Resources, Conservation & Recycling 133 (2018) 375–384

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Resources, Conservation & Recycling

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Full length article

Element-based optimization of waste ceramic materials and glasses T

recycling
⁎
Ichiro Daigoa, , Shin Kiyoharab, Tomoki Okadac,d, Daisaku Okamotoe, Yoshikazu Gotoa
a
Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Japan, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan
b
Institute of Industrial Science, The University of Tokyo, Japan, 4-6-1 Komaba, Meguro, Tokyo 153-8505, Japan
c
School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Japan, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan
d
Kobe Steel, Ltd., Japan, 1 Kanazawa-cho, Kakogawa-shi, Hyogo, 675-0137, Japan
e
Kishiyama Co., Ltd., Japan, 1-54, Gamo-higashi-cho, Koshigaya-shi, Saitama, 343-0841, Japan

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Many waste ceramic materials and glasses (CerG) such as glass, concrete, pottery, porcelain, brick, and tiles are
Glass recycling landfilled because they have been recognized to be less conducive to recycling. In this study, to enhance the
Recycling of ceramics recyclability of ceramic materials and glasses, a linear model to minimize natural resource consumption of CerG
Refractories materials production is proposed. The model focuses on elementally based contents of substances in the CerG
Ironmaking slag
materials. The model demonstrates a case for major industrial ceramic materials consisting of eleven oxides:
Sewage sludge
CerG
Al2O3, B2O3, CaO, Fe2O3, K2O, MgO, MnO, Na2O, P2O5, SiO2, and TiO2 in Japan. In addition to the ceramic
materials and glasses within the eleven oxide systems, application of the same natural resources to by-products
or waste materials such as ironmaking slag and sewage sludge molten ash, are included in this analysis. In the
proposed model, for minimizing natural resource consumption to produce the target CerG, linear programming
was employed to assess waste generation and new production of CerG, subject to supply and demand balance
and elemental tolerance ranges of chemical compositions in CerG materials. Two discrepancies were found
between the proposed model and the characteristics of materials or usages of materials. Therefore, in the case
study, several kinds of CerG materials were not applicable in the analysis. Even though costs for recovered
materials restrict economic feasibility for recycling waste CerG, economic aspects were not taken into con-
sideration in the analysis. In addition, impurity contamination during recovery processes restricts recycling of
CerG. If those two factors (which may restrict the current recycling systems) were ignored, around two-thirds of
the current natural resource consumption for CerG could be reduced by promoting recycling in the case of Japan.
Further, new recyclable paths could be found by those analyses such as ironmaking slag for flat glass, glass
bottles, and glass wool; and sewage sludge molten slag for tiles.

1. Introduction
Ceramic materials and glasses (CerG) have been used in natural
forms from ancient times (Ashby 2005) as stone, flint, and pottery.
Recently, industrial CerG such as porcelain, fused silica, cement, re-
fractories, and soda-lime glass, have been widely used. The CerG and
raw materials for these are produced in large amounts (USGS 2017):
4.20 billion tonnes of cement, 700 million tonnes of wollastonite, 350
million tonnes of lime, 56 million tonnes of clays, 53 million tonnes of
soda ash, and 23 million tonnes of feldspar were produced in the world
in 2016. On the other hand, their end-of-life materials are hardly re-
covered and recycled, except for concrete recycling for construction
aggregates and cullet glass recycling (Jani and Hogland 2014; Santos
et al., 2017). Meanwhile, their raw materials are abundant and prac-
tically inexhaustible; large amounts of waste are generated and dumped
into landfill sites every year (Du and Tan 2013; Jani and Hogland
2014). In addition, greenhouse gas emissions associated with the
mining and transportation of the large amounts of raw materials and
the production of the materials should not be ignored (Jani and
Hogland 2014). Madivate et al. (1996) revealed mechanisms of the
energy requirement in reactions and proposed measures for energy
saving such as using cullets, replacing carbonates in the glass batch
with corresponding hydroxides, and reducing the melting temperature.
Therefore, recycling of CerG can effectively contribute to reducing the
amounts of dumping and GHG emissions associated with CerG pro-
duction.

