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ARR No. 51
ISSN 0518 - 0728

Translation of Japanese Highway

Design Manual
Part 1: Earthworks
O.G. Ingles

AUSTRALIAN ROAD
RESEARCH BOARD
19SEP1985

LIBRARY

AUSTRALIAN ROAD RESEARCH BOARD

RESEARCH REPORT
 AUSTRALIAN ROAD RESEARCH BOARD

REPORT SUMMARY
THE PURPOSE OF THIS REPORT
is to proyide an English translation of descriptions of: (a) soil stabilisation practice in Japan, both for surfical and deep
stabilisation; (b) an extension of the Unified Soil Classification to include volcanic soils; and (c) a detailed treatment of
soil vegetation.
The manual sets out requisite standards for earthworks in accordance with the wishes of the Japan Highway Public
Corporation (Nihon Doro Kodan). It emphasises the need to consider local conditions when applying the standards. It
defines the nomenclature of earthworks and its associated classifications and lists the basis facts of good procedure.

THIS REPORT SHOULD INTEREST

all those concerned with road design and construction

THE MAJOR CONCLUSIONS OF THE REPORT ARE

N/a

AS A CONSEQUENCE OF THE WORK REPORTED, THE FOLLOWING ACTION IS RECOMMENDED

the standard be considered in relation to Australian practice

RELATED ARAB RESEARCH

CUT OUT INFORMATION RETRIEVAL CARD

INGLES, O.G. (1985) : TRANSLATION OF JAPANESE HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL

PART 1 : EARTHWORKS. Australian Road Research Board. Research Repon
ARR 51. 69 pages, 78 figures and 31 tables.
KEYWORDS : Eanhworks/soil/classification/construction/cutting (earthworks)/gradient/
slope stability/vegetation/soil stabilization/translation/Japan/volcanic/embankment
ABSTRACT : The report is a translation of Part 1 - Earthworks - of the Design Manual of
the Japan Highway Public Corporation (Nihon Doro Kodan). The manual draws on overseas
practice, particularly U.S. practice. Modifications and innovations to known practice are
detailed. The manual includes chapters dealing with soil classification and properties;
embankments, cuttings and road construction; embankment and cutting slopes ; slope
protection; and countermeasure construction, including deep soil stabilisation. Some of the
techniques described are not well known outside Japan: of special interest is the extension
of the Unified Soil Classification to volcanic soils. A detailed treatment of slope vegetation
is also given.

•Non IRRD Keywords

 Al,Jstralian Road Research Board
·Research Report ARR No. 51

... .
~

. TRANSLATION. OF JAPANESE-HIGHWAY
DESIGN MANUAL
PART 1: EARTHWORKS

by

O.G. INGLES
Consultant

. "'' ·... ··

Australian Road Research Board

500 Burwood Highway, Vermont South
Victoria 3133, Australia
August 1985
Research Report ARR No. 51

. INTRO DU CTI ON
I • • . .:~·
. :.·· ·\ .

. ·The Desig"il Mari1.i'al of thejapan.Hi'gnway P'ublic Corporatidii (Nih"on'Ddro Kbdaii)"isa ., ...

very extensive collection of Highway Design recommendations in 14 parts, ranging
from Earthworks and Pavements through Bridges and Tunnels to Traffic Safety and
Control. Four of these parts were to be translated and published in the ARR Series.
Part 1, Earthworks, is presented in this report, whilst Part 2, Pavements, and Part 3,
Drainage, wa& published in ARR 52 and ARR 55 respectively. The initial translation of
Part 4, Landscaping, showed this part to have little application to Australian
conditions and thus it will not be published.
As with any good reference work for practical use, this Design Manual draws on best
practice overseas, and naturally it frequently reflects American practice. What is
significant, how~v!3r, are.the.modi,fi~ations and ir;movation.s.which thisJV1anu~J offers
to other known practice.$. lt'is'car"eh.iily defaileCfand clearly set offt."ln translation, I
have attempted to render the texfas closely .as. possible Jo the original and this has
necessitated the additioo. .of occa~ion?l
.. .. . .. explan~tor.y
., . . . .
notes.
..

OWEN G. INGLES
August 1985

ISBN 0 86910 187 0 Report

ISBN O 86910 188 9 Microfiche
ISSN 0518 - 0728

The ARR series of reports was created by the Board to quickly and economically reproduce the conclusions of
road and road transport research subjects for those associated with roads and the road transport industry. Unlike
other technical publications produced by the Australian Road Research Board, ARR reports are not reviewed by
reterees.

Although this report is believed to be correct at the time of its publication, the Australian ~oad Research Board
does not accept responsibility for any consequences arising from the use>otthe information.contained .in it.
People using the information contained in the report should apply, an,d rely:.upon ..th~ir o.wn .s.kill.~nd ju'dgmerit tci .
the particular issue which they are considering. ' · ·· ' · .· ;·'·',' ·. . . ~ '. •. .
.. . , • . . .·· .
Reference to, or reproduction of this report must include a precise reference to the report.
 Research~Rep·ortARR:.No. 51

. •..
"CONTENTS
1. APPLICATION

2.. SOIL CLASS,IFICATION AND PRO.PE,RTiES

2:1 The application and significance of' classification 1
1
2.2 · Soil classification '' 1
2.3 Soil dem~ity 6
2.4 Soil shear strength 6
2.5 Distinguishing between hard rock, soft rock and soil 6

3. EMBANKMENTS, CUTTINGS, ROAD

CONSTRUCTION 13
3.1 Composition of embankments and cuttings. 13
3.2 Requirements for fill 14
3.3 Requirements for subgrades 18
3.4 Subgrade thickness design 26
3.5 Construction backfilling 31

4. EMBANKMENT SLOPES 34
4.1 Embankment 34
'4.2 Embankment slope gradients 34
4.3 Berms 35
4.4 Sod tamping 35
4.5 Roller compaction of slopes 35

5. CUTTING SLOPES 38
5.1 Application 38
5.2 The gradient of a cutting slope 38
5.3 Berms 41
5.4 Rounding the slope . 41
5.5 The management of surface and spring water 42

6. EMBANKMENTS ON SLOPING FOUNDATIONS,

ONE SIDE CUT, ONE SIDE FILL, AND
. THE CUT AND FILL BOUNDARY ZONE 44
6.1 Stepcuts 44
6.2 Sidecuts, sidefills and the cut and fill boundary zone 44
6.3 Drainage of side cuts, side fills and the cut and fill
boundary zone 44

8. SLOPE PROTECTION 46
8.1 Application 46
8.2 Vegetation establishment 46
8.3 Stone facing. block facing and concrete lining 52
8.4 Concrete framework 55
8.5 Mortar and concrete spray work 56
8.6 Miscellaneous slope works 57

'. 11. COUNTERMEASURE CONSTRUCTION 60

. 11.5 Countermeasure coni;truction methods
(deep soil stabilisation) 60
Research Report ·AR:R No. 51

TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE TO PART 1 ......:. EARTHWORKS

This section of the Design Manual contains useful descriptions of soil stabilisation practice in
Japan, both for surficial and deep stabilisation. Some of the techniques described are not well
known or well used outside Japan, but have been found effective and efficient on their soils. Of
especial interest also· is the extension of the Unified Soil Classification to enable it to
accommodate volcanic soils, so important in many parts of the world. A useful and detailed
treatment of slope vegetation is also given; but the many practical examples with which this Part
of the Manual is supplemented, have not been translated.

