INTRODUCTION 7 Tipe ‘Permissible amplitudes (em) 1. Lowespeed machinery (500 rpm) 0.02 to 0.025 2, Hammer foundations OL to 012 8, Highspeed machinery: 0,002 to 0.003, 0.004 to 0.005 0.004 to 0.008, 0.007 to 0.009 facturer. For such installations in which the equipment itself’ is not the source of bration, it is fiecessary to evaluate the ambient vibrations at the site and provide suitable isolation in order to contain the amplitudes of movement within acceptable limits. 1.7 Permissible Bearing Pressures a. Soil ‘The bearing pressure on soil should be evaluated by adequate sub-soil exploration and testing in accordance with 18:1892 and IS: 1904 or equivalent specific b, Timber ‘The permissible compressive stress on timber (generally used under th: anvil of hammer foundations) may be taken from IS: 883-1966 (Indian Standard Code of Practice for Use of Structural Timber in Buildings) or equivalent specification. ©. Other Materials ‘The permissible bearing pressures on other elastic materials such as felt, cork and rubber are generally given by the firms manufacturing these materials, No specific values are suggested here since they vary in wide limits.CHAPTER TWO. General Theory 2.1 Resonance and its Effect Any PHysicat system has a characteristic frequency of its own known as “natural frequency.” This is defined as the frequency at which the system would vibrate when subjected to free vibrations. As the operating frequency of a machine approaches the natural fre~ quency of its foundation, the amplitudes tend to become large. The system is said to be in “resonance” when the twa frequencies become equal. At resonance, it is found that in addition to excessive amplitudes, large settlements also occur. In the design of machine foundations, an important criterion is, therefore, to avoid resonance in order that the amplitudes of vibration may not be excessive. The occurrence of resonance can be mathematically explained by considering a simple case of a single- degree freedom system. 2.2 Theory of a Single-Degree Freedom System Consider a single-degree freedom system (Fig. 2.1) formed by a rigid mass m resting on a spring of stiffness K and a viscous damper having damping coefficient C. A system is said to be of a single degree when its motion is constrained to one direction only. a. Free Vibrations Let the system be set in motion by giving an initial velocity V to the mass. ‘The equation of motion for the free vibration of the ade system is Kk ic a ‘ Mgt Ce Re 0 (2.1) inertial damping —_ spring force force force In Eq. 2.1, z denotes the displacement, z the velocity and Z the acceleration of the mass, ‘The right-hand side is zero since thereoa et EC . GENERAL THEORY 9 is no external force on the system during vibration, The solution of Eq. 2.1 can be written as pcm (Ko 04 ing FE (2.2) where aq is a constant which represents the maximum displacement and known as “free amplitude” of the damped system. The frequency of oscillation (tana) is given by Yee «3 ona = f2-& 23) where nq denotes the natural frequency of a damped single-degree freedom system. ‘To obtain the free amplitude aa, the initial conditions at the time when the motion was set in, should be considered, i.e. when ¢ = 0, z= O and g = V. Substituting 24) Substituting Ce = 2+/km where Ce is called the “critical di Cis called the “damping ratio” Eqs. 2.3 and 24 give ping” and C/Cy—t, where re (25) and ao ¥/ [Zoe @6) Eqs. 2.5 and 2.6 give the “damped natural frequency” and the “damped free amplitude” ofa single-degree system. Corollary: If damping is neglected, C= 0, or denote the undamped case, Eqs. 2.5 and 2.6 reduce to Dropping the suffix “d” to oan fe @7) and a= vl (2.8) Application: "The relations given above for the undamped single-degree system under- going free vibrations will be used in the analysis of hammer foundations (see examples given under Section 4.5.7). b. Forced