the common these equations we get MBA=MAB/2. In other words, the moment
factor 4E in Eq. will cancel
K = from the numerator and
4 EI
M at the pin induces a moment of M’=M/2 at the wall. The carry-
L
K
denominator of Eq. DF = when the distribution factor for a joint over factor represents the fraction of M that is "carried over" from
ΣK
is determined. Hence, it is easier just to determine the member's the pin to the wall. Hence, in the case of a beam with the far end
relative-stiffness factor fixed, the carry-over factor is +1/2. The plus sign indicates both
I moments act in the same direction.
K R =
L
Far End Fixed

and use this for the computations of the DF.

Lecture 15 Lecture 15
 PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS
• Distribution Factors and Fixed-End Moments. The joints on the
beam should be identified and the stiffness factors for each
span at the joints should be calculated. Using these values the
distribution factors can be determined from DF=K/ΣK.
Remember that DF = 0 for a fixed end and DF = 1 for an
end pin or roller support and cantilever.
• The fixed-end moments (FEM) for each loaded span are
determined using the table given on the inside back cover.
Positive FEMs act clockwise on the span and negative FEMs act
counterclockwise. For convenience, these values can be
recorded in tabular form.
Lecture 15
What Have You Learnt?
• MD Method formulation
• FEM
• MSF & MRSF
• DF
• COF
Lecture 15
Moment Distribution Process. Assume that all joints at which the
moments in the connecting spans must be determined are initially
locked. Then:
• Determine the moment that is needed to put each joint in equilibrium.
• Release or "unlock" the joints and distribute the counterbalancing
moments into the connecting span at each joint.
• Carry these moments in each span over to its other end by multiplying
each moment by the carry-over factor +1/2.
• By repeating this cycle of locking and unlocking the joints, it will be
found that the moment corrections will diminish since the beam tends
to achieve its final deflected shape. When a small enough value for the
corrections is obtained, the process of cycling should be stopped with
no "carry-over" of the last moments. Each column of FEMs, distributed
moments, and carry-over moments should then be added. If this is
done correctly, moment equilibrium at the joints will be achieved.
Lecture 15
Displacement Method of Analysis: Moment
Distribution
- Stiffness-Factor Modifications
• Member Pin Supported at Far End
• Symmetric Beam and Loading
• Symmetric Beam with Antisymmetric Loading
- Analysis of Beam
- Analysis of Frame-No Sidesway
- Analysis of Frame-Sidesway
Lecture 16
 Stiffness-Factor Modifications
In the previous lecture we have considered each beam span to be constrained by a
fixed support (locked joint) at its far end when distributing and carrying over the
moments.
For this reason we have computed the stiffness factors,
distribution factors, and the carry-over factors based on
the case shown in Fig. Here, of course, the stiffness factor
is K = 4EI/L, and the carry-over factor is +1/2.

In some cases it is possible to modify the stiffness factor of a

particular beam span and thereby simplify the process of moment
distribution. Three cases where this frequently occurs in practice
Lecture 16 will now be considered. Lecture 16

Member Pin Supported at Far End. Many indeterminate beams

Also, note that the carry-over factor is zero, since the pin
have their far end span supported by an end pin (or roller).
Here the applied moment M rotates the end A by an amount θ.
at B does not support a moment. By comparison, then, if
To determine θ, the shear in the conjugate beam at A' must be the far end was fixed supported, the stiffness factor
determined, We have K=4EI/L would have to be modified by 3/4 to model the
case of having the far end pin supported. If this
modification is considered, the moment distribution
process is simplified since the end pin does not have to
be unlocked-locked successively when distributing the
3 EI
or M =
L
θ moments.
Stiffness factor
3 EI
K =
L
Far End Pinned
or Roller Supported Lecture 16 Lecture 16
 Symmetric Beam and Loading. If a beam is symmetric with respect to
Assuming this value to be M, the conjugate
both its loading and geometry, the bending-moment diagram for the
beam for span BC is shown in Fig.
beam will also be symmetric. As a result, a modification of the stiffness
factor for the center span can be made, so that moments in the beam The slope θ at each end is therefore
only have to be distributed through joints lying on either half of the
beam. Due to the symmetry, the internal moments at B and C are equal.

2 EI
or M = θ
L
Stiffness factor
2 EI
K =
L
Lecture 16 Symmetric Beam and Loading
Lecture 16

Symmetric Beam with Antisymmetric Loading. If a

symmetric beam is subjected to antisymmetric loading, the
resulting moment diagram will be antisymmetric. As in the
Thus, moments for only half the beam can be distributed
previous case, we can modify the stiffness factor of the
provided the stiffness factor for the center span is
center span so that only one half of the beam has to be
computed using Eq. K=2EI/L. By comparison, the center
considered for the moment-distribution analysis. Consider
span's stiffness factor will be one half that usually
the beam in Fig.
determined using K=4EI/L.

Lecture 16 Lecture 16
The conjugate beam for its center span BC is
shown in Fig. Due to the antisymmetric
loading, the internal moment at B is equal,
but opposite to that at C. Assuming this
Thus, when the stiffness factor for the beam's center span
value to be M, the slope θ at each end is
determined as follows: is computed using Eq. K=6EI/L, the moments in only half
the beam have to be distributed. Here the stiffness factor
is one and a half times as large as that determined using
K=4EI/L.
6 EI
or M = θ
L

6 EI
K =
L
Stiffness factor Symmetric Beam with
Lecture 16 Lecture 16
Antysymmet ric Loading

Symmetric Beam Symmetric Beam with

and Loading. Antisymmetric Loading.
MSF COF
2 EI 6 EI
M = θ M = θ
L L
2 EI
K = 6 EI
L K =
L
Symmetric Beam and Loading
Symmetric Beam with
Antysymmet ric Loading

Lecture 16 Lecture 16
 Summary FEM
Fixed End Moment FEM w
P
Relative Stiffness RS w L2 w L2
L 20 L 30
Distribution Factor DF
PL
Table :
8 P
Fixed End Moment w
P a b2 P b a2
Distribution Moment L2 a b L2
L
Carry Over Moment L
Distribution Moment w L2
Lecture 16
12 Lecture 16