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: daigo@material.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp (I. Daigo).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2017.11.012
Received 11 May 2017; Received in revised form 17 November 2017; Accepted 17 November 2017
Available online 28 November 2017
0921-3449/ © 2017 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/BY/4.0/).
I. Daigo et al.
Recently, new recycling technologies have been studied (Du and
Tan 2013). Several studies (Matteucci et al., 2002; Tucci and Rambaldi,
2006; Faira and Holanda 2016) introduced the possibility of recycling
waste soda-lime glass for porcelain stoneware tiles. Although the new
recycling scheme still requires technological modifications to the pro-
cesses and has a tolerable share in feedstocks, waste glass could be used
as a substitutable raw material for naturally occurring sodic feldspar.
Karamanova et al., 2011 introduced new ceramic materials containing
ironmaking slag. As long as ironmaking slag is mixed with Kaoline and
silica sand at an appropriate portion, the new ceramics have higher
property than conventional tiles in terms of bending strength and
hardness. Badiee et al. (2008) and Teo et al. (2014) introduced re-
cycling of steelmaking slag generated at electric arc furnace for ceramic
tiles with the combination of steelmaking slag, ball clay, feldspar and
silica. Even though the two studies tried in different batch composi-
tions, the recycled tiles showed good characteristics. Kikuchi (1998)
demonstrated recycling sewage sludge with incineration ash by vi-
trification resulted in molten slag, into tiles and slag wool. Chen and Lin
(2009) proposed a new technology of the nano-SiO2 additive for por-
celain clay tile containing incinerated sewage sludge ash, which in-
crease replacement ratio of the sewage sludge. Lin et al. (2008) in-
troduced recycling incinerated sewage sludge into the body of glazed
tiles. In addition, Zhou et al. (2013) proposed a new recycling process
for sewage sludge without drying. Many recycling technologies for
cement and concrete reclaimed from waste glass (container or packa-
ging glass, flat glass, domestic or tableware glass and continuous fila-
ment glass fibers) (Rashad 2014), ironmaking slag (Tae et al., 2017),
steelmaking slag (Anastasiou et al., 2014), sewage sludge (Smol et al.,
2015) and recycled concrete aggregate (Poon and Chan 2007) have
been introduced. As reviewed, those technologies have tried to recycle
different waste CerG mainly into tiles, cement and concrete which may
be tolerant for raw materials.
The newly proposed recycling technologies can be implemented due
to the similarity of chemical compositions between glass and ceramic
materials (Sikora et al., 2016). To promote the recycling of waste glass
and ceramic materials, further new recycling paths are required. From
the viewpoint of chemical composition, new applications of waste
ceramic materials are expected to be found. In this study, to enhance
recycling of waste industrial ceramic and glass materials, a new method
to find recycling possibilities was proposed on the basis of element-wise
contents of oxides in the ceramic materials.
2. Model development
2.1. Oxide-based ceramic materials and glasses (CerG)
Theoretically, ceramic materials and glasses are distinguished be-
cause ceramic materials are crystalline solids and glasses are amor-
phous solids. Hereafter the recycling of those materials by melting or
sintering was taken into consideration. In the recycling of those mate-
rials, crystalline or non-crystalline composition in raw materials is not
relevant whereas the chemical compositions are always determinative
(Souza et al., 2010; Bernardo et al., 2008; Bernardo et al., 2010). Due to
the similarity of compositions between ceramic materials and glasses,
they are regarded as the same group of materials (CerG) in this study.
Industrial CerG are produced from naturally occurring clay and sand
and in general consist of metallic and non-metallic oxides. Production
processes of CerG cannot extract impurities or separate substances.
Chemical compositions of CerG products are decided by the fraction of
raw materials which are converted into a homogeneous liquid (Jani and
Hogland 2014; Ruth and Dell’Anno 1997). In practice, when waste
CerG is recycled to produce new CerG materials, the chemical compo-
sitions of recovered waste CerG have to meet requirements of the target
CerG material. When a substance that should be strictly avoided in a
CerG material is contained in a waste CerG, the waste CerG cannot be
recycled as a CerG material (Jani and Hogland 2014). For instance,
376
Resources, Conservation & Recycling 133 (2018) 375–384
metallic aluminium in a glass cullet is strictly prohibited in glass pro-
duction (Wischnat et al., 1993). In reality, the recycling of CerG is re-
stricted by chemical composition and by economic feasibility (Federico
and Chidiac, 2009). The total cost for liberation, treatment, and
transportation to provide recyclable waste CerG should not exceed the
price of raw materials that can be substituted by recycling the waste
CerG. In many cases, the raw materials for CerG are inexpensive, and
CerG producers have rarely exhibited concern about the effects of their
depletion in the industry (Ruth and Dell’Anno 1997). We, however,
focus only on the theoretical possibility of CerG recycling. In other
words, the economic feasibility of recycling is not taken into con-
sideration because future legislation and/or economic conditions may
overcome current economic barriers.
To numerate the ceramic materials that are widely used at present,
we investigated materials and applications of raw materials for CerG.
Major raw materials for CerG were identified from USGS Mineral
Commodity Summaries (US Geological Survey, 2017) as clay, dolomite,
feldspar, limestone, silica sand and silica rock, soda ash, talc, pyr-
ophyllite, and wollastonite. Here, kyanite and related minerals were not
taken into account due to their low consumption, which is less than a
million tonnes annually at the global level. Materials and applications
of the minerals are listed in the appendix (Table A1), which distin-
guishes between CerG materials and non-ceramic materials and appli-
cations. Some applications of non-ceramic materials can be regarded as
CerG. The applications of rainmaking and steelmaking generate ir-
onmaking slag (also referred to as blast furnace slag) and steelmaking
slag, respectively. Those slags also consist of similar compositions to
CerG materials. The application of water treatment partially generates
sewage sludge, which is treated with drying furnaces and melting fur-
naces, resulting in molten slag. Ironmaking slag, steelmaking slag and
sewage sludge molten slag were included in the target materials of this
study.
The materials selected above were tabulated, of which the major
chemical components are indicated qualitatively in Table 1. Here,
materials that have different chemical compositions in each material
group were distinguished. It was found that many industrial CerG
materials are made of combinations of similar oxide components.
Theoretical possibilities for CerG recycling are considered by the si-
milarity of chemical compositions, which can identify new recycling
schemes. In ceramic materials, there is a material which consists of
other than oxides, such as silicon carbide. For preserving the similarity
of compositions, other CerG materials than oxide-based ones are ex-
cluded in this analysis. Even in the list shown in Table 1, friction pro-
ducts, converter slag, and electric arc furnace (EAF) oxidizing slag do
not consist only of oxides, but also of metals, carbonate, sulfate and/or
sulfide, which should be excluded from this analysis.
2.2. Optimization of recycling
Recycling waste CerG can contribute to reducing the dumping of
waste CerG and the consumption of naturally occurring minerals. We
optimized a system of waste CerG recycling in terms of minimizing
natural mineral consumption. Linear programming was employed to
optimize the supply-demand between the generation of waste CerG and
the production of CerG products. The minimization of natural mineral
consumption and the maximization of recycled waste CerG could find
the same optimal supply-demand. In reality, recycling waste CerG is
subject to constraints of chemical composition and mass balance, which
are imposed on the optimization. The optimization calculation for
natural mineral consumption can be expressed by the following equa-
tions.
Minimizing: ∑ ∑ Xij
j i∈N
subject to:
I. Daigo et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 133 (2018) 375–384

Table 1
Chemical compositions of ceramic materials.