Vibrations Let the system shown in Fig. 2.1 be subjected to a harmonic exciting force Py sin opt. Depending on the type of excitation, two cases can be considered—one case in which the amplitude of excitation is constant and the other in which the amplitude is proportional10 HANDBOOK OF MACHINE FOUNDATIONS to the square of the circular operating frequency @m. As discussed earlier under Section 15, the latter case arises in reciprocating or unbalanced rotating mechanisms, This ease is of main interest in machine foundations. i. Constant Force Excitation ‘The amplitude of exciting force (P,) is constant, i.c., independent of forcing frequency in this case. ‘The equation of motion of a damped single-degree freedom system subjected to forced excitation can be written as mo + Ck + Ke =m Ptin as (29) inertial damping spring —_ exciting force force — force -—force where P, is the amplitude of exciting force. Under steady-state forced excitation, the system has a tendency to vibrate at the operat- ing frequency om. ‘The solution of Bq. 2.9 under steady-state conditions (neglecting the transient part corresponding to free vibrations) may, therefore, be expressed as z= aq sin (mt + «) @.10) where aq is amplitude and « is the phase difference between the exciting force and dis- placement. ‘Substituting Eq. 2.10 in Eq, 2.9 and solving the following expressions for ag and a can be obtained: P, "Rnb + Fok Com tana ga (.11b) Substituting o2 = Kim, = C] (2 Vm) and 1 = om/on Eqs.'2.1a and 2.11b can be reduced to: P = ETT 2 (2.128) tna = PS (2.12b) Substituting P/K = zt, the static displacement Eq. 2.12a can be written as z= Zn (2.13a) where OS V0 + Gil 1s)GENERAL THEORY 11 ‘Here pis called the “dynamic magnification factor.” Fig. 2.2a shows the variation of p. with y (Eq. 2.136) for various values of €, - Posin gaat 0 2s: CONSTANT] 005 0.10 O15 0.25 ia 30 & 0.375 0.50 MAGNIFICATION FACTOR p 20 3.0 40 5.0 FREQUENCY RATIO 1, T 0.05 apm ‘O10 i ‘045 a & (b) 9.37: TTT Com Peace 21.0 MAGNIFICATION FACTOR pn” ° 19 25) 30 40 5.0 FREQUENCY RATIO Fig. 2.2: Response of a Single-Degree Damped System under—(e) Constant Force Excitation (Eq. 2.136), (b) Rotating Mass Type Excitation (Bq. 2.18). ii, Rotating Mass Type Excitation As seen under Section 1.5, the exciting force P in the case of reciprocating or unbalanced rotating mass type excitation is of the form P= (meu) sin ot (2.14) where me is the reciprocating or unbalanced rotating mass, ¢ denotes the displacement in the case of reciprocating type and eccentricity of unbalanced mass in the case of rotating-12 HANDBOOK OF MACHINE FOUNDATIONS type mechanisms, and om is frequency of motion, The amplitude of exciting force Pq (= mew) in this case is directly proportional to the square of ‘operating frequency (om). * ‘The equation of motion for a single degree of freedom system subjected to this type of forced excitation is written as mz + Ci + Kz = (metus?) sin ot (2.15) Substituting for Py = meew2, in Eq. 2.11a, the solution becomes met V (Kamat GF a, (eal c Substituting © = K/m; ¢ = and 9 = @m/ion 2 Ss im Eq. 2.16 gives : 1 mein" Va Oa or w= ate (2.18) (2.17) where 11! is the ‘magnification factor” defined by the left-hand side of Eq. 2.17; pis the magnification factor for the corresponding case of constant force excitation (Eq. 2.13b). Fig: 2.25 shows the Variation of p’ with (Eq. 2.18) for various values of ©. ‘The expression for « is the same as that given in Eq. 2.12b. Corollary: When damping in the system is neglected, i.c., C=0 or {= 0, then for constant force excitation (2.19) and for rotating-mass type excitation (2.19b) Further when 7 = 1, both wand p’ become infinity. This marks the stage of “resonance.” In practice, the nmplitude at resonance will be finite because of damping which is in- herently present in any physical system. It is, however, desirable to ensure in the design of any dynamically