Relative Stiffness Factor DF

4 EI
K= K = Ko
L
3 EI
K= K = 3/4 Ko
L
Sym 2 EI 3 1
K= K = 1/2 Ko 2
L 1+2+3
1+2+3 1+2+3
Anti-Sym 6 EI K = 3/2 Ko 1 1
K= 1
L
Lecture 16 2 3
Lecture 16 6
 Distribution and Carry Over Moment Distribution for Frames: No Sidesway

Application of the moment-distribution method for

DF frames having no sidesway follows the same procedure

FEM as that given for beams. To minimize the chance for
DM errors, it is suggested that the analysis be arranged in a

COM tabular form. Also, the distribution of moments can be

DM shortened if the stiffness factor of a span can be
modified as indicated in the previous section.
MFinal

Lecture 16 Lecture 16

Moment Distribution for Frames: Sidesway

One method for doing this last step requires first assuming a
It has been shown in that frames that are nonsymmetrical or subjected
to nonsymmetrical loadings have a tendency to sidesway. An example
of one such case is shown in Fig. Here the applied loading P will create
unequal moments at joints B and C such that the frame will deflect an
amount A to the right. To determine this deflection and the internal
moments at the joints using moment distribution, we will use the
principle of superposition
numerical value for one of the internal moments, say M'BA.
Using moment distribution and statics, the deflection Δ' and
external force R' corresponding to the assumed value of M'BA
can then be determined. Since linear elastic deformations
occur, the force R' develops moments in the frame that are
proportional to those developed by R. For example, if M'BA and
R' are known, the moment at B developed by R will be
MBA=M'BA(R/R'). Addition of the joint moments for both cases,
previous Figs, will yield the actual moments in the frame.

Lecture 16 Lecture 16
Multistory Frames
Lecture 16
Truss Analysis Using the Stiffness Method
- Fundamentals of the Stiffness Method
- some preliminary definitions and concepts
- Member Stiffness Matrix
Lecture 17
What Have You Learnt?
• MSF Modification
• Moment Distribution Method for Beam
• MD Method for Sway and Non-Sway frame
Lecture 16
Truss Analysis Using the Stiffness
Method
In this chapter we will explain the basic fundamentals of
using the stiffness method for analyzing structures. It will
be shown that this method, although tedious to do by
hand, is quite suited for use on a computer. Examples of
specific applications to planar trusses will be given. The
method will then be expanded to include space-truss
analysis. Beams and framed structures will be discussed in
the next chapters.
Lecture 17

Lecture 17
Fundamentals of the Stiffness Method
There are essentially two ways in which structures can be analyzed
using matrix methods. The stiffness method is a displacement
method of analysis. A force method, called the flexibility method
can also be used to analyze structures. Most important, the stiffness
method can be used to analyze both statically determinate and
indeterminate structures, whereas the flexibility method requires a
different procedure for each of these two cases. Also, the stiffness
method yields the displacements and forces directly, whereas with
the flexibility method the displacements are not obtained directly.
Furthermore, it is generally much easier to formulate the necessary
matrices for the computer operations using the stiffness method;
and once this is done, the computer calculations can be performed
efficiently. Lecture 17
MSA and FEM stand on three legs: mathematical models,
matrix formulation of the discrete equations, and computing
tools to do the numerical work.
MSA-Matrix Structural Analysis. FEM-Finite Element Method
DSM-Direct Stiffness Method
Lecture 17
Application of the stiffness method requires subdividing the structure
into a series of discrete finite elements and identifying their end
points as nodes. For truss analysis, the finite elements are represented
by each of the members that compose the truss, and the nodes
represent the joints. The force-displacement properties of each
element are determined and then related to one another using the
force equilibrium equations written at the nodes. These relationships,
for the entire structure, are then grouped together into what is called
the structure stiffness matrix K. Once it is established, the unknown
displacements of the nodes can then be determined for any given
loading on the structure. When these displacements are known, the
external and internal forces in the structure can be calculated using the
force-displacement relations for each member.
Lecture 17
 some preliminary definitions and concepts
Member and Node Identification. One of the first steps when
applying the stiffness method is to identify the elements or
members of the structure and their nodes. We will specify each
member by a number enclosed within a square, and use a number
enclosed within a circle to identify the nodes. Also, the "near" and
"far" ends of the member must be identified. This will be done
using an arrow written along the member, with the head of the
arrow directed toward the far end.
Lecture 17
Kinematic Indeterminacy. The unconstrained degrees of freedom for
the truss represent the primary unknowns of any displacement
method, and therefore these must be identified. As a general rule
there are two degrees of freedom, or two possible displacements, for
each joint (node). For application, each degree of freedom will be
specified on the truss using a code number, shown at the joint or node,
and referenced to its positive global coordinate direction using an
associated arrow. For later application, the lowest code numbers will
always be used to identify the unknown displacements (unconstrained
degrees of freedom) and the highest code numbers will be used to
identify the known displacements (constrained degrees of freedom).
The reason for choosing this method of identification has to do with
the convenience of later partitioning the structure stiffness matrix, so
that the unknown displacements can be found in the most direct
manner. Lecture 17
Global and Member Coordinates. Since loads and displacements are
vector quantities, it is necessary to establish a coordinate system in
order to specify their correct sense of direction. Here we will use
two different types of coordinate systems. A single global or
structure coordinate system, x, y, will be used to specify the sense
of each of the external force and displacement components at the
nodes. A local or member coordinate system will be used for each
member to specify the sense of direction of its displacements and
internal loadings. This system will be identified using x', y' axes with
the origin at the "near" node and the x' axis extending toward the
"far" node.
Lecture 17
Once the truss is labeled and the code numbers are specified, the
structure stiffness matrix K can then be determined. To do this we
must first establish a member stiffness matrix k' for each member of
the truss. This matrix is used to express the member's load-
displacement relations in terms of the local coordinates. Since all the
members of the truss are not in the same direction, we must develop
a means for transforming these quantities from each member's local
x', y' coordinate system to the structure's global x, y coordinate
system. This can be done using force and displacement transformation
matrices. Once established, the elements of the member stiffness
matrix are transformed from local to global coordinates and then
assembled to create the structure stiffness matrix. Using K, as stated
previously, we can determine the node displacements first, followed
by the support reactions and the member forces.
Lecture 17
Member Stiffness Matrix The terms in this matrix will represent the load-displacement
The stiffness matrix for a single truss member using local relations for the member.
x', y' coordinates. A truss member can only be displaced along its axis (x' axis) since the
loads are applied along this axis. Two independent displacements
are therefore possible. When a positive displacement dN is
imposed on the near end of the member while the far end is held
pinned, the forces developed at the ends of the members are