Material products and applications Ceramic materials and glasses Major chemical components

Cement Cementa Al2O3, CaO, Fe2O3, MgO, SO3, SiO2

Tiles Tilesb Al2O3, CaO, Fe2O3, K2O, MgO, Na2O, SiO2, TiO2
Sanitaryware Potteryc Al2O3, CaO, Fe2O3, K2O, MgO, Na2O, SiO2, TiO2
Refractory Refractorya Al2O3, CaO, Fe2O3, K2O, MgO, Na2O, SiO2, TiO2
Clay bricks Clay d Al2O3, CaO, Fe2O3, MgO, MnO, K2O, P2O5, SO3, SiO2, TiO2
Pottery Pottery (plateware) e Al2O3, CaO, Fe2O3, K2O, MgO, Na2O, SiO2, TiO2
Friction products Brake pad f Al2O3, BaSO4, CaCO3, Cu, Fe, MgO, K2O6･TiO2, SnS, ZrO2
Glassg Flat glass Al2O3, CaO, MgO, Na2O, SiO2
Bottle glass Al2O3, CaO, Fe2O3, K2O, MgO, Na2O, SiO2
Glass fiber Al2O3, B2O3, CaO, Fe2O3, K2O, MgO, MnO, Na2O, SiO2
Glass woolh Al2O3, B2O3, CaO, Fe2O3, K2O, MgO, P2O5, Na2O, SiO2
Substrates glass Al2O3, B2O3, CaO, Fe2O3, MgO, MnO, SiO2
Fluorescent glass Al2O3, B2O3, CaO, Fe2O3, K2O, MgO, Na2O, SiO2
Ironmakingi Ironmaking slag Al2O3, CaO, MgO, MnO, SiO2
Steelmakingi Converter slag Al2O3, CaO, Fe, Fe2O3, MgO, MnO, P2O5, SiO2
EAF Oxidizing slag Al2O3, CaO, Fe, Fe2O3, MgO, MnO, SiO2
EAF Reducing slag Al2O3, CaO, Fe2O, Fe2O3, MgO, MnO, SiO2
Water treatment Sewage sludge molten slagj Al2O3, CaO, Fe2O3, P2O5, SiO2

EAF: electric arc furnace.

a
The Ceramic Society of Japan (2002).
b
Matteucci et al. (2002).
c
Tarhan et al. (2017).
d
Eliche-Quesada et al. (2017).
e
Wu et al. (2013).
f
Menapace et al. (2017).
g
Yamane et al. (2010).
h
National Research Council (2000).
i
Nippon Slag Association (2017).
j
Kanchanapiya et al. (2006).

m
c jk ≤ ∑ bik Xij / ∑ Xij
i i (1)
c jkM ≥ ∑ bik Xij / ∑ Xij
(2)
i i
∑ Xij = Pj
i (3)
∑ Xij ≤ Gi
j (4)
where, Xij stands for the amount of raw material i consumed in the
production of material j, N is a set of natural resources within the set of
raw materials, bik stands for the chemical composition of oxide k in raw
material i, cM m
jk and cjk stand for lower and upper tolerance levels of the
chemical composition of oxide k in the produced material j, respec-
tively, Pj stands for demand of the produced material j, and Gi stand for
the generation potential of the raw material i (i ∉ N).
Under the inequality constraint (1), for every chemical composition
of oxide k, the average of raw materials for the production of material j
(the right side) should be larger than the lower bound of tolerance for
the chemical composition of oxide k in the production of material j (the
right side). Under the inequality constraint (2), for every chemical
composition of oxide k, the average chemical composition should be
smaller than the upper bound, as well.
The equality constraint (3) ensures the mass balances for every
product j between the total of raw materials and the corresponding
products. The inequality constraint (4) ensures for every raw material i
that the total consumption of raw materials (the left side) should be
smaller than the generation potential. Under the equality constraint (3),
the total consumption of natural resources and secondary resources is
always same. Therefore, in this optimization model, saving amounts of
natural resource consumption equal to saving amounts of waste mate-
rials disposed.
The proposed optimal model is applicable for any number of oxides
indexed as k above. When an optimal model is demonstrated for a small
number of oxides, CerG that contain other target oxides cannot be
analyzed using the model. When it is developed for a large number of
oxides, various kinds of CerG can be taken into account. Data used for
the model, however, are more complicated and less available.
Therefore, the target oxides should cover adequate kinds of oxides
concerning the CerG.
The conditions of tolerance for chemical compositions are discussed
from the viewpoint of materials science. When more than one pure
component is present, compositions of components, temperatures, and
pressures decide the phase of the mixture at equilibrium. For instance,
in the Na2O-SiO2 system, even at ordinary temperatures and pressures,
there are three kinds of compound: sodium orthosilicate (Na4SiO4),
sodium metasilicate (Na2SiO3), and sodium disilicate (Na2Si2O5); there
are four possible phases as combinations of those compounds and two
pure oxides (Kahlenberg 2010). Ternary systems become more complex
because they are based on three binary systems. In the CaO–Al2O3–SiO2
system, there are many more kinds of compounds: anorthite,
CaO–Al2O3, CaO–2Al2O3, CaO–6Al2O3, 3CaO–Al2O3, corundum, cris-
tobalite, gehlenite, hatrurite, mullite, pseudo-wollastanite, rankinite,
and tridymite (Mao et al., 2006). Because the properties of materials
differ with their phases, the phase boundaries represent tolerance
ranges. In ternary and higher-arity systems, the boundaries do not show
linearity. Consequently, in a mixture of several kinds of oxides, it is
hard to apply linear inequality constraints theoretically. Therefore,
tolerance ranges should be empirically decided in the forms of the
linear conditions. The empirical conditions are demonstrated by case
studies in the following sections.
3. A case study demonstration
3.1. Eleven oxide systems in Japan
The model developed above can be performed for any recycling
system. In this chapter, as a case, we applies the model to Japanese
CerG recycling system in the year 2012. Through this case study, ef-
fectiveness and limitations of the proposed model are discussed in the
next chapter.

