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Research paper

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Research paper outline
Topic sentences
Paragraph structure
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Academic writing
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Research paper
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How to write a research paper

A research paper is any kind of academic writing based on original research which
features analysis and interpretation from the author — and it can be a bit
overwhelming to begin with!

That’s why we created a step-by-step guide on how to write a research paper, where
we take you through the academic writing process one manageable piece at a time.
Table of contents

Understand the assignment

Understand your audience
Choose a research paper topic
Conduct preliminary research
Develop a thesis statement
 Create a research paper outline
Paragraph structure
Write a first draft of the research paper
Write a research paper introduction
Write a compelling body of text
Write the research paper conclusion
The second draft
The revision process
Checklist

1. Understand the assignment

Part of completing a piece of assessment successfully means accomplishing the

specific tasks set out for you. That entails properly and thoroughly understanding
the assignment task sheet, which you can achieve by doing the following:

Read it carefully, looking for anything confusing you might need to clarify
with your professor.
Identify the assignment goal, deadline, length specifications, formatting and
submission method.
Make a bulleted list of the key points, then go back and cross completed items
off as you’re writing.

At this stage, consider:

Timeframe: be realistic, and plan for time to research, write and edit.
Word limit: work with a precise or specific topic to avoid trying to cover too
much information.
Purpose: Each purpose comes with different requirements. For example, are you
aiming to inform people of something, persuade them to think differently, or
encourage them to take a certain course of action?

2. Understand your audience

When asking yourself how to write a research paper, you need to consider your
audience. Their knowledge level influences your writing style, choice of words and
how much detail you need in explanations of concepts.

A master’s thesis is usually written for an expert audience, though you may wish to
make it accessible to a broader audience. If you are writing an undergraduate
paper, you can assume your audience is somewhere between generalist and expert.
Audience How to write a research paper
Generalist

Avoid technical terms or, if you must use them, include definitions
Avoid excessive, complex detail
Use shorter, simpler sentences and shorter, simpler words
Use slow and simple explanation to make your argument; show your logic
Be informative
Use examples to clarify key points

Expert

Do not over-explain — e.g. common technical terms and obvious background

Carefully justify your claims
Show nuance in your arguments
Exhibit command of the literature — experts will notice things you fail to
mention
3. Choose a research paper topic

There are many ways to generate an idea for a research paper, whether you prefer
old-fashioned brainstorming by writing notes, or talking with a fellow student or
professor to figure out how to approach a topic.

You can try free writing, which involves taking a broad topic and writing
continuously for two or three minutes to identify absolutely anything relevant that
could be interesting.

You can also gain inspiration from other research. The discussion or
recommendations sections of research papers often include ideas for other specific
topics to examine.

Once you have a main subject area, narrow it down to choose a topic that:

Interests you
Is original
Meets the criteria of your assignment
Is possible to research

Remember that the idea is to be both original and specific. A paper following the
chronology of World War II would not be original or specific enough. A paper on the
experience of Danish citizens living close to the German border during World War II
would be specific and could be original enough — that is where the next step comes
into play.
4. Conduct preliminary research

Note any discussions that seem important to the topic, and try to find an issue
that you can focus your paper around. Use several types of sources, including
journals, books and reliable websites, to ensure you do not miss anything glaring.

Do not only verify the ideas you have in mind, but look for sources that contradict
your point of view, to avoid confirmation bias.

Is there anything people seem to overlook in the sources you research?

Are there any heated debates you can address?
Do you have a unique take on your topic?
Have there been some recent developments that build on the extant research?

In this stage, you might find it helpful to formulate some research questions to
help guide you. These are more commonly used in a thesis or dissertation rather
than an essay. To write research questions, try to finish the following sentence:
“I want to know how/what/why…”

In addition, this stage will help you determine whether there is a possible flaw in
your argument. If you find there is a flaw, you can adjust your argument or topic
at this stage.

Most researchers do not conduct a great deal of research at this point — it is only
to ensure the paper is on track and to get a sense of the literature.
5. Develop a thesis statement

A thesis statement is a statement of your central argument — it establishes the

purpose and position of your paper. If you started with a research question, the
thesis statement should answer it. It should also show what evidence and reasoning
you’ll use to support that answer.