7. Analysis ot the stability ot cuts and Fiiis

Translator's note:·
As this section presents a fairly conventional textbook treatment of the theory of slope
stability analysis, it·has not been translated, although some usetul data charts are presented.

9. Rockfall Defences
Translator's note:
.As this is only relevant to very mountainous terrain or deep rockcuts, it has not been.
considered worthwhile translating at the present time.

10. Prevention and Restoration Measures tor Unstable Slopes

Translator's note:
Though a very thorough and interesting treatment, this has not been translated as the
occurrence of unstable slopes is not a major road-associated problem in Australia.

11. Embankments on Weak Foundations

Translator's note:
· · As the initial portion·ofthis section·contains only a textbook account of settlement analysis
on soft soils, the translation is.resumed only from Section 11.5 onwards; where matters of deep
stabilisation techniques not always well-known outside Japan are discussed at some length:

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: Th.is translation is jointly funded by ARAB and the National

Institute for Transport and Road Research, South Africa and with the permission of
the Japan Highway Public Corporation. Their co-operation is gratefully
acknowledged.
ARR No. 51
·1. APPLICATION
These provisions apply to the design of earthworks
undertaken for the Japan Highway Corporation
(Nihon Doro Kodan).
Notes
Fundamental requirements for the design of cut-
tings, embankments, and related earthworks are set
out in these provisions.
Because soils are extremely variable materials,
the proper application of the manual is not to follow
its wording literally but, having regard for local con-
ditions, especially topography, climate, soil type,
etc .• and undertaking small scale field trials, to en-
deavour to avoid an irrational design through unders-
tanding its basic purport.
For problems not yet fully solved, it suffices as
an introductory reference to present thinking about
proper design and construction.
Moreover. for matters not dealt with in this
manual, reference should be made to the Manual of
Road Earthworks (Japan Road Association, May
1968), Asphalt Pavement Guidelines (Japan Road
Association, December 1968) and Cement and Con-
crete Pavement Guidelines (Japan Road Association,
August 1965). ·
2. SOIL CLASSIFICATION AND
PROPERTIES
2.1 THE APPLICATION AND SIGNIFICANCE OF
CLASSIFICATION
So as to achieve a proper objectivity in records, con-
struction reports, construction control and for obtain-
ing prior knowledge for construction planning, design
and testing, soil classification is usecl.
Notes
The distinctive characteristics and engineering
properties of soil can be inferred from a previously
established classification table, if simple tests are
used for classification. However, it is not desirable to
use the engineering properties (CBR, shear strength,
etc.) from a classification table, just as they are, for
values in a detailed calculation, since they provide
chiefly qualitative properties of a soil.
1
For design values of CBR, shear strength, etc .•
CBR tests, shear strength tests, etc. must be per-
formed.
Because the soil classification chart is ba~ed on
accumulated construction experience and previous
testing, it is important to try to reflect the experience
from various disciplines henceforward, so as to aug-
ment the reliability of the classification chart.
2.2 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Soil classification is to· be in accordance with the
Japanese Unified Soil Classification (Soil Engineer-
ing Society Draft) (hereafter called the 'Unified
Classification'), in principle. ·
The classification is to be made according to the
procedures in Table 2.1 and Fig. 2.1 from test results
based on KODAN A 1206 (Plastic Limit Test Jor
Soils). KODAN A 1205 (Liquid Limit Test for Soils)
and KODAN A 1204 (Grading Test for Soils).
Notes
(1) With regard to the Japanese Unified Soil
Classification
The Japanese Unified Soil Classification was
published as a draft soil classification in Japan by the
Soil Engineering Society, to amend the Unified
Classification. which at the present time tends .to a
world-wide usage, for Japanese conditions as well
as adding a classification for volcanic cohesive soils.
100.--------...----------
80
60
Plasllclly
Index ('lo)
•p* 40
20
® liquid Limit WL ('lo)
Fig. 2.1 -Plasticity Diagram for the Japanese Unified Soil
Classification
* The international symbol for plasticity index. Ip, is used for
diagrams in this translation, but the common Australian ab-
breviation, Pl, is used in the text
2 ARR No. 51

TABLE 2.1
THE JAPANESE UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION METHOD

74µ Sieve passing ( test )

< 5% grading

Gravel (>4.76mm)
more abundant than 74µ Sieve passing
sand (4.76mm 74") 5 to 122: SelowACDand oblique
1 ines of the
lasticit chart
Obtain Above ACI> and ob 1 i que
74µ Sieve passing LL & PI lines of the
> 12i of minus plasticity chart
74 sieve 420" portion
passing (fractionate
' soi by sieving

74µ Sieve passing ( test )

< 5;11 <ll'6ding

Sand (4.76mm - 74")

more abundant than 74µ Sieve passing
gravel (>4. 76mm) 5 to 122:

Obtain
74µ Sieve passing LL & PI
> 12i of mi nus
420µ portion

Under the A line

and oblique lines in (test colour)
the plasticity odor, etc.
chart organic matter
Over the A line an
oblique lines in
the plasticity
chart
On the oblique I ines 1-----------------1
___
in the ple<ticit,y
74µ Sieve Obtain chart volcanic ash
passing LL & PI test pres- cohesive soil
, soi __, of mi nus Under the COA line
in the plasticity ence of
420" portion chart volcanic mi caceous, s i 1i ceous*
ash inorganic silt

CH

Distinguished by fibrous texture, colour, odor, tiigh moisture content, Pt

interspersed plant leaves, etc.