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I. Daigo et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 133 (2018) 375–384

Before preparing data for the analysis, oxides which are taken into
consideration have to be selected. We focused on eleven oxides (Al2O3,
B2O3, CaO, Fe2O3, K2O, MgO, MnO, Na2O, P2O5, SiO2, and TiO2) which
CerG materials such as tiles, pottery, refractories, glasses, iron and steel
making slags, and sewage sludge molten slag, made with as shown in
Table 1. Then, the CerG materials that have more than 1% oxide con-
tent than the eleven oxides were excluded from the analysis. Cement
and clay bricks were not involved in the target CerG materials since
their chemical compositions include sulfur trioxide. The impurity con-
tent of 1% was determined as a cutoff to simply demonstrate the ana-
lysis. In this model, the number of oxides and the cutoff can be arbi-
trarily selected not to exclude materials which a practitioner intends to
analyze.
And then, the following parameters are required for the optimiza-
tion: demand, Pj, tolerance of chemical compositions in the products,
cM m
jk and cjk, supply potentials, Gi, and chemical compositions in waste
CerG, bik. The preparation of these data is described in the following
sections.
3.2. Data preparation for CerG production
On the demand side, the annual production and tolerance of che-
mical contents of CerG were investigated. The demands of the target
CerG materials, Pj, are assumed to be the same as the amounts of
production that could be obtained from statistics for 2012, as shown in
Table 2.
Tolerance ranges of chemical contents in the produced materials, cM
jk
and cm
jk, are rarely obtained. One of reasons was accessibility to the data
because the ranges are not intended to be published. Some settings
relied on empirical knowledge of production experts as indicated in
Table 2. The tolerance ranges of chemical contents may not vary over
time at least the production process or properties of materials are
changed. Although the year for a composition data was not identified,
the data is assumed to be applicable to the year for production, that is,
2012. The second reason was difficulty to uniquely identify the range
due to various different compositions in the products; such as sani-
taryware and, plateware (Mommsen et al., 1998 and Wu et al., 2013).
The third reason was definability of the linear rages from the viewpoint
of materials science; such as several kinds of refractories, glass fiber,
substrate glass, ironmaking, steelmaking and water treatment. As
mentioned before, tolerance ranges for some CerG materials cannot be
described by linear chemical compositions because they are restricted
by their properties such as melting temperature, viscosity, and
reactivity (Seetharaman et al., 2013). As marked in Table 3, several
CerG were not taken into consideration due to the reasons above.
Checkmarks in the supply side shown in Table 3 are described in 3.3.
Even with the best available technology, some CerG production
processes need to strictly avoid impurities that are not included in the
eleven oxides. For instance, flat glass production will not tolerate
membranes, films, papers, etc. larger than 10 mm, steel larger than
1 mm, and any metallic aluminium, copper, or nickel (AGC, 2006).
Tolerance for impurities mixed with waste CerG such as metals, varies
among the CerG materials, which is an important factor restricting re-
cycling (Wischnat et al., 1993). Therefore, those impurities are re-
garded as a component of CerG beyond the eleven oxides (as a proxy).
The tolerance and contaminated contents of impurities could not be
quantitatively identified. Therefore, the proxy was defined as binary
data that stands for acceptability of impurities. Even if the binary data
were used in linear programming, they perform well because they can
distinguish the tolerance to impurities. The lower bound of every ma-
terial is 0, the upper bounds for some materials that accept mixing
impurities with raw materials are 1, and the upper bounds for other
materials are 0. Although the colors of glass bottles are realized by
chemical composition, additives for the colors are not larger than 1%.
Because this study tolerates 1% of other compositions beyond the
eleven oxides in total, the difference of chemical composition because
of colors was not characterized. Nevertheless, colored glass cullet
cannot be consumed for clear glass. Another binary parameter as a
proxy for color was added as the thirteenth parameter.
From a technological viewpoint, it should be assumed that glass
cullet would not be used for the production of tiles. Especially in the
production of fully vitrified tiles (porcelain stoneware tiles), consuming
vitrified soda-lime glass cullet results in worse mechanical and tribo-
logical performance than not consuming it due to factors such as in-
creasing shrinkage, decreasing bulk density, etc. Matteucci et al. (2002)
experimentally proved that the tolerable portion of soda-lime cullet in
raw materials is less than 5%. In this analysis, the fourteenth compo-
nent added was for the restriction on the usage of glass cullet. Ranges of
chemical composition for each material are shown in Table 2.
3.3. Data preparation for waste CerG generation
On the supply side, the annual generation of waste CerG and their
chemical compositions were investigated. It is generally difficult to
observe annual generation potentials of waste CerG, Gi, directly, and to
obtain statistical data. Therefore, the generation potential of each

Table 2
Ranges of chemical composition for each produced CerG material. Up: upper boundary, Lo: Lower boundary. Units for substances are percent. Binary data are given for the impurity, Imp.;
the color, Col.; and glass cullet, Cull.

CerG materials SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO K2O Na2O MnO P2O5 B2O3 Imp. Col. Cull. Annual production [thousand tonne/year]

Tilesa Up 75.0 N.D. 25.0 N.D. N.D. N.D. 3.8 10.7 N.D. N.D. 0.0 1 1 0 448
Lo 65.0 0.0 4.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.9 0.61 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0
b
Flat glass Up 73.0 1.0 2.1 0.12 9.5 5.5 2.0 16.0 0.05 N.D. 0.0 0 0 1 1 101
Lo 67.0 0.0 1.2 0.01 6.5 2.5 0.01 12.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0
c
Bottle glass (clear) Up 75.5 1.0 2.2 0.08 12.7 1.6 0.9 14.0 0.05 N.D. 0.0 0 0 1 578
Lo 69.5 0.0 1.4 0.0 9.7 0.0 0.7 12.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0
c
Bottle glass (brown) Up 75.6 1.0 2.4 0.31 12 1.7 1.3 14.0 0.06 N.D. 0.0 0 1 1 557
Lo 69.6 0.0 1.6 0.21 9 0.0 1.1 12.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0
c
Bottle glass (others) Up 74.9 1.0 2.4 0.2 12.1 1.8 1.4 14.0 0.05 N.D. 0.0 0 1 1 130
Lo 68.9 0.0 1.6 0.1 9.1 0.0 1.2 12.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0
b
Glass wool Up 75.6 1.0 2.4 0.31 12.7 5.5 2.0 14.0 0.05 N.D. 25.5 1 0 1 214
Lo 67.0 0.0 1.2 0.0 6.5 0.0 0.0 12.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0
b
Fluorescent glass Up 75.7 N.D. 5.6 N.D. 3.0 N.D. 12.0 8.0 N.D. N.D. 25.5 1 0 1 28
Lo 69.7 0.0 1.2 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.5 0.3 0.0 0.0 8.0 0 0 0

N.D.: For these oxides, the upper limit was not decided because these contents do not cause serious effects on material properties at least at low concentrations and because the
compositions do not increase substantially.
a
Private communications with Marumi Toryo Co., Ltd. and CRYSTAL CLAY Corp.
b
Our assumptions confirmed by experts.
c
Private communications with Glass bottle 3R promotion association, Japan.