The thesis statement should be concise, contentious, and coherent. That means it
should briefly summarize your argument in a sentence or two; make a claim that
requires further evidence or analysis; and make a coherent point that relates to
every part of the paper.

You will probably revise and refine the thesis statement as you do more research,
but it can serve as a guide throughout the writing process. Every paragraph should
aim to support and develop this central claim.
6. Create a research paper outline

A research paper outline works as an effective guide to use during the writing
process. It is essentially a list of the key topics, arguments and evidence you
will include, divided into sections with headings so the paper is planned before
you begin writing.

A research paper outline can help make the writing process much more efficient, so
it is worth dedicating the time to create one.

Read our article on creating a research paper outline.

7. Paragraph structure

Paragraphs are the basic building blocks of research papers. Each one should focus
on a single claim or idea that helps to establish the overall argument or purpose
of the paper.

Here is what a paragraph should look like. Hover over the sentences to learn more.
Example paragraph

George Orwell’s 1946 essay “Politics and the English Language” has had an enduring
impact on thought about the relationship between politics and language.This impact
is particularly obvious in light of the various critical review articles that have
recently referenced the essay.For example, consider Mark Falcoff’s 2009 article in
The National Review Online, “The Perversion of Language; or, Orwell Revisited,” in
which he analyzes several common words (“activist,” “civil-rights leader,”
“diversity,” and more).Falcoff’s close analysis of the ambiguity built into
political language intentionally mirrors Orwell’s own point-by-point analysis of
the political language of his day.Even 63 years after its publication, Orwell’s
essay is emulated by contemporary thinkers.

8. Write a first draft of the research paper

Your first draft should not be the last, as you can polish later on. The main goal
at this stage is to:

Turn your rough ideas into workable arguments

Add detail to those arguments
Get a sense of what the final product will look like

You do not need to start your paper at the introduction. Start writing where it
feels most natural for you — some prefer to finish the most difficult sections
first, while others choose to start with the easiest part. If you created a
research paper outline, use it as a map while you work.

Do not delete large sections of text. If you begin to dislike something you have
written, move it to a different document, but do not lose it completely as you
never know if it might come in useful later.

Your priorities when writing the first draft should be:

Maintaining forward momentum — write now, perfect later.

 Paying attention to clear organization and logical ordering of paragraphs and
sentences, to help yourself when you come to the second draft.
Expressing your ideas as clearly as possible, so you know what you were trying
to say when you come to perfecting the text.
Keeping your arguments flexible. Be prepared to change or abandon arguments if
needed. If you get stuck on one section, move on to another and come back later.
Citing clearly — your citations do not need to be perfect yet, but you will
save time by including the essentials such as author name, year of publication and
page numbers with the relevant information.

9. Write a research paper introduction

The introduction usually addresses three questions: What? Why? How?

In a thesis or dissertation, the introduction has strict requirements of precisely

what to include. For an essay, the introduction serves as a “hook,” designed to
move the reader from what they already know to the information you plan to discuss
or convince them of. Remember, the introduction in an essay should be concise and
not make any arguments.

After finishing the introduction, the reader should know what the paper is about
and why it is worth reading.

What? Be specific about the topic of the paper, introduce the background and define
key items such as terms, theories and historical details. If you are writing a
longer essay with a literature review, you should give a sense of how your point
fits with the extant research.

Why? This is the most important, but also most difficult, part of the introduction.
Try to provide brief answers to the following questions: What new material or
insight are you offering? What important issues does your essay help define or
answer?

How? The reader needs to know how the paper will proceed. Therefore, the
introduction should include a “map” of what will be discussed or briefly present
all the key elements of the paper in chronological order.
10. Write a compelling body of text

The major struggle faced by most writers is how to organize the information
presented in the paper, which is one reason a research paper outline is so useful.
However, remember that the outline is only a guide and, when writing, you can be
flexible with the order in which the information and arguments are presented.

One way to stay on track is to use your thesis statement and topic sentences.
Check: topic sentences against the thesis statement; topic sentences against each
other, for similarities and logical ordering; and each sentence against the topic
sentence of that paragraph. Do not be ruled by your sources — use them as they
become relevant to what you are writing.