Notes:
(1 I c.u. D•.,, D,.., c.c. = (D.,.,l'i(D,., x 0,,.,)
(2) See Fig. 2.1, Plasticity Diagram
(3) Representation by compound symbols is made in accordance with grading and consistency

t• diatomaceous earth)

Since soils have a wide range of physical pro-
perties they exhibit complex engineering properties
overall. There are many ways for classifying the
special characteristics of soil, grading, consistency,
shP.Ar i:;trP.ngth, r:nmnrnssibility, etc.
In this design manual, by dividing soils broadly
into coarse-grained soils and fine-grained soils as
characteristically adopted in the Unified Classifica-
tion, a classification is made from the standpoint of
plasticity for fine-grained soils and chiefly grading for
coarse-grained soils.
Because fine grained soils in Japan lie in the
vicinity of the A line of the plasticity diagram, Fig. 2.1,
soils of the same type in actuality are differentiated
into silt and clay soils according to the mechanical
division into CH and MH parts by the A line. In this
classification a C line (Plasticity Index (Pl) = 20) and
a D line (Pl WL - 50) are introduced, adding to CH
part of the MH of the Unified Classification as cut off
by the line ACD, and only that part below the line ACD
is made MH.
The location of volcanic cohesive soils on the
plasticity diagram lies in the MH or OH, but because
ordinary soils also fall in this area and there is great
heterogeneity of the dry density, CBR and so forth for
individual soil types, a v symbol is provided in the
classification.
 ARR No. 51
(2) With regard to conventional grading tests and
grain size divisions.
The Unified Classification adopted in this design
manual, made by the Triangular classification, does
not require a grading analysis of fine grained soils to
be performed by the troublesome specific gravity•
method. Moreover, in the Unified Classification a
grain size division between gravel and sand is made
at 4.76 mm (No 4 sieve); but because in the custom-
ary KODAN A 1 204 and JIS-A 1204 grading test
methods the grain size division between gravel and
sand is made 2 mm (No 1O sieve). care must be taken
not to confuse them.
(3) Unified Classification Symbols
Capital letters of (English) words are used to
designate soil properties by alphabetic symbols in
the Unified Classification. Because it is easy to ap-
preciate the relationship between soil properties and
classification name if the meaning of the symbols is
understood, the symbol meanings are shown below.
First Letter - Soil Type
G Gravel
S Sand
M Non-plastic or slightly plastic fine grained
soil (Silt, Mo)
V Volcanic
C Fine grained plastic soil (clay)
0 Organic
Pt Peat
Second Letter - Grading (to be used for G and S
type soils)
W Well graded material with few fines ·
P Poorly graded material with few fines
M Coarse material containing non-plastic or
slightly plastic fines (silt)
C Coarse material containing plastic fines
(clay)
Third Letter -Compressibility (to be used for
fine-grained soils)
L Low compressibility with liquid limit below
50
H - High compressibility with liquid limit above
50
(4) Unified Classification field identification method.
Table 2.2 shows the field identification method
for the Japanese Unified Soil Classification.
(a) Field identification method for fine-grained soils.
fhis method is performed for particles smaller
than a No. 40 sieve (about 0.4 mm). For field
classification it is not necessary to perform a sieve
fractionation, but coarse particles which impede the
test may simply be removed by hand.
Sedimentation tests, which require a knowledge of the
specific gravity, are probably meant here - Translator's
note.
3
(i) Dilatancy(response to shaking). ,
After removing particles larger than No . .40
sieve size, prepare lumps of moistened soil
of about 8 crri 3 .
Place a lump in one hand and shake horizon-
tally whilst vigorously striking several times
with the other hand. A noticeable response
is when water oozes out at the surface of the
lump, which assumes a glossy appearance.
When the sample is squeezed between the
fingers the water and gloss disappear from
the surface, the lump stiffens, and finally it
cracks or crumbles. The rapid appearance of
water when shaking and rapid disap-
pearance when squeezing are useful for
identifying the character of the fines in a soil.
Very fine clean sand shows the most rapid
response, but plastic clay shows no
response. Inorganic silts such as a typical
rock dust show a moderately quick
response.
(ii) Dry Strength (crushing characteristics).
After removing particles larger than No. 40
sieve size, form a lump of the soil to the con-
sistency of putty, adding water if necessary.
After properly drying the lump by oven, sun
·or wind, its strength is tested by crushing
between the fingers. This strength is a
measure of the character and quantity of the
colloidal fraction contained in the soil. The
dry strength increases with increasing
plasticity. High dry strength is characteristic
for clays of the CH group. A typical inorganic
silt has only a very small dry strength. Silty
fine sands and silts have a similar small .dry
strength, but can be distinguished by feel
when the dried specimen is powdered. Fine
sand feels gritty whereas a typical silt gives
the smooth feeling of powder.
(b) Toughness (consistency near plastic limit)
After removing particles larger than No. 40 sieve
size, a soil sample about 12 mm cube is formed to the
consistency of putty. If too dry after preparation,
water must be added and if sticky, the water must be
reduced by evaporation, spreading out a thin layer.
Then the soil specimen is rolled out between the
hands or by hand on a smooth surface into a thread of
about 3 mm diameter. The same operation is
repeated by folding back the thread, as long as
possible, but during this time, the moisture content is
gradually reduced and the soil specimen stiffens,
finally losing its plasticity, and crumbles when the
plastic limit is reached.
After crumbling, it is gathered into a lump and
once again briefly kneaded until the lump breaks up.
A strong thread near the plastic limit and a stiff
lump when finally breaking are due to the colloid~I
clay fraction in that soil. A weak thread near plastic
limit and rapid loss of cohesion of the lump below the
plastic limit is either an inorganic clay soil of low
plasticity or a kaolin-type clay soil or organic clay
soils which occur below the A-line.
4 ARR No. 51

TABLE 2.2
FIELD IDENTIFICATION METHODS FOR THE JAPANESE UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION

-
Classifi ..
Field Identification Method cation
(excluding soll particles > 76.2 nm from the tests) S)'l1lbol Typical Nomenclature

A wide range of particle sizes, Well graded gravel, gravel-sand

good distribution of all GW mixtures, little or no fines
Clean gravels intennediate particles
Coarse grained Gravels: (little or no
soils. More fines)
lravel fraction Gap graded or with excess of Poorly graded gravel, gravel-sand
than half is GP mixtures~
larger than > 4. 76 nm) some grain sizes. little or no fines
74u much greater
than sand
fraction Containing non-plastic fines Gravel-silt~ poorly graded gravel-
(4.76 nm• 74u l Gravels (see ML identification method GM sand-silt mixtures
containing below)
fines (with
arpreciable
i~~!a i~i ~~e~! ~i ~~~ t ~~~e~~tnoa
fille!)
Gravel-clay, poorly graded gravel ..
below) "" Sdnd-ddy mh Lufe'S

A wide range of grain sizes, Well graded sand, gravelly sand,

goon rli.;,t,rihution of all SW little or no fines
Clean sands intermediate particles
{little or no
Coarse grained Sands: fin•s)
soils. More Gap graded or .,; th excess of
SP
Poorly graded sand, gravelly sand,
than half is sand some grain sizes little.or no fines
larger than {4.76 nm • 74u)
74u much greater Containing non-plastic fines Silty sand, poorly graded sand-
than gravel
(> 4.76 om) (see ML identification method SM silt mixtures
Sands below)
containing
fines (with
appreciable Containing plastic fines Clayey sand, poorly graded· sand-
fines) (see CL identification method SC clay mixtures
below)

Identification Methods for minus 0.42 rrm sieve matetial ..