AE
q′
N = d N
L

AE
q′
F = - d N
L

Lecture 17 Lecture 17

By superposition the resultant forces caused by both displacements are

Note that q'F is negative since for equilibrium it acts in the negative x'
AE AE
qN = d - dF
direction. Likewise, a positive displacement dF at the far end, keeping L
N
L
the near end pinned, results in member forces of
AE AE
qF = - dN + dF
AE L L
q′′
N = - dF
L

AE
q′′
F = dF These load-displacement equations may be written in matrix form as
L

Lecture 17 Lecture 17
This matrix, k', is called the member stiffness matrix, and it is of the
same form for each member of the truss. The four elements that
comprise it are called member stiffness influence coefficients, k’ij What Have You Learnt?
Physically, k’ij represents the force at joint i when a unit displacement • Member Stiffness Matrix in Local Coordinate System
is imposed at joint j. For example, if i = j = 1, then k‘11 is the force at
the near joint when the far joint is held fixed, and the near joint
undergoes a displacement of dN = 1, i.e., qN k 11′ =
AE
=
L
Likewise, the force at the far joint is AE
determined from i = 2, j= 1, so that qF = ′= -
k 21
L
These two terms represent the first column of the member stiffness
matrix. In the same manner, the second column of this matrix
represents the forces in the member only when the far end of the
member undergoes a unit displacement.Lecture 17 Lecture 17

Displacement and Force Transformation Matrices

Since a truss is composed of many members (elements), we will now
develop a method for transforming the member forces q and
Truss Analysis Using the Stiffness Method
- Displacement and Force Transformation Matrices displacements d defined in local coordinates to global coordinates. For
- Member Global Stiffness Matrix the sake of convention, we will consider the global coordinates positive
- Truss Stiffness Matrix x to the right and positive y upward. The smallest angles between the
- Application of the Stiffness Method for Truss Analysis positive x, y global axes and the positive x' local axis will be defined as
θX and θy as shown in Fig.

Lecture 18 Lecture 18
The cosines of these angles will be used in the matrix analysis that Displacement Transformation Matrix. In global coordinates each end
follows. These will be identified as λx= cosθX, λy = cosθy. Numerical
of the member can have two degrees of freedom or independent
values for λx and λy can easily be generated by a computer once the x,
displacements; namely, joint N has DNx and DNy, and joint F has DFx
y coordinates of the near end N and far end F of the member have
been specified. For example, consider member NF of the truss shown and DFy.
in Fig. Here the coordinates of N and F are (xN, yN) and (xF, yF),
respectively. Thus,
xF - xN xF - xN
λx = cos θ x = =
L (x F - xN )
2
+ (y F - yN )
2

yF - yN yF - yN
λy = cos θ y = =
L (x F - xN )
2
+ (y F - yN )
2

The algebraic signs in these "generalized"

equations will automatically account for
members that are oriented in other
quadrants of the x-y plane.
Lecture 18 Lecture 18

We will now consider each of these displacements separately, in order to Letting λx= cos θX and λ y= cosθy represent the direction cosines for
determine its component displacement along the member. When the far the member, we have d N = D NX λ x + D Ny λ y
end is held pinned and the near end is given a global displacement DNx, the
corresponding displacement (deformation) along the member is DNx cosθX d F = D FX λ x + D Fy λ y

Likewise, a displacement DNy will cause the member to be displaced DNy which can be written in matrix form as
cosθy along the x' axis. The effect of both global displacements causes the
member to be displaced

d N = D NX cos θ x + D Ny cos θ y

In a similar manner, positive displacements DFx and DFy

successively applied at the far end F, while the near end is held
pinned will cause the member to be displaced From the above derivation, T transforms the four global x, y
d = D cos θ + D cos θ displacements D into the two local x' displacements d. Hence, T is
F FX x Fy y
Lecture 18 referred to as the displacement transformation matrix.
Lecture 18
 Force Transformation Matrix. Consider now application of the force Using the direction cosines λx = cosθX, λy = cosθY, these equations
qN to the near end of the member, the far end held pinned. Here become
the global force components of qN at N are Q Nx = q N λ x Q Ny = q N λ y

Q Nx = q N cos θ x Q Ny = q N cos θ y Q = qFλ Q = qFλ

Fx x Fy y

which can be written in matrix form as

Likewise, if qF is applied to the bar, the global force components at F are In this case TT transforms the two local (x') forces q acting at the
ends of the member into the four global (x, y) force components Q.
Q Fx = q F cos θ x Q Fy = q F cos θ y By comparison, this force transformation matrix is the transpose of
the displacement transformation matrix, Eq.
Lecture 18 Lecture 18