loaded structure that the value of frequency ratio 9, is far from unity. According to IS: 2974 (Pt. I), the working range for the frequency ratio 7 is given by the inequality l40nq, neglecting the part contributed by the higher natural fre- quency, the amplitudes a, and a, can be written as a (eno) (O08) _V Ga (05-5) (2.29a)16 HANDBOOK OF MACHINE FOUNDATIONS a (yo) V (2.29b) Application: The dynamic analysis of hammer foundations, which will be explained in Section 4.5 is based on a two-degree system undergoing free vibrations. Eqs. 2.25, 2.29a and 2.29b derived in this section will be used for the computation of natural fre- quencies and amplitudes respectively of hammer foundations. b. Forced Vibrations Case 1: When the exciting force acts only on mass m. Consider the two-degree system shown in Fig. 2.3a, The mass m, issubjected to the action of an oscillating force P, sin wat, where Py is the peak force and wm is the operating frequency. The differential equations of motion for forced oscillation of the system are given by my + K+ Ky (4%) my +H (em) =Pysin omt (2.30b) 0 (2.30a) Solving, the amplitudes a, and a, of the two masses m, and m, are obtained as under: Bee a (2.31a) mF (5) (+e) dh +e ape Ok) and a (2.31b) where Gn, Ga, and « are defined by Eqs. 2.23a and 2.23b and 2.24 respectively and F (oR) =oh— (+e) (6, +B) OL + (+4) 0h, Bhp (2.32) It may be noticed that Eq. 2.32 is the same as Eq. 2.22 with oq substituted for wa. Application: This case will be illustrated in the analysis of block foundations resting on absorbers for vertical reciprocating engines (Section 4.4) and for the analysis of a cross- frame of a framed foundation by the amplitude method (Chapter 5). Case 2: When the exciting force acts only on mass (m). Consider again the same system shown in Fig. 2.a. The oscillating force Py sin omé now acts on mass m,. The differential equations characterizing the motion of the system are meat Ky f+ a (4%) = Pysin omt (2.992) maka + Ky (2-2) =0 (2.33b) Solving the amplitudes ¢, and a, are obtained thus: Po a2 gg? y= — (2.34: = ey Gao) (2.342) Py cs am Faby We (2.346)GENERAL THEORY 17 Eqs. 2.34a and 2.34b may be written in the form of expressions for dynamic factors 4 and p, as follows with appropriate substitutions i (n§—n} nf) 3 4¢ ID Gal ate (234) and aa th 34) CID Gala ate (te) where P, eae Seca VE le, and VE For the particular case when - - (considered in Section 2.3a), that is, = (=n say) the Eqs. 2.34c and 2.34 may be further simplified as, 1 Cy = oe and 1 Say ae eed Fig. 2.5 shows the variation of py and u, (given by Eqs. 2.34e and 2.34f) with for the case when w=0,2. Two points worth noting from this figure arc: 1. There are two values of 9 at which yy oF is is eo. The values of om corresponding to these infinite ordinates are the natural frequencies wn, and Ons. 2. When 1=1, i.e. Om—ing, @y=0 In other words, when the values m, and ky are such that | Fe is equal to the fre- ™, quency (1m) of exciting force acting on mass m,, then the amplitude of mass m, will be zero. When Gny=0m, while ¢=0, the amplitude of mass m, may be obtained (from Eq. 2.94) as (2.358) ‘The amplitude of mass my is thus equal to its static displacement (displacement of m, under the static influence of P,). Application: The above theoretical treatment will be useful in the application of an undamped vibration neutralizer for a rigid block foundation as explained in Section 7.3c.18 HANDBOOK OF MACHINE FOUNDATIONS &: = 8.9 ; q Y 5.0 | sd inl : itl . lt 2 Hata TT cri 3. 