Ory
Strength u1 latancy Toughness

nil - quick . Inorganic s i 1 ts and very fine sands

Rock dust
law slow nil ML Silts or clayey fine sands of low plasticity

Silts and clayey sails

{cohesive soils) medium ..
high
nil -
very slow medium CL
Inorganic clays, grave11y clayst sandy clays.
lean clays. of low to medium plasticity
(liquid li~it <50) ··~ ... '.
fine grained low Otganic silts and organic cl~y-silts of low
soils. More medium slaw low OL plasticity
than half is
finer than 74u
low - slow .. low -
medium nil medium VH Vo1canic ash cohesive soil,s
,
Silt, clay and volcanic -low .. slaw - low - lnof"9anic silts, micaceous or diatomaceous
ash cohesive soils medium nil medium MH. fine sands or silty soils, elastic silts
(liquid limit >50)
high -
very high nil high CH Inorganic clays of high plasticity, fat clays

medium ..
high
nil -
very slow
medium -
high OH Organic clays of high to medium plasticity

Highly Organic Soils By colour, odor, spongy feel,

fibrous nat1ire, etc. Pl Peat, highly organic sons

7 4 µmay be considered the smallest particle visible to the naked eye.

for practical purposes 6 mm or 4. 70 mm may be considered identical sieve sizes.
ARR No. 51 5

TABLE 2.3
SOIL PROPERTIES AS EMBANKMENT MATERIAL

SusceptibHty Suitability Necessity Erosion Suitability ~

i.::..:.!.~s...!:::.:.+~~~+-~-T-yp_i_c~al.:..:_N_•m_e_•~~+-Pe_nn__:ea~b~l-li_t_y+-t-o_F_r~ee~z-i-ng--i~a-s-s~u~b~9r_a_d-f-e~f-o..:..:.rs~od~-+-r-e-s~1·s~ta~n-c-et•-s~b•~c~k~f1-·1-1;--'--'--
Effects material tamping material , s
(1) (2) (3) (4) {S) (6) {7) (8) (9) (10) 1
Well graded gravel, Nil· g/cm' 60-80 kg/em'
GW gravel-sand mixtures Excellent extremely Excel lent High High Excellent
little or no fines small 2.0-2.2 > 8

Poorly graded gravel~ Nil· Medium

GP extremely Good High Excellent 1.8·2.1 25·60 > 8
gravel-sand mixtures, Excellent
little or no fines small High