Member Global Stiffness Matrix

We will now combine the results of the preceding sections and
determine the stiffness matrix for a member which relates the
member's global force components Q to its global displacements D.
If we substitute (d = TD) into (q = k'd), we can determine the
member's forces q in terms of the global displacements D at its end
points, namely, q = k ′ TD substituti ng int o Q = T T q ⇒ Q = T T k ′
TD
or Q = kD where k = T T k ′
T

k - is the member stiffness matrix in global coordinates. Since TT , T,

and k’ are known, we have

Lecture 18 Lecture 18
The location of each element in this 4x4 symmetric matrix is referenced
with each global degree of freedom associated with the near end N,
followed by the far end F. This is indicated by the code number
notation along the rows and columns, that is, Nx, Ny, Fx, Fy. Here k
represents the force-displacement relations for the member when the
components of force and displacement at the ends of the member are
in the global or x, y directions. Each of the terms in the matrix is
therefore a stiffness influence coefficient kij, which denotes the x or y
force component at i needed to cause an associated unit x or y
displacement component at j. As a result, each identified column of
the matrix represents the four force components developed at the
ends of the member when the identified end undergoes a unit
displacement related to its matrix column. For example, a unit
displacement DNx = 1 will create the four force components on the
member shown in the first column of the matrix.
Lecture 18
Application of the Stiffness Method for Truss Analysis
Once the structure stiffness matrix is formed, the global force
components Q acting on the truss can then be related to its global
displacements D using
Q = KD
This equation is referred to as the structure stiffness equation.
Since we have always assigned the lowest code numbers to identify
the unconstrained degrees of freedom, this will allow us now to
partition this equation in the following form:
Lecture 18
Truss Stiffness Matrix
Once all the member stiffness matrices are formed in global coordinates, it becomes
necessary to assemble them in the proper order so that the stiffness matrix K for the
entire truss can be found. This process of combining the member matrices depends
on careful identification of the elements in each member matrix. As discussed in the
previous section, this is done by designating the rows and columns of the matrix by
the four code numbers Nx, Ny, Fx, Fy used to identify the two global degrees of
freedom that can occur at each end of the member. The structure stiffness matrix
will then have an order that will be equal to the highest code number assigned to the
truss, since this represents the total number of degrees of freedom for the structure.
When the k matrices are assembled, each element in k will then be placed in its
same row and column designation in the structure stiffness matrix K. In particular,
when two or more members are connected to the same joint or node, then some of
the elements of each of the members' k matrices will be assigned to the same
position in the K matrix. When this occurs, the elements assigned to the common
location must be added together algebraically. The reason for this becomes clear if
one realizes that each element of the k matrix represents the resistance of the
member to an applied force at its end. In this way, adding these resistances in the x
or y direction when forming the K matrix determines the total resistance of each
joint to a unit displacement in the x or y direction.
Lecture 18
Here
Qk , Dk - known external loads and displacements; the loads here exist on the
truss as part of the problem, and the displacements are generally specified as
zero due to support constraints such as pins or rollers.
Qu, Du - unknown loads and displacements; the loads here represent the
unknown support reactions, and the displacements are at joints where
motion is unconstrained in a particular direction.
K - structure stiffness matrix, which is partitioned to be compatible with the
partitioning of Q and D.
Expanding previous Eq. yields
Qk = K 11 Du + K 12 Dk Qu = K 21 Du + K 22 Dk
Lecture 18

Most often Dk = 0 since the supports are not displaced.
Provided this is the case, Eq. Qk =K11Du +K12 Dk becomes
Qk = K 11 Du
Since the elements in the partitioned matrix K11 represent the total
resistance at a truss joint to a unit displacement in either the x or y
direction, then the above equation symbolizes the collection of all the
force equilibrium equations applied to the joints where the external
loads are zero or have a known value (Qk). Solving for Du, we have
Du = [K 11 ] -1 Qk
From this equation we can obtain a direct solution for all the
unknown joint displacements; then using Eq. Qu =K21Du +K22 Dk with
Dk = 0 yields
Qu = K 21 Du
Lecture 18
Since qN =qF , for equilibrium, only one of the forces has to be
found. Here will be determine qF , the one that exerts tension in
the member
In particular, if the computed result using this equation is
negative, the member is then in compression.
Lecture 18
from which the unknown support reactions can be determined. The member
forces can be determined using Eq.
q = k ' TD
Lecture 18
PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS
Notation
• Establish the x, y global coordinate system. The origin is usually located at the joint
for which the coordinates for all the other joints are positive.
• Identify each joint and member numerically, and arbitrarily specify the near and far
ends of each member symbolically by directing an arrow along the member with the
head directed towards the far end.
• Specify the two code numbers at each joint, using the lowest numbers to identify
unconstrained degrees of freedom, followed by the highest numbers to identify the
constrained degrees of freedom.
• From the problem, establish Dk and Qk.
Structure Stiffness Matrix
• For each member determine λx and λy and the member stiffness matrix using Eq. 14-
16.
• Assemble these matrices to form the stiffness matrix for the entire truss as explained
in Sec. 14-5. As a partial check of the calculations, the member and structure
stiffness matrices should be symmetric.
Displacements and Loads
• Partition the structure stiffness matrix as indicated by Eq. 14-18.
• Determine the unknown joint displacements Du using Eq. 14-21, the support
reactions Qu using Eq. 14-22, and each member
Lecture 18 force qF using Eq. 14-23.
 Nodal Coordinates
On occasion a truss can be supported by a
roller placed on an incline, and when this
occurs the constraint of zero deflection at
the support (node) cannot be directly
defined using a single horizontal and vertical
global coordinate system. For example,
consider the truss in Fig.a.
The condition of zero displacement at node 1 is defined only along
the y" axis, and because the roller can displace along the x" axis this
node will have displacement components along both global
coordinate axes, x, y. For this reason we cannot include the zero
displacement condition at this node when writing the global
stiffness equation for the truss using x, y axes without making some
modifications to the matrix analysis procedure.
Lecture 18
To solve this problem, so that it can easily be incorporated into a
computer analysis, we will use a set of nodal coordinates x", y" located
at the inclined support. These axes are oriented such that the reactions
and support displacements are along each of the coordinate axes,
Fig.a. In order to determine the global stiffness equation for the truss,
it then becomes necessary to develop force and displacement
transformation matrices for each of the connecting members at this
support so that the results can be summed within the same global x, y
coordinate system. To show how this is done, consider truss member 1
in Fig.b, having a global coordinate system x, y at the near node N ,
and a nodal coordinate system x", y" at the far node F .
Lecture 18

When displacements D occur so that they have components along These equations can be written in matrix form as
each of these axes as shown in Fig.c, the displacements d in the x'
direction along the ends of the member become

dN = D Nx cos θ x + D Ny cos θ y

dF = D Fx′′cos θ x′′+ D Fy′′cos θ y′′

Lecture 18 Lecture 18
 The displacement and force transformation matrices in the above
These equations can be written in matrix form as equations are used to develop the member stiffness matrix for this
Q Nx = q N cos θ x Q Ny = q N cos θ y situation. Applying Eq. k = T T k ′
T , we have

Q Fx′′= q F cos θ x′′ Q Fy′′= q F cos θ y′′

This stiffness matrix is then used for each member that is connected to an
inclined roller support, and the process of assembling the matrices to form the
Lecture 18 Lecture 18
structure stiffness matrix follows the standard procedure.