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I. Daigo et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 133 (2018) 375–384

Table 3
List of CerG materials which are excluded from this analysis. Checkmarks indicate reasons for the exclusion from demand side and/or supply side.

Material products and applications Ceramic materials and glasses and Demand side (CerG production) Supply side (waste CerG generation)
applications
Limitations in chemical Composite materials and Dissipative applications
compositions additives

Tiles Tiles ✓
Sanitaryware Pottery ✓ ✓
Refractories Fireclay refractories ✓ ✓
Alumina refractories ✓
Basic refractories ✓ ✓
Zircon refractories ✓ ✓
Castable refractories ✓ ✓
Gunning refractories ✓ ✓
Pottery Pottery (plateware) ✓ ✓
Glass Soda-lime glass (flat glass)
Bottle glass
Glass fiber ✓ ✓
Glass wool ✓
Substrates glass ✓
Fluorescent glass
Ironmaking Ironmaking process ✓
Steelmaking EAF reducing process ✓
Water treatment Water treatment process ✓

Table 4
Chemical compositions for waste CerG. Units for substances are percent. Binary data are given for the impurity, Imp.; the color, Col.; and glass cullet, Cull.

SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO K2 O Na2O MnO P2O5 B2O3 Imp. Col. Cull Annual waste generation [thousand tonnes/year]

Waste flat glass a

71.0 0.0 1.7 0.1 8.0 4.0 0.5 14.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1 0 1 814
Waste glass bottles (clear) b 72.5 0.0 1.8 0.03 11.2 0.1 0.8 13.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0 1 578
Waste glass bottles (brown) b 72.6 0.0 2.0 0.26 10.5 0.2 1.2 13.1 0.01 0.0 0.0 0 1 1 557
Waste glass bottles (others) b 71.9 0.0 2.0 0.15 10.6 0.3 1.3 13.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 1 1 130
Waste fluorescent glassc 72.7 0.0 3.1 0.0 1.2 0.0 4.5 4.3 0.0 0.0 14.1 1 0 1 37
Waste substrate glassd 68.6 0.0 16.4 0.0 9.5 5.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1 0 1 44
Waste alumina refractoriese 0.9 0.2 92.7 0.1 0.8 5.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0 186
Ironmaking slag f 33.8 1.3 13.4 0.4 41.7 7.4 0.31 0.31 0.30 0.10 0.0 0 0 0 24 639
EAF reducing slag g 18.8 0.0 16.5 0.3 55.1 7.3 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.10 0.0 0 0 0 997
Sewage sludge molten slagh 32.0 0.91 15.4 9.50 28.2 2.13 0.90 0.70 0.49 10.8 0.0 0 0 0 5 097
Silica rocki 97.8 0.03 2.0 0.01 0.05 0.05 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0
Silica sandi 99.8 0.03 0.04 0.01 0.05 0.05 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0
Feldspari 75.2 0.03 14.5 0.23 0.62 0.04 6.08 3.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0
Clayi 65.4 0.54 30.2 1.78 0.27 0.4 1.2 0.26 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0
Pyrophyllitei 77.7 0.38 20.3 0.25 0.08 0.13 0.65 0.49 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0
Limestonei 1.02 0.0 0.34 0.17 97.6 0.82 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.02 0.0 0 0 0
Dolomitei 0.67 0.0 0.09 0.08 63.8 35.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.04 0.0 0 0 0
Talci 65.9 0.0 0.08 0.07 0.44 33.5 0.0 0.01 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0
Soda ashi 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0
Boraxi 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 30.8 0.0 0.0 69.2 0 0 0

a
Private communication.
b
The Ceramic Society of Japan (2002).
c
Yamane et al. (2010).
d
Kawaguchi and Miwa (2012) and Tokunaga et al. (2013).ePrivate communication.
f
Division of Basic research on Slag Utilization (1979), Katayama et al. (2017), Eguchi et al. (2014) and Igarashi et al. (2012).
g
Nippon Slag Association (2017).
h
Ozaki (2011) and Komatsuzaki et al. (2006).
i
Kogyo Gijutsu Rengo Kaigi Yogyo Rengo Bukai (1992).

material in the CerG was estimated by dynamic material flow analysis,
which was employed in previous material flow analysis studies (Müller
et al., 2014 and Daigo et al., 2015) (see S-1 in Supporting Information
for details). For applications that are not used as parts of finished
products, the annual generation of waste CerG from those applications
was estimated by statistics and/or technical information of those pro-
cesses. Waste aluminium refractories generated from steelmakers were
taken into account. The annual generation was estimated by generation
amounts per unit of crude steel production and the total production of
crude steel in Japan. The annual generation of ironmking slag, EAF
steelmaking slag, and sewage sludge molten slag were obtained from
statistics. In Table 4, the annual generation of waste CerG for the year
2012, Gi, is shown.
Chemical compositions of the generated materials, bik, were also
estimated. The limitations considered in the supply side are different
from those on the demand side. Four different applications of CerG
were distinguished basically by the forms when they are recovered and
it was individually considered whether those applications can be taken
into consideration. First, some kinds of CerG materials are used as
mono-materials and assembled in final products. In those applications
of CerG, the composition of CerG materials when they are disused does
not change from the initial composition. In the actual waste