43.0) itt : x de x | i 20 H f20 ie IA iA .0 1.0] i H t e ee ash PTT OK 1.25 ellis 0 04 081012 1.6 20 oO 04° 081012 16 2.0 ae = o5 (a) {b) Response Corts fran Undampel Two-Degre Freedom Sytem fo the Case whenae.2and ox me 2.3.2 Damped Case &. Free Vibrations Consider the system shown in Fig. 2.3b. Viscous dampers with damping coefficients C and C, are additionally introduced here, It is difficult to precisely assess the values of C, and G, in practice and consequently they are not generally considered in practical designs based on multiple degree freedom systems. However, the following theoretical treatment will be helpful in cases where the influence of damping cannot be neglected, and this data can be obtained from field measurements or otherwise. The equations of motion for the system shown in Fig. 2.3b may be written as under: my By C+ Ka +h (xe) + a (G4) =O (2.36a) ty Zy + Cy (Ba—&) + Ka (Zr %) =O (2.36b) Both z and z, are harmonic functions and can be represented by vectors. Writing the vec- tors as complex numbers and substituting aay cleat (2.37a) yay cleat (2.37b) in Eqs. 2.37a and 2.37b, and solving, the following governing equation is obtained for the natural frequencies of the system. {F(O3) }7-+40%, (04 Son Bi. 08) V TF at Giina(Oax— OF) (EF) J? (2.38)i GENERAL THFORY 19 where, F(0e) =f, 03 (+a) (8,455, +4 Gs Gi a VIF a+O% G(1+2) (2.39) where Sy, &,, and a ate already defined in Eqs. 2.93a, 2.23b and 2.24 respectively; % and f, are damping ratios defined by ery au v. - (2.40a) ees (2.40b) my Corollary: When t=0, and %=0, Eq, 2.99 reduces to the form given by Eq. 2.22 for the undamped case. b. Forced Vibrations Case 1: When the harmonic force Py sin amt acts on mass m,. ‘The equations of motion for the system may be written as mat h+ hath (ana) t+ G(& +i (ana) 2) = Py sin at (2.41a) ms Bp + Ce (Ee (2.41b) Since the system moves at the frequency of the exciting force under steady-state conditions, the solution may be assumed in the form: 2 = a elont (2-42) and Ze= ay clont (2.42b) Substituting these relations in Eqs. 2.41a and 2.41b and solving, the following relations are obtained for a and a, Po (O03) +2i%2 Ga Om oe Leah Bas lta Boa Vie eon FT | and (2.43) where F(o2) is given by Eq. 2.39. Using the principles of complex algebra, the modulus of a, and a, may be written as a aN TREE) }+ 40520 HANDBOOK OF MACHINE FOUNDATIONS Particular Case: When G%=0 (i.e., the damping in the lower system is neglected) and %, the amplitude of mass m, subjected to a harmonic force Py sin wat-is given by Po (Bie OR) +40 hy Oh, [ (FD +4 08 Cok, (ra)? Goby } my (2.450) and a= Po [ Tats oe oh } (2.456) mL (FOR) +408 Oak (049)? Roky 7, where f (o2)is given by Eq. 2.92 or in terms of basic parameters, substituting C=0 and G:=C c (-mobyP+Ctoh 0h Em) OR Rm mee | Om) and ee ont Ema mee ea) Expressed in non-dimensional form, Eqs. 2.46a and 2.46b may be further written as +42 af i ran array 478) and L442 nf It Lat worst Heeier fem where aa os (2.482) (2.48b) (2.48e) (2.484) (2.48e) te 7 7 . For the ease 2 a (considered in preceding case), m= (= sey), Fig 26 shows the variation of yz, with 9 for various damping values (%). It is interesting to note from Fig. 26 that irrespective of the degree of damping, all the response curves pass through two fixed points S, and S,, the abscissa of which may be obtained as roots of the following equation to p( Lb apt) | 28? wag ( LEE) 4 oP mo (2.49)GENERAL THEORY 21 af 6. © i I } i j 2. 1,0) os aa 0.0 02 04 06 08 Fig. 2.6: Response of Mass m, for Various Damping Ratios (C) where B = my/ng For the particular case considered above since 7 = 72 B= 1 Substituting, the abscissa of the fixed points S, and Sy in Fig, 2.6 are given by w-att(se)=0 (2.50) .2 in this case. Tables 2.2 and 2.3 give the values of ux and u, for various values of frequency ratio ~, mass ratio a and damping ratio { for the particular case when yom or the relation xR, Fa £4 is satishea, om Application: The theory explained in the above particular case is used.in the design of auxiliary mass-vibration dampers, which will be explained in Section 7.3c. The data con- tained in Tables 2.2 and 2.3 will be useful in the choice of appropriate parameters for the design of auxiliary mass-vibration dampers for a rigid block foundation. 