What Have You Learnt?

• Truss-Member Stiffness Matrix in Global Coordinate System
Beam Analysis Using the Stiffness Method
• Analysis of Truss by Stiffness Method
- Preliminary Remarks
- Beam-Member Stiffness Matrix
- Beam-Structure Stiffness Matrix
- Application of the Stiffness Method for Beam Analysis

Lecture 18 Lecture 19

Member and Node Identification. In order to apply the stiffness
The concepts presented in the previous chapter will be
extended here and applied to the analysis of beams. It will
For this reason the nodes of each element are located at a
be shown that once the member stiffness matrix and the
transformation matrix have been developed, the procedure
for application is exactly the same as that for trusses.
Special consideration will be given to cases of differential
settlement and temperature.
Lecture 19
using the same scheme as that for trusses, four nodes are specified
numerically within a circle, and the three elements are identified
numerically within a square. Also, notice that the "near" and "far"
ends of each element are identified by the arrows written alongside
each element.
Lecture 19
Preliminary Remarks
method to beams, we must first determine how to subdivide the
beam into its component finite elements. In general, each must be
free from load and have a prismatic cross section.
support or at points where members are connected
together, where an external force is applied, where the
cross-sectional area suddenly changes, or where the
vertical or rotational displacement at a point is to be
determined.
Lecture 19
Global and Member Coordinates. The global coordinate system
will be identified using x, y, z axes that generally have their
origin at a node and are positioned so that the nodes at other
points on the beam all have positive coordinates, Fig. 15-la. The
local or member x', y', z' coordinates have their origin at the
"near" end of each element, and the positive x' axis is directed
towards the "far" end.
Lecture 19

In both cases we have used a right-handed coordinate
system, so that if the fingers of the right hand are curled
from the x (x') axis towards the y (y') axis, the thumb
points in the positive direction of the z (z') axis, which is
directed out of the page. Notice that for each beam
element the x and x' axes will be collinear and the global
and member coordinates will all be parallel.
Lecture 19
Kinematic Indeterminacy. Once the elements and nodes have been
identified, and the global coordinate system has been established, the
degrees of freedom for the beam and its kinematic determinacy can be
determined. If we consider the effects of both bending and shear, then
each node on a beam can have two degrees of freedom, namely, a
vertical displacement and a rotation. As in the case of trusses, these
linear and rotational displacements will be identified by code numbers.
The lowest code numbers will be used to identify the unknown
displacements (unconstrained degrees of freedom), and the highest
numbers are used to identify the known displacements (constrained
degrees of freedom). Recall that the reason for choosing this method
of identification has to do with the convenience of later partitioning
the structure stiffness matrix, so that the unknown displacements can
be found in the most direct manner.
Lecture 19

As example, the beam in Fig. can be subdivided into three elements

DOFy and four nodes. In particular, notice that the internal hinge at node
θy 3 deflects the same for both elements 2 and 3; however, the
θx rotation at the end of each element is different. For this reason
x
three code numbers are used to show these deflections. Here
there are nine degrees of freedom, five of which are unknown, and
z θz four known; again they are all zero..

Structure Nodal DOF Nodal Force Vector

Plane Truss Ux, Uy Fx, Fy
Space Truss Ux, Uy, Uz Fx, Fy, Fz
Beam Uy, θz Fy, Mz
Plane Frame Ux, Uy, θz Fx, Fy, Mz
Space Frame Ux, Uy, Uz Fx, Fy, Fz,
θx, θy, θz Mx, My, Mz
Lecture 19 Lecture 19
 M
q

M
q2
q1

Lecture 19 Lecture 19

Development of the stiffness method for beams follows a

V similar procedure as that used for trusses. First we must
establish the stiffness matrix for each element, and then
these matrices are combined to form the beam or structure
stiffness matrix. Using the structure matrix equation, we
can then proceed to determine the unknown
displacements at the nodes and from this determine the
reactions on the beam and the internal shear and moment
at the nodes.

Lecture 19 Lecture 19
 Beam-Member Stiffness Matrix
The stiffness matrix for a beam element or member having a constant Linear and angular displacements associated with these
cross-sectional area and referenced from the local x', y', z' loadings also follow this same positive sign convention.
coordinate system.
We will now impose each of these displacements
separately and then determine the loadings acting on the
member caused by each displacement.
The origin of the coordinates is placed at the "near" end N, and the
positive x' axis extends toward the "far" end F. There are two reactions
at each end of the element, consisting of shear forces qNy’ and qFy’ and
bending moments qNz’ and qFz’: These loadings all act in the positive
coordinate directions. In particular, the moments qNz’ and qFz’ are
positive counterclockwise, since by the right-hand rule the moment
vectors are then directed along the positive z' axis, which is out of the
page. Lecture 19 Lecture 19

y' Displacements. When a positive displacement dNy' is imposed

z' Rotations. If a positive rotation dNz' is imposed while all other
while other possible displacements are prevented, the resulting
possible displacements are prevented, the required shear forces
shear forces and bending moments that are created are shown in
and moments necessary for the deformation are shown in Fig.
Fig. When dFy' is imposed, the required shear forces and bending
When dFz' is imposed, the resultant loadings are shown in Fig.
moments are given in Fig.