379
I. Daigo et al.
management processes, however, some of those CerG are recovered
with other materials as impurities because they are used with other
materials in the final products (Wischnat et al., 1993; Matteucci et al.,
2002). Singularly used CerG materials are taken into consideration and
the twelfth element was used as a proxy for impurity, as introduced in
the previous sub-section. Second, some kinds of CerG materials are used
as composite materials and assembled in final products. It is practically
difficult to liberate those CerG materials in end-of-life products from the
embedded materials in the composite materials. Those CerG materials
used as part of composite materials were not considered as supply of
waste CerG. For instance, glass wool (short glass fiber), which is used
for insulation materials with resins is unlikely to be liberated. Third,
dissipative applications of CerG cannot discharge any waste CerG. For
instance, castable refractories used on inner walls of furnaces are dis-
sipative during use. Fourth, some kinds of CerG inherently have addi-
tional processes that may change chemical compositions. For instance,
pottery (excluding porcelain) is a porous form of clay in which a thin
vitrified layer is required on the surface (glaze) to hold liquid. Even for
porcelain, glaze can serve as a design on the surface. Although the
composition of the glaze is similar to CerG, various kinds of composi-
tions make it difficult to decide the average chemical compositions of
pottery. These CerG are not the same as composite materials, but in the
context of this analysis, this fourth category is the same as the second
category, which was not taken into account. The selection of CerG
materials for supply side is summarized in Table 3.
Chemical compositions of the selected CerG materials were obtained
as shown in Table 4. The compositions of those industrial materials may
not vary over time. Therefore, all collected data is assumed to be ap-
plicable to the year for generation, that is, 2012. In addition, chemical
compositions of natural resources were also surveyed. The average
chemical compositions for natural resources are shown in Table 4,
which is used for the analysis, though in reality natural resources de-
rived from a specific site are consumed according to their chemical
compositions, which vary between different mineral localities. Wol-
lastonite was eliminated from the natural resources listed in Table A1
because it is commonly obtained in North America, the Nordic coun-
tries, and south Europe, but is not common in Japan (US Geological
Survey, 2017). Borax was added to fulfill the boron trioxide require-
ment for fluorescent glass.
3.4. Validation of data
Data for the supply side and the demand side were defined as the
chemical compositions of waste CerG and the tolerance range of CerG
materials, respectively. Before conducting the optimization, the con-
sistency of data was validated. Ideally, when the chemical compositions
of raw materials for a CerG material are averaged, it should equal the
investigated value of the CerG material. The investigated chemical
compositions for natural resources would be different from those of
natural resources that are actually consumed for those CerG materials
because of the different localities of minerals. Therefore, it is hard to
demonstrate the average compositions using those chemical composi-
tions averaged from different localities of minerals. In addition, there is
no statistical data of raw materials for each CerG after year 2002 in
Japan. However, at least a chemical composition of a combination of
raw materials has to fulfill the tolerance range of materials introduced
in the optimization as an inequality constraint.
Several actual conditions were obtained as follows: the portion of
natural resources and secondary resources for some CerG materials
during years 1997–2001 (the latest five years); the total consumption of
glass cullet for flat glass, glass bottles, and glass wool; the share of raw
materials for glass bottles which were provided by industry; kinds of
natural resources used as raw materials for glass wool; and the fact that
glass fiber never use waste CerG. Under these conditions, the combi-
nation of raw materials for the CerG materials shown in Table 5 is
approved because the weighted averages of chemical compositions in
380
Resources, Conservation & Recycling 133 (2018) 375–384
the combination of raw materials using the average compositions of
each raw material given in Table 4 meet the corresponding tolerance
ranges given in Table 2. The set of raw materials in Table 5 is likely to
represent the current situation in Japan. The chemical compositions
prepared in this section were also validated. On the basis of those data,
optimal analyses are conducted in the next section.
3.5. Optimization
As described above, production of the CerG materials (demand side)
and the waste CerG (supply side) were selected and used for optimi-
zation. The result of optimization analysis was obtained as Table 6,
which indicated natural resource consumption reduction of 469 thou-
sand tonnes. Glass cullet was found to have excellent recycling poten-
tial. Although impurities and colors restrict CerG recycling, recycling
could be enhanced. Therefore, one of the factors restricting current
CerG recycling could be economic feasibility. From the viewpoint of
chemical composition, ironmaking slag, EAF reduction slag, and sewage
sludge molten slag are suitable for flat glass, glass wool, and tiles, re-
spectively. Clay and limestone originally used for tiles could be com-
pletely replaced with a combination of sewage sludge molten slag and
feldspar. It was considered that sewage sludge molten slag could sub-
stitute limestone in terms of supplying calcia, and feldspar could
compensate silica and alumina originally supplied by clay. On average,
the natural resource consumed for the production of tiles could be re-
duced by at least 10 thousand tonnes. With regard to sewage sludge,
various options have been investigated that allow recycling and bene-
ficial resource recovery, in which reclaimed tile is one of major options
(Donatello and Cheeseman, 2013). Whereas, neither flat glass con-
taining ironmaking slag nor glass wool containing steelmaking slag
have been studied so much, that is, those recycling paths which sub-
stantially contribute recycling of CerG could be found by this analysis.
3.6. Scenario analysis
Recycling could be enhanced, if factors which severely restrict their
recycling would be relaxed. Here, two restrictions are selected to ad-
dress the enhancement of recycling: the contamination of impurities in
waste CerG materials and the consumption of glass cullet in the pro-
duction of tiles. Optimization analyses were conducted with and
without those restrictions as scenarios in this section.
From the technological point of view, innovative glass-ceramic tiles
whose mechanical and tribological performance become worse by
consuming glass cullet are appropriately addressed in the processes, can
consume 60% of glass cullet and have similar properties to conven-
tional porcelain stoneware tiles (Bernardo et al., 2008). In the first
scenario, the production of tiles consumes up to 60% of glass cullet
even if the cullet is recovered with impurities. The result of this sce-
nario showed that 155 thousand tonnes of natural resource con-
sumption—which is approximately 10% of the current con-
sumption—could be reduced from the result shown in 3.5. Glass cullet
recovered from flat glass and glass bottles could be consumed for tiles,
resulting in eliminating silica sand consumption. Even in optimal re-
cycling under the current restriction, the production of tiles could
consume sewage sludge molten slag in half of the raw materials.
Therefore, additional recycling potentials are limited for tiles. The op-
timized recycling flows not only for this scenario but also for following
scenarios are shown in Fig. 2. In addition, the figures in the form of
matrix indicating the complete combinations of waste materials and
materials production are shown in the Supporting Information as well.
Second, the mixing of impurities was ignored. It means that the
chemical contents of waste CerG are the same as those of produced
CerG. In this analysis, the usability of glass cullet would be improved
because impurities are not contaminated. However, the glass cullet is
not allowed to be consumed in the production of tiles. The result of this
scenario showed that 1.04 million tonnes of natural resource
I. Daigo et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 133 (2018) 375–384

Table 5
The current combination of raw materials for CerG materials. Rows indicate generation of waste CerG and column indicate production of CerG materials. The total consumption of each
waste CerG is shown in the last column. Units are thousand tonnes.