24 Maltiple-Degree Freedom System Although the vibration analysis of a multiple-degree freedom system is relatively more complicated and often necessitates the use of a digital computer, the theoretical approach for the analysis of such a system for the undamped case is given in this section for the benefit of interested readers. Matrix notation* is used here for a concise presentation, ‘Readers not familiar with this notation may refer to standard books on matrix algebra or Section 28, Vol 2 of Ref. © 1.6.y1 SIOT e0r0 avo s6c"0 oro 80T y8¥0 seco 3101 ro soo so (§-3) ‘ SSVI HOS (") YOLOVA DIAWNAG JO NOMLVRIVA oe rawe ad ‘6st nL Leet ot Sort ZO" PL ZOE ORT PL FOr FOr 1 #201 ¥20T Sevo of1"0 szr'0 | 940 zr FeO 180 940 421'0 | OBI" ZLI'O 99I'0 wzo B70 LO] ecvO KETO Tero Ezz0 G90 9c GEO | ZED GEE 9EF0 F860 SLO s6s'0 0090 | 6oS0 LIS BITO OZ Sa'0 Zao srt | E40 ESwO ger GoD L681 985°% S662 | OFZ cEc"t S6L'T BOR'T O'S Oe" OFE'Ze| THOT FEE SITS Eze SUTE O6I'Y | H90' BLT's OGL 596% 760°C HERE GTO OFF cere eee 00'S 00's 000°S, los L908 Siva 490'8 Lee oge'st 102"st rH sis soe oe" our eee 4601 mot wot geo | eo vero 990 WO rad 1% 19 00's S197 ele 00s, sure 1162 ise SFES wz 0st gsc sss arra usro s1zo 1080 giro sso giv0 “coro evo BHO BLE soo zo 10 0 0 zo ro so 0 so 60 = _™) aco, ‘w SSVI WOd ("H) YOLOVA DINWNAG JO NOLLVTUVA, oz Uae,24 HANDBOOK OF MACHINE FOUNDATIONS 2.4.1 Free Vibrations Consider the system shown in Fig. 2.7. “Under free vibration, there is no exciting force on any of the masses, ‘The system is said to possess n degrees of freedom leading to 2 equations of motion which may be written in the form my & +H 21+ Ky (#4) = 0 hy By + Ky (a—&) + Ky (Zia) = 0 @51) tn Bn Kn (Sa ene ‘The equation system (2.51) may be written in matrix form as (M4) (2)+ 081 (Z}=0 (2.52) where (M) is the diagonal mass matrix given by ma [M4] (2.53) Ke +m [X] is the stiffness matrix which, in its general form, is repre- ie sented by Fig. 27: Multiple Degree [= (2.54) Freedom System. . ie Koa Kg Ky are the stiffness coefficients which can be evaluated for a given structural system, For the chain-like system shown in Fig. 2.7, Kytk, —Ky. -K, Gtk iX)= (2.55) Ky Substituting aa sin of, z=a, sin et and so on, in Eq, 2.52 and simplifying, (E}-24) 6) (4) <0 (2.56) ee where i Sle (2.57)GENERAL THEORY 25 ‘The algebraic problem represented by Eq. 2.56 is called the “matrix eigen value problem.” Tt is also called the “real eigen value problem” to distinguish it from the complex eigen value problem obtained when the damping matrix is also considered in the equations of motion (Eq. 2.51). Eq. 2.56 represents a set of homogeneous equations (right-hand side ‘equal to zero), the condition for obtaining a non-trivial solution being that the determinant formed by the coefficients of the left-hand side of the equation system should vanish. ‘This gives the relation in its general form as Ky —mo* Ky. Ky —my (2.58) + Kon — ma Eq. 2.58 on expansion gives n roots for o%, say wf, w....ef such that af eur Le coset + Ra} sin ot] (2.60) Eq. 2.60 gives the displacements z, Z....zn at any time 4 It may be noted that the matrix product {V_}"[M]{V;} in the denominator is a scalar quantity,26 HANDBOOK OF MACHINE FOUNDATIONS ‘A useful check on the calculation is provided by the following identity, S {Ved (Vee) > were est) ‘The right-hand side is the identity matrix, also called the “unit matrix”, 24.2. Forced Vibrations Consider the system shown in Fig, 2.7 with harmonic exciting forces P, sin wnt, Py sin omt... P, mf acting on masses m,, m,....Mma respectively.. The amplitudes of exciting force are represented by the force vector {F} where ie | * weal. (2.62) [md ‘The equation of motion of the system may be wfitten in matrix form thus: [a] (2)-+ 14] =F (2.68) The steady-state solution of Eq. 2.63 may be expressed in the form {Z) = {a} sin owt (2.64) where {a} is the unknown column vector