Silty gravel Fair Small "edium Medium Fair 2.l·Z.J 4n-Rn , 8

~~~-~-~-~~-i_f_~·-~_•d~g-••_•_•_·--J~~P~_o_r~--J~H~.;;~e_r_at~•~-J--G-•_o_d~~+-Sma~·1_1~~-+-~H;_:9_h~-+-G-~_o_d~~-f--~~-t-~~-t~~--f
1
Gl1 d

Poor- Small Small Medium Fair 1.9-2.2 20•40 5.g

Mixtures effectively • Fair • - •
. impermeable Moderate Unnecessary High Poor

~ Clayey gravel; poorly Poor· Nil· Good

.., GC graded gravel-sand- effectively extremely Fair High l.9·2.2 20-40 5-9
! clay mixtures impermeab I e small Fair
~l--~-+-~~--l~~~~~~~~--lf--~~~--l~~~~~+-~~--'-t~~~~-1-~~~-t~~~~-r~~-t~~-t~~--f
"'e: SW
Wel 1 graded sand,
Excellent
Nil· Medium
gravelly sand, little extremely Excellent Small Excellent 1.8·2.l 20-40 5-9
~ Ot no fines smal 1 low
'-'
Pootly graded sand, Small
SP gravelly sand, little Excellent Good High Fair 1.6-l.9 10-25 5-9
or no fines High

Silty sand, poorly Fair Small Fair

d graded sand-silt Fair High low 1.9·2.2 20·40 5·9

Poor.. Medium Fair

MixtUres effectively Fair High 1.7•2.l 10-20 5- 9
impenneab1e High Low Poor

Clayey sand, poorly Poor- Small

SC graded sand-clay effectively Poor Unnecessary low Poor 1. 7·2.1 10·20
mixtur'es impermeable High

Inorganic siltand fine fair Moderate Mediwn

sand, rock dust, silty .. Poor 1.6·2.0 5·15 z- 6
Low P.~.or
ML or clayey fine sand Very High Small
of low plasticity Poor
Silt low to moderately
and Cl plastic inorganic clay, effectively moderate poor unnecessary high poor 1.6-2.0 5·15 2-6
Clay 9ravellyc1ay, sandyclay impermeable - high
wl <5('1-~~-+c~lay::::_:o~f~l:m:•~c~o~he~s~io~n:_-l-~~~~-J-~~~~-f~~~~-1-~~~~t-~~~-t-~~~~r-~~-j--~~t-~--:-j
. Ol
Organic silts of lm.
plasticity, organic poor moderate poor medium poor 1.4-1.7 4-8 2-6

'igl--~-1-~~-l-~~~~~~~~t-~~~--lf--~~~-+~~~~t-~~~-t~~~-t~~~~t-~~t--~-ir--~--i
silts and clays - high - low

Kanto loam, volcanic

sail arid suchlike fair unnecessar,'f o.5-J.n l
VH volcanic a!h poor poor
poor
clayey sails
Inorganic silt, micaceous
~ilt llH
or diatomaceous fine ·fair • moderate - poor unnecessary medium poor 1.3-1.6 4·8 2-6
and saney to silty soil, poor very high - high
Clay elastic silts
Highly plastic
u>L i?. 50 inorganic clay. effectively moderate
CH poor unnecessary high poor 1.4-1.8 l·l
very sticky clay impenneab I e

OH 11oderate to highly effectively moderate poor poor 1.3·1. 7 3-5 1·3

plastic organic clay impermeable

Highly
organic Pt Peat and suchlike I fair • poor poor
&Oil& highly nrfJ""ir ~oils I poor

Notes:
(1) This reference table was drawn up from the road engineering guide (May 1968) 'Classification by the Unified Classification Method' (for
roads and runways) and Section 8.2 ol this manual.
(2) Col. (3) GM and SM subdivisions are based on Atterberg limits;
d (for example GMd) is for wt :s;; 28and /p:s;;6, whereasu is for wt> 28.
(3) Col. (5) Summarised permeability coefficients are: k > 1o- 3 cm/sec, excellent;
k = 10- 3 ,....10- 6 cm/sec. fairto poor; k < 10- 6 -10- 7, impermeable.
(4) Col. (11) The dry densitiies are the values by modified AASHO method at optimum moisture content (KODAN A 1 211, 4.5 kg ram with 22
blows on 3 layers as the appropriate compaction energy).
6 ARR No. 51

Hi~hly organic clay soils have a very weak and Furthermore, particular care must be taken,
spongy feeling near the plastic limit. because the engineering Char<icteri!'\tics ol lh~
volcanic A!'\h cohesive soils distributed in various
(5) Properties of the soil classes as fill material parts of Japan cannot be inferred.
Table 2.3 shows the general properties of the
soil classes when compacted for select fill and Table 2.4 also shows general properties of the
subgrade material. soil classes.

TABLE2.4
SOIL PROPERTIES BY THE UNIFIED CLASSIFICATION

{I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

Natural Moisture Optlm... Moisture Maximum Dry
Classification Standard Compaction Shear Strength Compressibility($) · Content Content Density
Symbol
'Yf~i:~) "'opt (t) c~~n.h +·cu (i) 1.4r.gtcm• ~. 51t,9/t;mZ wn (1) '"apt til Ydma." lttrn•)

GW :.> 1.9 < 13 - > 38 < 1.4 - 7 • II 9 - 11 2.0 • 2.1

GP > 1.8 < 12 - > 36 < 0.8 - 7 - 12 7 - 10 1.9. 2.1

GM > 1.8 < 15 - > 34 .: 1.2' ' ).0 13 .. 16 M • 20 1.7. 1.9
GC , 1.8 < 15 - , 31 < 1.2 ' 2 .4 10 • 17 13 • 16 1.8. 1.9
SW .. I. 9 13 . - 38 1.4 - 8 - 12 12 - 14 1.8 - 1.9
SP 1.8 12 - 36 ·o.8 - 9 - 11 12 • 13 1.9
SM ' 1.8 15 0.• 2 34 1.2 3.0 15 - 18 17 1.8
·.
SM • SC 1.9 13 0.1 33 1.4 2.9 - -
SC 1.8 IS o.r 31 1.2 2.4 IS • 18 IS - 16 1.3
ML 1.7 19 0.1 32 l.S 2.6 - - -
ML - CL 1.8 17 0.2 32 1.0 2:.2 - - -
CL 1:1 17 0.1 28 1.4 2.6 - 21 - 23 1.5 • L6
OL - - - - - - - -
MH 1.3 l6 0.2 ~~ z.u l.8 . .
CH 1.5 26 0.1 19 2.6 3.9 - 2~ - 24 I. s - 1.7
OH - - - - - - - - -
Pt - - - - - - - .. ·- - -

Notes:
(1) . Colu.mns (1 ), (2), (3) w_ere drawn. up from the table in the Soll Engineering Handbook (The Unified Classification method and suitability for
fill dam design). Columns _(4), (5) and(\)) were drawn up from test results on Mei shin expressway materials.
(2) Column (1) are the values when compacted by the standard AASHO method (KOOAN A 121 O test equipm~nt, properly compacting by 58
blows in 3 layers).
(3) Column (2) are tt)e values of ..~cu and saturated cohesion, Csat for the consolidated undrained triaxial compression test.
(4) Column (3) ~re the actual values for the respective surcharge pressures' on Iii.I.

2.3 SOIL DENSITY classification with important influence on construc-

The soil density is determined as a rule from the
results of soil tests, but when soil tests are not per-
formed the values shown in Table 2.8 can be used.
2.4 SOIL SHEAR STRENGTH
tion costs and time. For that reason, classification at
the planning stage is to be made prudently, referring
to elastic wave investigations, local construction
records, field survey and core observations, etc. and
not mArf!ly depending on bore logs.

The soil shear strength must be obtained as a rule by Notes

investigating and testing the soil, but when soil tests
are not performed the values shown in Table 2.9 can
be considered standard.
2.5 DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN HARD ROCK, SOFT
ROCK AND SOIL
The subdivision into hard rock, soft rock and soil ac-
cording to the relative difficulty of excavation is a
(1) The basic distinction between hard and soft
rock is generally· made from the operational
efficiency of a bulldozer fitted With an hydraulic rip-
per, using the construction times shown in the Manual
of Public Wo~ks Management and General Specifica-
tions. However, for.planning, the distinction between
hard rock, soft rock and soil in progressive steps is
estimated from various investigational data.
ARR No. 51 7

TABLE2.8 SOIL UNIT WEIGHTS

Unit Weight (t/m3)

(Above the under-
Type Condition ground water table) Remarks

Sandy Gravel Compacted 2.0 GW, GP

well graded 2.0

Sand Compacted SW, SP
poorly graded 1.9
~

·-
~

u.. Sandy Soil Compacted 1.8 SM, SC

ML, CL,
Clayey So11 Compacted 1.7 (MH, CH)

Kanto Laom* Compacted 1.4 VH

Dense or well graded 2.0

Gravel GW, GP
Loose or poorly graded 1.8

Dense 2.1
Sandy Gravel GW, GP
Loose 1.9

Dense or well graded 2.0

Sand SW, SP
Loose or poorly graded 1.8
"'c0
:;:;
,,,
"O
Dense 1.9
c
::I
Sandy Soil SM, SC
0
u.. Loose 1.7
';;;
s..
::::i
,,,
+.>
z Clayey Soil
Stiff 1.8
ML, CL
Soft 1.6

Stiff 1.6
Silt ML
Soft 1.4

Stiff . 1.7
Clay CH, MH
Soft 1.5