Tiles Flat glass Glass bottles (clear) Glass bottles (brown) Glass bottles (others) Glass wool Fluorescent glass Total consumption

Waste flat glass 0 0 0 0 0 44 0 44

Waste glass bottles (clear) 0 0 421 0 0 144 0 565
Waste glass bottles (brown) 0 0 0 406 95 0 0 501
Waste glass bottles (others) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Silica rock 0 172 0 89 11 14 0 286
silica sand 88 404 106 1 8 2 19 628
Feldspar 110 37 12 28 6 3 3 199
Clay 200 0 0 0 0 0 0 200
Limestone 50 16 5 2 1 3 1 77
Dolomite 0 84 9 17 5 0 0 114
Soda ash 0 108 25 15 5 3 0 155
Borax 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 6

Table 6
Summary of minimal natural resource consumption under the four conditions. Units are thousand tonnes. The conditions are corresponding to the number of figures.

Fig. 1 Fig. 2 (a) Fig. 2 (b) Fig. 2 (c)

Impurities in glass cullet are contaminated. Yes Yes No No

Glass cullet for the production of tiles is accepted. No Up to 60% No Up to 60%
The total consumption of natural resources 1196 1041 624 588
Silica sand and rock 877 730 457 421
Feldspar 114 105 112 112
Clay 0 0 0 0
Pyrophyllite 0 0 0 0
Limestone 0 0 0 0
Dolomite 0 0 0 0
Talc 46 46 0 0
Soda ash 157 157 28 28
Borax 3 3 27 27

consumption—which is around two thirds of the current consumption
for those CerG productions—could be reduced from the current con-
dition. As compared with the result shown in 3.5, another 572 thousand
tonnes of natural resource—which is around one third of the current
consumption—could be reduced. Due to pure liberation of waste flat
glass, a large portion of waste flat glass could be used for the same
material, flat glass. At the same time, the consumption of silica sand
was substantially reduced. The liberation of waste flat glass could
improve the recycling of CerG, especially of glasses, to a large extent.
Impurities that are mixed in the generated waste flat glass are con-
sumed by glass wool. In this scenario, instead of waste flat glass, glass
wool consumed waste fluorescent glass and ironmaking slag. At the
same time, the total consumption of silica sand for glass wool increased.
It should be noted that a part of the reduction in silica sand con-
sumption for flat glass was offset by the increase of consumption for
glass wool.

Fig. 1. The results of optimization analysis. Generation of waste CerG and

production of CerG materials are indicated on the left and right sides,
respectively.