of amplitudes. Substituting Eq. 2.64 in Eq. 2.63 and simplifying, the following set of equations is obtained: {L] <8 [24)} fa} = (8) (2.65) or fa) ={0) -o Pa} (2.66) where, the superscript —! denotes the inversion of the square matrix contained in the flower brackets of Eq. 2.66. Nore: Since damping has not been considered in equation system 2.63, if Wm is equal to one of the natural frequencies of the system, the matrix {[] —at[M]} becomes a singular matrix (value ofits determinant becomes zero) and therefore cannot be inverted. Alternative solution: ‘The natural frequencies oy (r==1, 2,...-n) and natural modes {Vs} are first determined as explained in the preceding section. The amplitudes can be obtained from the following relation. < : {Vr} (Vz}™ i 3 Gey [gearey ] aGENERAL THEORY 27 2.5, Transient Response 2.5.1. Response of Single-Degree Freedom System Consider the motion of a spring mass system (Fig. 2.1) under the influence of a general transient force F(s) shown in Fig. 28. ‘The variation of force with the time as shown in the diagram may be considered to be made up of pulses of short duration Ar. FORCE Fi Fig. 2.8: A General Force-Time Relationship, i a 1 —¥Me T ‘The response Az of the system subjected to a pulse having a momentum A, may be written as mon sin @ ({—1) (2.68) where wy is the natural frequency of the system and vis the period upto which the system has been at rest before the action of the pulse. Since As=F(s) Az F(x) ar GaAs Az= sin wp (t+) (2.69) . ‘The response of the system subjected to the cumulative action of such a series of pulses is given by . J = es sin oy (t-*) (2.70) Eq. 2.70 is called the “Duhamel’s integral” or “convolution integral”. Nore: If the system was not at rest at (<0, the fiee vibration term (A sin cast+B cos Wat} should also be added to the right-hand side of Eq. 2.70 to obtain the total displacement at any time 1 ‘Thus in general, =A sin ont + Becos oat +] faa = sin on (t—1) (2.71) a Particular case: Consider the response of a single-degree undamped system subjected toa rectangular pulse shown in Fig. 2.9, The load P, is suddenly applied and kept on the system for a duration T,Fig. 29: A Rectangular Pulse, T 7 Fig. 2.10 shows the variation of dynamic factor u(—2z/zst, where zis the static displacement, P,[K) with the period ratio T/T, where Ty is the natural period of the system. Fig. 2.10; Transient Response for a Single-Degree System Duc to Rectangular Pulse. 5 os 15 remo nario? Application: ‘The foregoing theoretical treatment will be useful for the dynamic analysis, of block foundations supporting impact causing machinery such as hammers, presses, etc, (See Example 3 in Section 4.5.7). 2.5.2 Response of Multiple-Degree Freedom System Response of a multiple-degree freedom system subjected to a transient force vector {F(O} may be obtained as follows. Let the matrix of initial displacements and velocities at the time t=0 be denoted by the {Z}, and {Z}. If Vr is the eigen vector corresponding to the eigen value (or circular natural frequency @,,) then the column matrix [2], contain- ing displacements of the system at any time tis given by the following general relation > {Vz} {Vel [AE] Khem 2 evr MW {ehecos wxt-+ Le sin ot] SDV fri: + > ate avy] POs eo, (t—4) dt (2.72) aGENERAL THEORY 29 Tt may be noted that the first part of the right-hand side of Eq.2.72 denotes the displace: ment under free vibration (Eq. 2.60) and the second partis the response due to the transient force (Eq. 2.70.) Eq. 2.72 will be useful only if the integrals involving the forcing function can be evaluated. Numerical integration using a digital computer will be necessary if the force-time relation is of a random nature. For methods of numerical integration, the reader may refer to standard books on numerical analysis.* 9, H, Crandall, Engineering Analysis, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1956,