After completing the first draft, condense the paragraphs into only topic sentences
and read them one at a time. Be aware of paragraphs that seem to cover the same
things. If two paragraphs discuss something similar, they must approach that topic
in different ways. Check for smooth transitions between paragraphs.
11. Write the research paper conclusion

The conclusion is designed to help your reader out of the paper’s argument, giving
them a sense of finality.

Trace the course of the paper, emphasizing how it all comes together to prove your
thesis statement. Give the paper a sense of finality by making sure the reader
understands how the paper has settled the issues raised in the introduction. Recap
the what, why and how, and try to show how the key ideas mentioned in the
introduction look now that your point is established.

You might also discuss the more general consequences of the argument, outline what
the paper offers to future students of the topic and suggest any questions the
paper’s argument raises but cannot or does not try to answer.

You should not:

Offer new arguments or essential information

Take up any more space than necessary
Begin with phrases that signal you are ending the paper

12. The second draft

There are four main considerations when it comes to the second draft.

Check how your vision of the paper lines up with the first draft and, more
importantly, that your paper still answers the assignment.
Identify any assumptions that might require (more substantial) justification,
keeping your reader’s perspective foremost in mind. Remove these points if you
cannot substantiate them further.
Be open to rearranging your ideas. Check whether any sections feel out of place
and whether your ideas could be better organized.
If you find that old ideas do not fit as well as you anticipated, you should
cut them out or condense them. You might also find that new and well-suited ideas
occurred to you during the writing of the first draft — now is the time to make
them part of the paper.

13. The revision process

The goal during the revision and proofreading process is to ensure you have
completed all the necessary tasks and that the paper is as well-articulated as
possible.
Global concerns

Purpose: confirm that your paper completes every task specified in your
assignment sheet.
Check for logical organization and flow of paragraphs.
Check paragraphs against the introduction and thesis statement.

Scribbr can help with this stage of your paper, with our award-winning
proofreading, clarity check and structure check services.
Fine-grained details

Check the content of each paragraph, making sure that:

each sentence helps support the topic sentence.

no unnecessary or irrelevant information is present.
all technical terms your audience might not know are identified.

Next, think about sentence structure, grammatical errors and formatting. Check that
you have correctly used transition words and phrases to show the connections
between your ideas. Look for typos, cut unnecessary words and check for consistency
in aspects such as heading formatting and spellings.

Here are some tips to make sure you do not miss anything:
 Read the paper aloud, which will force you to slow down and look more closely
at each word.
Change fonts, as it helps to spot mistakes by making the text less familiar.
Edit a printed copy. Follow each word with a pen or pencil.
Have someone else read through and make notes.

Finally, you need to make sure your paper is correctly formatted according to the
rules of the citation style you are using. For example, you might need to include
an MLA heading or create an APA title page.
Checklist

Writing a research paper

0 / 15

I’ve followed all instructions in the assignment sheet.

I’ve followed all formatting guidelines (page numbers added, identifying

information included, spacing is right, font is uniform, etc.).

At the end of the paper I have a carefully formatted reference list, which
conforms to the appropriate style manual’s guidelines (e.g. APA Style).

I have provided an appropriately formatted in-text citation for every piece of

information from another source.

I’ve addressed any feedback from my professor or supervisor.

I have an interesting introduction, giving a sense of what my topic is, why

it’s important, and how I will discuss it.

All of the key sub-arguments or claims are briefly pointed out or outlined in
the introduction.

Near the beginning of each paragraph, I’ve used a good topic sentence.

Every paragraph is unified to convey one specific idea.

The relationship between each paragraph and the preceding paragraph or section
is made clear by a good transition, in or before the topic sentence.

The relationship between each paragraph and the thesis of the paper is clear.

No paragraph is unreasonably short or long, being just long enough to explain

or prove the point.

The relationship between each sentence and the preceding sentence is made
clear, either through continuity in the topic matter or an appropriate transitional
word or phrase.

I have a conclusion that does not present any new argumentative support to the
thesis, does not merely repeat the information given in the introduction, and does
not leave the reader unsatisfied or confused.

I’ve revised the document carefully, keeping in mind both global concerns and
fine-grained details.

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