381
I. Daigo et al.
In the last scenario, glass cullet can be used for the production of
tiles up to 60% and does not contain impurities. The result of the op-
timization analysis indicated that natural resource consumption could
not be reduced from the scenario in which glass cullet cannot be con-
sumed in the production of tiles because all of the recovered waste flat
glass, waste glass bottles, and fluorescent glass could be recycled even
in the former scenario. Permission for the cullet could additionally use
only approximately 40 thousand tonnes of waste substrate glass that
could not be recycled in the former scenario.
Results of the optimization under the conditions are summarized in
Table 6. The current natural resource consumption of CerG produced is
1 665 thousand tonnes. Even if conditions would not change from the
current condition, around one third of the natural resource consump-
tion of CerG could be reduced. This result can be regarded as the base
condition without economic feasibility. Other conditions explored the
significance of two physical restrictions. The mixing of impurity in glass
cullet would reduce one third of the natural resource consumption. The
permission for using cullet in tiles would not significantly enhance re-
cycling rates. The difference between those impacts is caused by the
total production of glasses and tiles. At least in Japan, the production of
glass is larger than tiles. Lastly, though saving amounts of natural re-
source consumption were discussed, note that the same to saving
amounts of natural resource consumption can be saved to dispose waste
CerG materials at the same time in this optimization model.
4. Discussions
The developed model for optimization was applied to a case study.
In the case, however, several constraint conditions in recycling which
could not be quantified in chemical composition were discovered. To
take these conditions into account, binary data were defined as proxies
besides the eleven oxides. In theory, impurities contaminated in end-of-
life treatment and mixtures of different colored glass cullet could be
expressed in the form of chemical compositions if we would increase
382
Resources, Conservation & Recycling 133 (2018) 375–384
Fig. 2. The results of optimization analysis for sce-
narios (a) under the condition that the production of
tiles permitted consuming glass cullet up to 60%
even if the cullet is recovered with impurities, (b)
under the condition that the contamination of im-
purities was ignored and that the glass cullet is not
allowed to be consumed in the production of tiles,
and (c)under the condition that glass cullet can be
used for tiles up to 60% and does not contain im-
purities. Generation of waste CerG and production of
CerG materials are indicated on the left and right
sides, respectively.
the number of target substances. However, due to characteristics of
waste management during which these cases take place, contents of
impurities or portions of colors in cullet vary according to conditions.
Empirically, every batch of waste CerG cannot be investigated to
identify the compositions of them. Therefore, proxies used in the case
study are beneficial.
The proposed model is applicable to other recycling systems at a
factory level. For instance, when different kinds of waste CerG are
treated in a factory, the model can propose recycling ways to minimize
final disposals. On the other hand, a conceivable difficulty to apply this
model is data availability. The data preparation can become easier
because selection of target materials, the number of oxides for analysis,
the threshold of a cutoff, and introduction of proxies are flexible.
Oxide-based ceramic materials and glasses are defined as CerG and
regarded as a group of materials in the same system of recycling.
Although materials in the group were selected on the basis of chemical
compositions in Chapter 2, several CerG materials have to be excluded
from the analysis in the case study, which could be limitations of our
proposed model. One of them is characteristics of CerG which are not
clearly related to chemical compositions. To overcome the limitation,
developing non-linear model, clarifying the relations, or approximation
in linear conditions are required. Second factor is a variety of chemical
compositions in the same material. For the discussion on recycling, a
classification by chemical compositions is preferable. The third factor is
a combination with other substances in the final form of materials. The
fourth factor is recoverability of waste CerG. Those limitations could be
avoided, if waste CerG would be recovered and separated from other
materials. In reality, the cost of recovery and separation may exceed
economically feasible level. One of the most significant limitations in
the proposed model is that economic aspects were not taken into con-
sideration. In the case study, the possibility of recovery and liberation
was considered, which may be restricted by economic reasons.
Economic factors in recycling should be taken into consideration in
further studies.
I. Daigo et al.
Legislative measures are often enforced for promotion of recycling
to overcome the restrictions caused by economic feasibility, such as
Directive 2012/19/EU on waste electrical and electronic equipment
(Favot et al., 2016). Due to the absence of the economic aspects, the
results obtained in the case study can suggest new legislative measures
including regulatory, economic, informational and organizational in-
struments (Rennings et al., 1999). The results indicated that there are
relatively large amounts of recycling potentials in sewage sludge
molten slag for tiles and ironmaking slag for flat glass. Whilst a cutoff
was 1% of chemical compositions in the analysis, specific substances
are prohibited even less than 1% in flat glass (AGC, 2006). Even though
the results suggested the new possibile recycling paths, further in-
vestigation is required to realize the recycling. We believe that the
providing the possibilities as new recycling paths is the first step to
promote recycling.
The CerG are industrial materials which are produced in similar
compositions even outside Japan. That is to say, the possibilities for
new recycling schemes are applicable not only for Japan but also for
other counties. But, as mentioned before, barriers in reality should be
investigated after conducting the proposed optimization, which may
differ among countries because economic conditions and regulations
are not the same.
5. Conclusions
A linear model for the optimization of ceramic material and glass
recycling was proposed. Through the case study, we found that the most
significant discrepancy between the model and available data is toler-
ance ranges of chemical contents in the produced materials. Therefore,
in the case studies, many kinds of ceramic materials were not applicable
on the demand side as target materials in the analysis. However, at least
for finding a possibility for promoting recycling, roughly approximated
conditions for the analysis are adequate. In order to extract more cer-
tain messages from the analysis, experiments to clarify the tolerance
ranges for each material could contribute to that. Experiments not only
for higher performance of materials or higher efficiency of production
but also for acceptance of secondary resources to provide further
technological information applicable to those analyses are required
towards a sustainable society. At the same time, systemic approaches
Appendix A
Table A1
Ceramic material products, non-ceramic material products and other applications of major raw materials for glass and ceramic materials.
Minerals Materials and applications
Ceramic materials and glasses
a
Clays Bricks; cement; tiles; sanitaryware;
refractory;
Dolomite Refractory
Feldspar Ceramic tile; glass; pottery
Limestone
Silica sand and Silica rock Cement; glass
Soda ash Glass
Talc and pyrophyllite Ceramics; roofing
Wallastonite Concrete; friction products; glass;
sanitaryware; tiles
a
Including ball clay, bentonite, common clay, fire clay, fuller’s earth and kaolin.
Resources, Conservation & Recycling 133 (2018) 375–384
like this analysis can convey messages for the technological develop-
ment and further enhancement of recycling.
The data prepared for the proposed model were successfully vali-
dated by realizing the current situation under the constraint conditions.
Results obtained by the proposed optimization model indicate the
possibilities of a new recycling scheme: waste fluorescent glass for glass
wool; ironmaking slag for flat glass, glass bottles, and glass wool; EAF
reduction slag for glass wool; and sewage sludge molten slag for tiles.
Several theoretically possible new ways of recycling could be identified,
as far as the economic feasibility and contamination of impurities were
ignored. Basically, many natural resources for ceramic materials and
glasses are not expensive, i.e., the cost of recovering and liberating
waste ceramic materials and glasses should not exceed the cost of
natural resources. However, transportation costs for recovered mate-
rials are generally not economically feasible. Besides ignoring the
economic feasibility, if waste glasses are liberated without impurities,
around two thirds of the natural resource consumption in Japan for
ceramic materials and glasses can be reduced by promoting recycling.
Recycling of waste ceramic materials and glasses would then be twice
the current rate of recycling. These results let us conclude that those
two factors that may restrict the current recycling systems should be
resolved.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Numbers
15H02860, 15H01750 and 26281056 and Environmental Economics
and Policy Studies (The Third term) of the Ministry of the Environment,
Japan. The authors are grateful to So Kato at the Glass Recycling
Committee of Japan; Shigeaki Moritani and former staffs at Flat glass
manufacturers association of Japan; Tomomichi Yuki and Ken
Mineshige at Glass bottle 3R promotion association, Japan; Makoto
Segami at Electric Glass Industry Association of Japan; Shigeki
Yoshinaga at Japan Glass Bottel Association; Toru Kudo at AGC Asahi
Glass; Katsuya Kitayama at CRYSTAL CLAY Corp.; Kengo Ogawa at
Marumi Toryo Co., Ltd.; Hidehiro Kuwatori, Dr. Tadashi Ikemoto, and
Yuichi Kato at Nippon Steel & Sumitomo Metal Corporation; and
Kaneyuki Inoko and Yozo Shimizu at Donico Inter Co., Ltd.
Non-ceramic materials and applications
Absorbents; drilling mud; foundry sand bond; heavy clay products; iron ore pelletizing; lightweight
aggregate; paper
Agricultural; chemical; construction; environmental; industrial applications
Ironmaking; steelmaking; water treatment; construction; flue gas desulfurization; mining; paper and
pulp; precipitated calcium carbonate
Sand for casting; silicon; additive in the production of foods
Water treatment; chemicals; distributors; flue gas desulfurization; pulp and paper; soap and
detergents
Cosmetics; paint; paper; plastics; rubber
Elastomer compounds; flux and conditioner for metallurgical processes; paint; thermoplastic and
thermoset resins
383
I. Daigo et al.
Appendix B. Supporting information
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in the online version, at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2017.11.012.
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