Lecture 19 Lecture 19
 By superposition, if the above results in two previous Figs are
added, the resulting four load-displacement relations for the
member can be expressed in matrix form as
These equations can also be written in abbreviated
form as:
q = kd
Lecture 19
Beam-Structure Stiffness Matrix
Once all the member stiffness matrices have been found, we must
assemble them into the structure stiffness matrix K. This process
depends on first knowing the location of each element in the
member stiffness matrix. Here the rows and columns of each k
matrix are identified by the two code numbers at the near end of
the member (Ny’ , Nz') followed by those at the far end (Fy’ , Fz').
Therefore, when assembling the matrices, each element must be
placed in the same location of the K matrix. In this way, K will
have an order that will be equal to the highest code
number assigned to the beam, since this represents the
total number of degrees of freedom.
Lecture 19
The symmetric matrix k is referred to as the member stiffness matrix.
The 16 influence coefficients kij that comprise it account for the shear-
force and bending-moment displacements of the member. Physically
these coefficients represent the load on the member when the
member undergoes a specified unit displacement. For example, if dNy'
= 1, while all other displacements are zero, the member will be
subjected only to the four loadings indicated in the first column of the
k matrix. In a similar manner, the other columns of the k matrix are the
member loadings for unit displacements identified by the degree-of-
freedom code numbers listed above the columns. From the
development, both equilibrium and compatibility of displacements
have been satisfied. Also, it should be noted that this matrix is the
same in both the local and global coordinates since the x', y', z' axes
are parallel to x, y, z and, therefore, transformation matrices are not
needed between the coordinates.
Lecture 19
Also, where several members are connected to a node, their
member stiffness influence coefficients will have the same
position in the K matrix and therefore must be algebraically added
together to determine the nodal stiffness influence coefficient for
the structure. This is necessary since each coefficient represents
the nodal resistance of the structure in a particular direction (y' or
z') when a unit displacement (y' or z') occurs either at the same or
at another node. For example, K23 represents the load in the
direction and at the location of code number "2" when a unit
displacement occurs in the direction and at the location of code
number "3."
Lecture 19
 Application of the Stiffness Method for Beam
Analysis
After the structure stiffness matrix is determined, the loads at the
nodes of the beam can be related to the displacements using the
structure stiffness equation Q = KD
Intermediate Loadings. For application, it is important that the
elements of the beam be free of loading along its length. This is
necessary since the stiffness matrix for each element was developed
for loadings applied only at its ends. Oftentimes, however, beams will

Here Q and D are column matrices that represent both the known and support a distributed loading, and this condition will require
unknown loads and displacements. Partitioning the stiffness matrix modification in order to perform the matrix analysis.
into the known and unknown elements of load and displacement, we
have

Which when expanded yields the two equations

Qk = K 11 Du + K 12 Dk Lecture 19
Qu = K 21 Du + K 22 Dk Lecture 19

To handle this case, we will use the principle of superposition in a

Member Forces. The shear and moment at the ends of each beam
manner similar to that used for trusses discussed in previous element can be determined using Eq. q = kd and adding on any fixed-
Chapter. To show its application, consider the beam element of end reactions q0 if the element is subjected to an intermediate loading.
We have
length L in Fig., which is subjected to the uniform distributed load q = kd + q0
w. First we will apply fixed-end moments and reactions to the If the results are negative, it indicates that the loading acts in the opposite
direction to that shown in Fig.
element, which will be used in the stiffness method. We will refer
to these loadings as a column matrix — q0. Then the distributed
loading and its reactions q0 are applied. The actual loading within
the beam is determined by adding these two results. The fixed-end
reactions for other cases of loading are given on the inside back
cover. In addition to solving problems involving lateral loadings such
as this, we can also use this method to solve problems involving
temperature changes or fabrication errors.
Lecture 19 Lecture 19
 PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS
Notation
• Divide the beam into finite elements and arbitrarily identify each element
and its nodes. Use a number written in a circle for a node and a number
written in a square for a member. Usually an element extends between
points of support, points of concentrated loads, and joints, or to points
where internal loadings or displacements are to be determined. Also, E
and I for the elements must be constants.
• Specify the near and far ends of each element symbolically by directing an
arrow along the element, with the head directed toward the far end.
• At each nodal point specify numerically the y and z code numbers. In all
cases use the lowest code numbers to identify all the unconstrained
degrees of freedom, followed by the remaining or highest numbers to
identify the degrees of freedom that are constrained.
• From the problem, establish the known displacements Dk and known
external loads Qk. Include any reversed fixed-end loadings if an element
supports an intermediate load.
Lecture 19
What Have You Learnt?
• Beam-Member Stiffness Matrix in Global Coordinate System
• Analysis of Beam by Stiffness Method
Lecture 19
Structure Stiffness Matrix
• Apply Eq. 15-1 to determine the stiffness matrix for each
element expressed in global coordinates.
• After each member stiffness matrix is determined, and the
rows and columns are identified with the appropriate code
numbers, assemble the matrices to determine the structure
stiffness matrix K. As a partial check, the member and structure
stiffness matrices should all be symmetric.
Displacements and Loads
• Partition the structure stiffness equation and carry out the
matrix multiplication in order to determine the unknown
displacements Du and support reactions Qu.
• The internal shear and moment q at the ends of each beam
element can be determined from Eq. 15-5, accounting for the
additional fixed-end loadings.
Lecture 19
Plane Frame Analysis Using the Stiffness Method
- Frame-Member Stiffness Matrix
- Displacement and Force Transformation Matrices
- Frame-Member Global Stiffness Matrix
- Application of the Stiffness Method for Frame Analysis
Lecture 20
 Frame-Member Stiffness Matrix
In this section we will develop
the stiffness matrix for a
prismatic frame member
referenced from the local x',
The concepts presented in the previous chapters on
y',z' coordinate system. The
trusses and beams will be extended in this chapter member is subjected to axial
and applied to the analysis of frames. It will be shown loads qNx’ ,qFx’, shear loads qNy’ ,
that the procedure for the solution is similar to that qFy’ , and bending moments qNz’ ,
qFz’ at its near and far ends,
for beams, but will require the use of transformation
respectively.
matrices since frame members are oriented in These loadings all act in the positive coordinate directions along with
their associated displacements. As in the case of beams, the moments
different directions qNz’ and qFz’ are positive counterclockwise, since by the right-hand rule
the moment vectors are then directed along the positive z' axis, which is
Lecture 20
out of the page. Lecture 20

The axial load, the shear load, and the bending moment were
discussed in previous chapters. By superposition, if these results are
or in abbreviated form as
added, the resulting six load-displacement relations for the member
q = k'd
can be expressed in matrix form as
The member stiffness matrix k' consists of thirty-six influence
coefficients that physically represent the load on the member
when the member undergoes a specified unit displacement.
Specifically, each column in the matrix represents the member
loadings for unit displacements identified by the degree-of-
freedom coding listed above the columns. From the assembly, both
equilibrium and compatibility of displacements have been
satisfied.