Kanto Loam* 1.4 VH

Notes:
(1) For unit weight of soil below an underground water table, deduct 1 .0 from each tabulated value.
(2) Crushed stone has the same values as gravel. But for broken rock and rock waste it is necessary to consider the type, shape, size and
voids.
(3) Suitable values for gravelly sandy soils or gravelly clayey soils are determined from the-mixture proportions and the condition of the soil.
(4) .The underground water level is to be taken as the average post-construction value.
(5) Sand of unifonn grading is called poorly graded sand. Similarly for gravel.
 8 ARR No. 51

TABLE 2.9
SOIL SHEAR STRENGTH

Internal
Fl"'iction
Angle Cohesion
Type Condition (degrade) kg/cm' Remarks

gravel and gravel -sand

mixtures Compacted 40 0 GW, GP

well graded 35 0
Sand Compacted SW, .SP
poorly graded 30 0

;:::
Sandy Soi I compacted l5 • n.J ~M~ ~C

~1a)ieyso11 Comµ•cled Hi .: o.~ ML; GL

Kanto Loam"' Compacted 20 0.1 VH

Dense or we 11 graded 40 0
Gravel GW, GP
loose or poorly graded ·3S 0

Dense 40 0
Gravel-sand mixtures GW, GP
lOO$e 35 0

Dense or well graded 35 0

:!' Sand SW, SP
~ Loose or poorly graded 30 0
.g
~

J! Dense 30 0
.
.......
~
Sandy Soil
loose 25 0
SM, SC

z
Stiff 25 0
Clayey Soil ML, CL
Soft 20 0

Stiff 20 0 ML, CH
Si 1t and Clay ·-
Soft 15 0 MH

KaOto Loam* 5 (¢u) 0.3 VH'

* A volcanic fine si1 ty soil.

Notes:
(1) It is necessary, if at all possible, to perform soil tests to decide the soil shear strength. The shear strength of cohesive soils in
particularly we,ak foundations must invariably be determined bY. performing soil tests.
(2) The internal friction angle and cohesion.values shown in Table 2.9 are the consolidated undrained (quick) shear strength values.
(3) In Table 2.9 the effect of underground spring water, etc. on fills is not considered. Also for non-pr.econsoli~ated natural foundation soils
the cohesion is not taken into account.
(4) For cohesive natural foundation soils, it is desirable to determine the soil shear strength if at all possible fr'om the results of soil tests.
(5) For fills of clayey soil.and compacted·sandy. soil with heights less than about 1Om, cohesion can be ignored and the internal friction
angles taken as 30' and 35• respectively.
{6) CruspEtd rock -rock waste -roc;:k fragments, etc. may be, on the whole. regarded as gravel.
(7). In hillv 9round ·where sandy soils and cla.vey soils are mixed with gravel or rock fragments, appropriate values are to be determined
according to the mix propertions and the conditions, etc.
(8) · When using Table 2.9 to perform simple stability calculations for fill foundations with a natural foundation of clay. silt and clayey soil, the
internal friction angle is to be taken as zero and the shear strength, required by the estimated overburden pressure and the intema.l
friction angle shown in Table 2.9, is to·be considered cohesion. ·
(9). Correlation of conditions with N values for clayey soils and sandy soils:-
(a) For sandy soils, loose N < 10, average N = 1O"'30, tight N > 30 are the terms used.
(b) For clayey soils, loose N < 4, average N = 4"' 8, tight N > 8 are the terms used.
(c) When estimating the soil shear strength from the standard penetration test value N, the cone penetrometer test value of qc, of the
sounding test value Nw. refer to Section 7.4 stability calculations; and the soil investigation methods of the Soil Engineering
Society (fourth chapter. sounding).
 ARR No. 51
(2) Because the distinction between hard rock, soft
rock and soil is merely estimated at the design stage,
they are distinguished at the construction stage ac-
cording to the Manual of Public Works Management
and General Specifications.
(3) The methods used for distinguishing hard rock,
soft rock and soil in design are as follows.
(a) Borehole investigation
(i) Examination of core and slimes (length of
cylindrical rock core, degree of weathering).
Observation of slimes and core samples is
particularly important for classification.
Core length is closely related to crack spac-
ing, rock type, etc. For example, a long
cylindrical core is obtained from Otani stone
(a weak tuff), etc. On the other hand, a
cylindrical core i& not obtained from con·
glomerates. Also care is needed, because
rocks with finely spaced cracking are not
obtained in a firm cylindrical core.
(ii) Core recovery.
The core recovery generally varies accord-
ing to the nature of the ground, worker
capacity and skill, and the quality of the
mechanical tool.
Where there is notable weathering and
change of quality, where there are many
fissures and faults, where there are thin
layered sedimentary rocks etc .. when there
are different kinds of rock with notable varia-
tions of relative hardness in a single
rockmass, as well as a lowering of the
recovery rate, the individual rock chips
become small.
When a large core length is uncracked, the
rockmass is shown to be sound.
(iii) Drilling rate.
Drilling rate varies according to the nature of ·
the rock. However, because this drilling rate
also varies according to the skill of the
workmen and the type of bit, it requires care
(in interpretation)*. For similar conditions,
the rock is hard when the drilling rate is low.
(iv) Standard Penetration Test.
The standard penetration test is used for
places with soil and soft rock. The standard ·
penetration test'is usually not possible with
soft rock, but is possible with fragmented
rock (the weathered zone of granites, con-
glomerates, etc.). Furthermore, penetratiori
tests cannot be made on talus and soil con-
taining floaters, etc.
(b) Survey.
The length and spacing of cracks in neighbouring
rock outcrops, degree of weathering and relative
difficulty of excavation are to be examined. Also
clues are obtained by the investigation of condi-
tions in cuttings (the weathering state of
accumulated rocks at the base of the slope) and
local road conditions (especially the kinds of
base material used, etc.) to the tendency for
progressive weathering.
interpolated Translator
9
(c) Examination of construction records.
Construction records for local roads, railways,
etc., if they exist, are to be examined for the type
of rock, degree of weathering, excavation
methods, blasting powder quantities, etc.
(d) Elastic wave investigation.
If an elastic wave investigation is performed for
tunnels and particularly important individual
localities, the rippabitity can be estimated from
the elastic wave velocity.
(e) Compressive strength and elastic wave in-
vestigation of cores.
(i) ComrirP.~~ive strength of cores.
Rock compressive strength, represented till
now by the uniaxial compressive strength, is
generally measured from more than three
50x50x50 mm specimens. For bore cores.
the test is performed with three 50 mm
diameter cylinders, without forming cubes.
Furthermore, by reason of stratification and
flakiness, sedimentary and metamorphic
rocks have a general tendency to be
stronger at right angles to those surfaces,
with different strengths in the parallel and
orthogonal directions. Moreover, com-
pressive strength is usually influenced by
water content, a low strength corresponding
to a high water content.
(ii) Elastic wave investigation of cores.
When an elastic wave investigation is to be
performed, the elastic wave velocity of the
bore core must invariably be tested in ad-