Lecture 20 Lecture 20
 Displacement and Force Transformation Matrices Likewise, a global coordinate
displacement DNy creates local
As in the case for trusses, we must be able to transform the internal coordinate displacements of
member loads q and deformations d from local x', y', z' coordinates
to global x, y, z coordinates. For this reason transformation matrices
are needed.
d N x ′= D Ny cos θ y d N y ′= D Ny cos θ x
Displacement Transformation Matrix. Consider the frame member
shown in Fig. Here it is seen that a global coordinate displacement
DNx creates local coordinate displacements Finally, since the z' and z axes are coincident, that is, directed out of
the page, a rotation DNz about z causes a corresponding rotation dNz’
about z'. Thus, d = D
Nz′ Nz
d Nx′= D Nx cos θ x d Ny′= - D Nx cos θ y
In a similar manner, if global displacements DFx in the x direction, DFy in
the y direction, and a rotation DFz are imposed on the far end of the
member, the resulting transformation equations are, respectively,

d F x ′= D Fx cos θ x d F y ′= D Fx cos θ y
Lecture 20
d F x ′= D Fy cos θ y d F y ′=Lecture
D Fy 20
cos θ x d F z ′= D Fz

Letting λx=cosθX, λy=cosθy represent the direction cosines of the Force Transformation Matrix. If we now apply each component of load
member, we can write the superposition of displacements in matrix to the near end of the member, we can determine how to transform
form as the load components from local to global coordinates. Applying qNx’ it
can be seen that
Q Nx = q N x ′cos θ x Q Ny = q N x ′cos θ y

If qNy' is applied then its

d = TD components are

By inspection, T transforms the six global x, y, z displacements D

into the six local x', y', z' displacements d. Hence T is referred to Q Nx = q Ny′cos θ y Q Ny = q Ny′cos θ x
as the displacement transformation matrix.
Lecture 20 Lecture 20
Finally, since qNz' is collinear with QNz , we have Q Nz = q Nz′ These equations, assembled in matrix form with λx=cosθX,
λy=cosθy , yield

In a similar manner, end loads of qFx‘ , qFy’ , qFz‘ , will yield the
following respective components:

Q Fx = q F x ′cos θ x Q Fy = q F x ′cos θ y
or
Q Fx = q F y ′cos θ y Q Fy = q F y ′cos θ x
Q = TTq
Q Fz = q Fz′
Here, as stated, TT transforms the six member loads expressed in local
coordinates into the six loadings expressed in global coordinates.
Lecture 20 Lecture 20

Frame-Member Global Stiffness Matrix We can obtain its value in generalized form using previous Eqs. and
The results of the previous section will now be combined in order to performing the matrix operations. This yields the final result
determine the stiffness matrix for a member that relates the global
loadings Q to the global displacements D. To do this, substitute Eq.
(d = TD) into Eq. (q = k'd). We have
q = k′
TD
Here the member forces q are related to the global displacements
D. Substituting this result into Eq. (Q = TTq) yields the final result,
T
Q = T k′
TD or Q = kD
where
T
k = T k′
T
Here k represents the global stiffness matrix for the member.
Lecture 20 Lecture 20
 Note that this 6x6 matrix is symmetric. Furthermore, the location of Application of the Stiffness Method for Frame
each element is associated with the coding at the near end, Nx,
Analysis
Ny, Nz, followed by that of the far end, Fx, Fy, Fz, which is listed at
Once the member stiffness matrices are established, they may be
the top of the columns and along the rows. Like the k' matrix,
assembled into the structure stiffness matrix in the usual manner. By
each column of the k matrix represents the coordinate loads on
writing the structure matrix equation, the displacements at the
the member at the nodes that are necessary to resist a unit
unconstrained nodes can be determined, followed by the reactions and
displacement in the direction defined by the coding of the internal loadings at the nodes. Lateral loads acting on a member,
column. For example, the first column of k represents the global fabrication errors, temperature changes, inclined supports, and internal
coordinate loadings at the near and far ends caused by a unit supports are handled in the same manner as was outlined for trusses
displacement at the near end in the x direction, that is, DNx. and beams.

Lecture 20 Lecture 20

PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS Structure Stiffness Matrix

Notation
• Apply previous Eq. (k-matrix) to determine the stiffness matrix for
• Divide the structure into finite elements and arbitrarily identify each each element expressed in global coordinates. In particular, the
element and its nodes. Elements usually extend between points of
direction cosines kx and ky are determined from the x, y coordinates
support, points of concentrated loads, corners or joints, or to points
of the ends of the element, Eqs.
where internal loadings or displacements are to be determined.
• Establish the x, y, z, global coordinate system, usually for convenience xF - xN xF - x N
λx = cos θ x = =
with the origin located at a nodal point on one of the elements and the L (x F - xN )
2
+ (y F - y N )2
axes located such that all the nodes have positive coordinates.
• At each nodal point of the frame, specify numerically the three x, y, z
yF - yN yF - yN
coding components. In all cases use the lowest code numbers to identify λy = cos θ y = =
all the unconstrained degrees of freedom, followed by the remaining or L (x F - x N )2 + (y F - y N )2
highest code numbers to identify the constrained degrees of freedom. • After each member stiffness matrix is written, and the six rows and
columns are identified with the near and far code numbers, merge
• From the problem, establish the known displacements Dk and known the matrices to form the structure stiffness matrix K. As a partial
external loads Qk. When establishing Qk be sure to include any reversed check, the element and structure stiffness matrices should all be
fixed-end loadings if an element supports an intermediate load. symmetric.