vance.
As for the investigational data to be used for
establishing standards distinguishing bet-
ween hard rock, soft rock and soil at the
planning stage, amongst the investigational
methods above there are by now many field
results for the following.
(1) Observations of bore core samples,
e.g. core length -- rock type
weathering, degree of cracking.
(2) Standard penetration test.
(3) Elastic wave investigation results.
As regards the basis for distinction between hard
rock, soft rock and soil at the planning stage, there is
no firm basis at the present time, but the following
data are shown for reference (Tables 2.10 and 2.11,
Fig. 2.2). .
Elastic wau nlocity ml• 600 1.000 1,500 2.000 2,500 J,000
SandnoM
Oaynorte
lnterbedded undnone-
Ouartt- Porphyry
Granite
11;!.5'1 1..........1
'·''·'''
Bulldozer Showe! Ripper Blatting
Fig. 2.2 - Diagrammatic summary of excavation methods and
elastic wave velocities of site rocks removed for the Meishin
expressway
10 ARR No. 51

TABLE 2.10(a)
CLASSIFICATION OF HARD AND SOFT ROCKS IN EXCAVATION
(Ministry of Transportation)

Rock Type Geological Age R~ I II I II IV v VI

Gneiss ----
....u Quartz-schist ------ ----- .. -
.s::.
0..
s..
-c
c: Graphite-schist ---- -
...."'u -"'-u"'
0
E
0
.....
(JJ
0
N
0
0:.
Chlorite-schist ------ -----
_____
::!;;
-0-"'-
<:"' ()
VI
0
J..
(JJ

bs.. .:3c:
>,
s.. Phyll i Le
"'"'"'-· .
,,...

. .. -· ------- -~~"!!!'!"!'-
-
...."'u
0
0:.
Q. (JJ Quartz i le --- ----
c:- -c
0 ....E
N
0 Cl) Limestone ~-----
(JJ
"'Cl) Vl

"'
.-
"'
Cl..
"'u
.s::.
s..
Hard Sandstone ----------
-- ---- -----
<:(
Brei::cia
Clays tone ------------
....
u
0 Shale -----
N

"'
-"'-
u
0
0
"'
(I)
:::;:
Sandstone ---
0:.

~
Conglomerate ------
"'c:
+'
(I)
Shale ----- -
....I!! >,
s.. Sandstone ----
-0
(JJ ........."'
VJ

I-
s..
(I) Tuff ----
Tuffaceous Breccia -----
Granite ----------- ------ -----· -
....c: ' -"'-"'
u
Diori te
Gabbro
-- ------ -----
------ ----- -
-
....:::> u
0

"'
-><
.-
Cl..
0
0:. Olivine ------
u

"'
0 Serpentine ----------
"'::>0
(JJ
Rhyolite ------------ -----
c:
-c:n
u
Porphyrite ------ ----- r--

·;:: Andesite ------ ------ ----- --

"'u -><"'u
.-
>
0
0
IX Basalt ----- ----- ,.......
Agglomerate -- -------------

fresh rock with little fissuring

weathered and fissured material

• I cannot identify this rock more closely . . the character is a very old form ... Translator
ARR No. 51 11

TABLE 2.1 O(b)

CLASSIFICATION OF HARD AND SOFT ROCKS IN EXCAVATION

Class- Class Rock Quality and degree Representative rock

ification of degradation and soil
I Weakly bonded tertiary rocks. Tertiary shale
They are extremely fragile,
weatl1t:!1· eJ\1..e::.sivt:!ly, dllr.l r.:d11
be split by hand, having a
crack spacing about 1-5 cm
II Well bonded tertiary rocks. Tuff
They become somewhat d1s-
ordered by moderately
advanced weathering, can be
easily split by a light blow,
more coherent than the easily
split I and have a crack
spacing of 5~10 cm
I II Firmly bound tuff, which can Agglomerate
show moderately advanced weath-
ering, with a crack spacing·
10-30 cm, can be broken by a
light blow, with easy
seperation between the layer
surfaces of the various hard
.;,,(. interbedded materials
(.)
0
cc: IV Limestone, fairly hard even if Limestone
not particularly hard and
dense, porous andesite types,
weather only slightly, having
a crack spacing of 30-50 cm
for hard rock
v Granite and unaltered Granite
crystalline schists, with a
crack spacing of about 1 cm,
having a fairly dense, hard
sound rock material
VI Hard rock, rich in quartz as Quartzite
quartzite, breccia, etc in
a fresh, unweathered condition
with little crazing and good
coherence
 12 ARR No. 51

TABLE 2.11
CLASSIFICATION OF ROCK HARDNESS
A - Individual Rocks
~-----· ~ --
(1) Extremely Soft unbonded and practically weak mudstones and soft sandstones
unbonded rocks with fresh diluvial layers. etc

(2) Soft rock crushing strength Otani stone*, very soft tuffs,
less than lOOkg/ cm2 sandstones with moderately fresh
diluvials, Boshu stone** etc

(3) Weak rock crushing strength Soft tuff, etc.

100 - 400 kg/cm 2

(4) Firm rock crushing strength soft andesites, moderately hard tuffs,
400 - 1,000 kg/r.m2 modP.rately hard tertiary sandstones, etc.

(5) Hard rock crushing strength Andesite, granite, soft basalt, hard
1,000 - 2,000 kg/cm2 sandstone, hard limestone, quartz-
trachyte, porphyry, etc.

(6) Extremely Hard rock crushing strength chert, gabbro, gabbro type breccia,
exceeding 2,000 kg/cm 2 breccia, microcrystalline quartz-
trachyte, hard microsrystalline
andesite, basalt, hard fine-grained
granite parts, etc.

* A weak tuff, pale coloured.

** Cannot be better identified: it has
B - Rock Masses a Japanese locality name.
(1) Extremely Soft
For rock~. whose single rock hardness falls in A(l) and whose rockmass hardness has not been
weakened by weathering, as well as rocks whose single rock hardness is greater than A(2)
but whose rockmass hardness has weakened to A(l) standard by the effects of weathering
etc., the elastic wave velocity is less than 1.5 km/sec. ·
(2) Soft
For rocks whose single rock hardness falls in A(2) and whose rockmass harndess has not been
weakened by weathering. as well as rocks whose single rock hardness is greater than A(3)
but whose rockmass hardness has weakened to A(2) standard by the effects of weathering
etc., the elastic wave velocities are above 1.5 km/sec and below·2.2 km/sec.
(3) Weak
For rocks whose single rock hardness falls in A(3) and whose rockmass hcrdness has not been
weakened by weathering, as well as rocks whose single rock hardness is greater than A(4)
but whose rockmass hardness has weakened to A(3) standard by the effects of weathering
etc., the elastic wave velocities are above 2.2 km/sec and below 3.0 km/sec.
(4) Firm
For rocks whose single rock hardness falls in A(4) and whose rockmass hardness has not been
weakened by weathering, as well as rocks whose single rock hardness is greater than A(5)
but whose rockmass hardness has weakened to A(4) standard by the effects of weathering
etc., the elastic wave velocities are above 3.0 km/sec and below 4.0 km/sec.
(5) Hard
For rocks whose single rock hardness falls in A(5) and whose rockmass harndess has not been
weakened by weathering, as well as rocks whose single rock hardness is greater than A(6)
but whose rockmass hardness has weakened to A(5) standard by the effects of weathering
etc •• the elastic wave velocities are above 4.0 km/sec and below 5.5 km/sec.
(6) Extremely Hard
For rocks whose single rock hardness falls in A(6), and whose rock hardness has not been
weakened by weathering, the elastic wave velocity is above 5.5 km/sec.
 ARR No. 51 13

3.. EMBANKMENTS, CUTTINGS, Notes

ROAD CONSTRUCTION (1) Representative cross-sectional examples as
calculated by the subgrade thickness design method
3.1 COMPOSITION OF EMBANKMENTS AND are as follows.
CUTTINGS (a) The case of embankments using cohesive soils,
3.1.1 Nomenclature of the Various Parts in Standard such as Kanta-Loam.
Construction
1. A road is composed of the natural foundations,
select fill sections and pavement, etc. as shown
in Figs 3. 1 and 3.2.
2. The composition of the various parts of the
subgrade should be determined by the method Subgrade
described in Section 3.4, 'Subgrade Thickness 70 ICBR,..16)
Oesign'. Lower