Lecture 20 Lecture 20
Displacements and Loads
• Partition the stiffness matrix as indicated by Eq.
Expansion then leads to What Have You Learnt?
Qk= K11Du + K12Dk • Frame-Member Stiffness Matrix in Global Coordinate System
Qu = K21Du + K22Dk • Analysis of Frame by Stiffness Method
The unknown displacements Du are determined from the first of these
equations. Using these values, the support reactions Qu are
computed from the second equation. Finally, the internal loadings q
at the ends of the members can be computed from Eq. q = k’ TD

If the results of any of the unknowns are calculated as negative

quantities, it indicates they act in the negative coordinate directions.

Lecture 20 Lecture 20

In this chapter we will extend these ideas and show how it applies when the analysis is
done on a computer. This process will include a description of how geometric, load, and
Structural Modeling and Computer Analysis material data are assembled and then used as input for one of many different structural
- General Structural Modeling analysis computer programs currently available.

- Modeling a Structure and its Members

- General Application of a Structural Analysis Computer
Program

Lecture 21 Lecture 21
 The model must account for:
General Structural Modeling • the geometry of each of the members,
• the types of connections,
• the loadings,
• the material properties.

The modeling process must be such that reasonable

yet conservative results are obtained.

Lecture 21 Lecture 21

Keep in mind that a computer analysis may be accurate when calculating a Modeling a Structure and its Members
numerical answer, but the final results can lead to disastrous consequences if the
prepared model provides the wrong computer input.
• Tie Rods (bracing struts):
• Support only a tensile force.
• The supports are assumed to be pin

Once the model is constructed, and a structural analysis

performed, the computed results should be checked to
be sure they parallel our intuition about the structural
behavior. If this does not occur, then we may have to
improve the modeling process, or justify the calculations
based on professional judgment.

Lecture 21 Lecture 21
Beams and Girders:
• support loadings applied perpendicular to their length.
• selecting the proper support for these members.

Lecture 21 Lecture 21

Columns General Structure.

• carry a compressive load in direct bearing, that is, the load will pass
through the centroid of the cross section.
• the end supports should be modeled.
• if a corbel is attached to a column it will carry an eccentric load

Lecture 21 Lecture 21
 General Application of a Structural Analysis
Computer Program
Once the model of the structure is established and the load and
material properties are specified, then all this data should be
tabulated for use in an available computer program. The most popular
structural analysis programs currently available, such as STAAD,
DIANA, RISA, and SAP, are all based on the stiffness method of matrix
analysis, described in lectures 17 through 20. Although each of these
programs has a slightly different interface, they all require the
engineer to input the data using a specified format.
Preliminary Steps.
• numerically identify the members and joints, called nodes,
• establish both global and local coordinate systems in order to specify
the structure’s geometry and loading.
• In some programs, the “near” and “far” ends of the member must be
identified.
Since loads and displacements are vector quantities, it is necessary to
establish a coordinate system in order to specify their correct sense of
direction. Here we must use two types of coordinate systems.

Lecture 21 Lecture 21

Member Data. Enter:

Program Operation. • each member number,
• the near and far node numbers,
When any program is executed, a menu should appear which allows various
selections for inputting the data and getting the results. For any problem, be sure • the member properties, E ,A, and/or I and J .
to use a consistent set of units for numerical quantities.
If an internal hinge or pin connects two members of a
beam or frame, then the release of moment must be
specified at that node.
General Structure Information. This item should generally be
selected first in order to assign a problem title and identify the
type of structure to be analyzed—truss, beam, or frame.

Node Data. Enter, in turn, each node number and its far and
near end global coordinates.

Lecture 21 Lecture 21
 Results.
Support Data. Enter:
Once all the data is entered, then the problem can be solved.
• each node located at a support,
• the external reactions on the structure,
• specify the called for global coordinate directions in which restraint occurs.
• support settlement.
• the displacements and internal loadings at each node,
• the graphic of the deflected structure.
As a partial check of the results a statics check is often given at
Load Data. each of the nodes. It is very important that you never fully trust the
• at nodes,
results obtained. Instead, it would be wise to perform an intuitive
• on members.
structural analysis using one of the many classical methods discussed in
Enter
• the algebraic values of nodal loadings relative to the global previous lectures to further check the output.
coordinates. After all, the structural engineer must take full responsibility for both
• For beam and frame members the loadings and their location
the modeling and computing of final results.
are generally referenced using the local coordinates.
Lecture 21 Lecture 21

Automatic Assembly
All the above steps of structural layout, establishing the global and
local coordinate systems, and specifying the load data, are
sometimes automatically incorporated within the program. Many programs used for structural analysis and design also
For example, one can construct a scaled drawing of the structure on
the monitor, either by specifying the end point coordinates of each have a load combination feature. The engineer simply
member, or by mouse clicking the global coordinates of the
member’s end points. specifics the type of loading, such a dead loads, wind load,
Once that is done, the program will automatically establish the near
snow load, etc., and then the program will calculate each of
and far sides of each member, along with its local coordinates.
Another approach, if allowed, would be to use a drafting program, these loadings according to the equations and requirements
such as AutoCAD, to build the structure, and then input this graphic
into the structural analysis program. of the code, such as ASCE 7.

Lecture 21 Lecture 21
Structural geometry by ETABS :
LOAD COMBINATION FROM (ACI 318M-14)

Lecture 21 Lecture 21

ANALYSIS RESULT BMD

STORY BASE TO 10 STORY 10 TO STORY 20 TO 29

20

Lecture 21 Lecture 21
 Corner Column (Non Sway) Corner Column (Sway)
Story Column As (𝑚𝑚 ) As (𝑚𝑚 ) As (𝑚𝑚 ) As (𝑚𝑚 ) NO of Bar
STORY 2 size(mm)
required Provided required Provided
ANALYSIS AND
Story C 108 2360 2512 8Ø20 1600 1884 6 Ø20
DESIGN RESULT IN
ETABS OF
20 400x400
CORNER COLUMN

STORY 11

STORY
20

STORY 29

Lecture 21 Lecture 21

Lecture 21 Lecture 21
 What Have You Learnt?
• Input geometry and properties of the all members of
structure, and enter type of supports and loadings.
• Analyze the structure.
• Read and print the output results

Lecture 21