3. The thickness of the pavement should be deter- Upper Fill Section 70 Subgrade ICBR=9)
mined according to the Pavement Design ICBR=2.6)
Manual, Chapter 2. Upper Fill Section ICBR=2.6)
(units, cm)

Pavement Surface Finish (Road surface)

Last Soil Surface finish (upper subgrade
Lower Subgrade Surface surface)
Upper Fill Surface
Lower Fill Surface

Pavement
S bg d j Upper Subgrade
u ra e l Lower Subgrade
F"ll
1
J Upper Fill
l Lower Fill

Fig. 3. 1 - Nomenclature of the various parts

Fill Sections .Cut Sections

variable Pavement Pavement Pavement· Pavement ·

u er subgrade U er ubgrade
variablo
,. Subgrade
Lower subgrade
Lower subgrade
'~
Upper natural
circa 100
Fill Section ground natural
1lr circa Upper ground
100 Fill section
I~
Lower
Fill Section
Lower
1lr fill section

Foundation soil Foundation soil

Fig. 3.2 - The standard structure of embankment and cutting sections (units, ems)
 14
(b) The case of embankments usinQ ordinary soil and
sand.
46 i T
Subgrade (CBR=15) 30
20-..i.....,lllllii..i.11o11oo111rade ICBR=5l
Upper Fill Section
ICBR=5} Upper Fill Section
(c) The case of cuttings.
rdl<Y»m«
Natural ground (rock and materials
suitable for an upper subgrade)
Natural ground (CBR=5.6}
Units: cm
(Note: The N-value and CBR methods are equally good}
(2) Because in many cases the soil conditions may
not be known at the planning stage, an approximate
working cost can be estimated by selecting an
appropriate section from the foregoing examples.
(3) The cross-sectional composition at the working
design stage should be determined according to
Method 3.4 'Subgrade Thickness Design' by con-
sidering soil conditions as close as possible to the
actual conditions.
(4) However, reliable soil conditions may not al-
ways be known at the design stage; for example, CBR
values in a cutting subgrade may often be unknown*.
Therefore, it is often necessary to recheck the
designed section in accordance with Section 3.4,
'Subgrade Thickness Design' whenever the soil con-
ditions can be accurately obtained. Also. it may be
necesary to modify the cross-section following an in-
vestigation of modelledt per forrnance.
However, it may not be necessary to modify the
cross-sectional composition where such results do
not have great influence on the economy or efficacy
of the subgrade.
3.1.2 Definitions and Functions of Each Part
1. Banked Sections. That part of a highway con-
structed by banking soil on a ground foundation.
2. Embankments. That part constructed by banking
soil from the foundation ground up to the top o.f the
subgrade in a banked section.
3. · Cut Sections. That part of a highway constructed
by cutting below the original ground.
4. Cuttings. That part excavated below the original
ground in a cut section.
5. Fill. That part of an embankment not including the
subgrade whose function is to support the subgrade
and pavement.
6. Lower Fill Section. That part of the fill excluding
the upper fill which forms the principal part of an em-
bankment.
Le. they can be obtained only after cutting -
t The· later context suggests that this word is always used in
the sense of 'test strip' - Translator.
ARR No. 51
7. Upper Fill Section . That part, of 1 m thickness,
below the lower subgrade, Whose function is to
behave as a foundation for subgrade compaction.
ICBR=1ru
8. Subgrade. That part, of 1 m thickness,
considered as a roughly uniform layer below the
pavement and behaving as the fundamental part in
pavement thickness design, whose function is to sup-
ICBR=5}
port the traffic loads transmitted through the pave-
ment.
9. Pavement. That part, from the surface of. a road
down to the surface of the subgrade, which directly
supports the traffic load, and can distribute and
reduce this load.
10. Batters. The sloping surface formed by banking
or cutting is called the embankment or cut batter
respectively. Benches may be provided if nece:ir.sary.
The top or bottom part of a sloping surface is called
the $houlder or toe of tne slope respectively.
Notes
(1) The subgrade is a foundation for compacting the
pavement basecourse; also the subgrade is required
to support adequately the construction machines
during pavement construction, and this determines its
cross-sectional structure.
(2) The subgrade in a cut section frequently utilises
either partly or wholly the original ground, as it is
(refer to Section 3.3.3, 'Requirements for subgrades
in Cuttings').
(3) The subgrade (upper and lower subgrade) cor-
responds to 'the subgrade of about 1 m thickness
below the pavement' as described in the 'Asphalt
Paving Manual'; also the 'sub-base and subgrade" as
described in the 'Cement and Concrete Paving
Manual'.
(4) The upper subgrade layer was provided to
achieve an economical cross-sectional structure in
the subgrade.
3.2 REQUIREMENTS FOH FILL
The requisite material properties and compaction
suitable for a fill are as a rule the following:
3.2.1 Lower Fill Sections
1. Material Properties
(a) As a rule the maximum size is to be 300 mm or
less; however, broken rock or stone greater than
300 mm can be used where the voids can be
filled by fine material and no cavity remains.
(b) Any economic construction material is suitable,
and except for over-size there is no special
material specification.
2. Compaction
(a) Degree of Compaction
(i) The standard of density should be better
than 90 per cent of the maximum dry density
as determined by 'Soil Compaction Test
Method' (KODAN A 1210). Compaction tests
must be performed on material passing a
38.1 mm aperture screen. Soils containing
material which is held on a 38.1 mm sieve
should have the abovementioned density
corrected according to KODAN A 1214 in
proportion to the coarse grained fraction of
Translator. the mixture held on the 38.1 mm sieve to ob-
tain the standard value of the degree of com-
paction.
 ARR No. 51
(ii) If, in a soil having high natural moisture con-
tent it is difficult to reduce the moisture con-
tent below 'ww90'* on the compaction curve
according to KODAN 1210 to obtain the
standard maximum dry density (as with Kan-
to-Loam, or some specific soils if admixed in
various proportions) these should be com-
pacted within the range between 85 and 98
per cent of the degree of saturation, or bet-
ween 1 and 10 per cent air voids ratio.
(b) Moisture content at the time of Construction
Natural moisture content (moisture content of the
local soil).
(o) Layer thickness at the time of Cum:>trw.;tiua
Each layer after compaction to be a finished
thickness of 300 mm or less.
Notes
(1) The reasons for providing upper and lower limits
for the degree of saturation (S,) and air voids ratio
(v a) are as follows:
S, :s:;; 85 per cent and v a ~ 10 per cent correspond to
the degree of compaction, De = 90 per cent
prescribed for a granular (sandy) soil to increase its
strength or to decrease its compressibility and per-
meab:!:~, so as to stabilise the soil, ensuring the
trafficability of embankments and overcoming
differential settlement, slope collapse, etc.
Also S, :s:;; 98 per cent and v a ~ 1 per cent is stipul-
ated to prevent a decrease of strength by so-called
over-compaction of highly sensitive volcanic
cohesive soil (VH). However; these values are not
quite so significant considering the measurement ac-
curacy of moisture contents, etc. and should rather
be considered as numerical values which express the
aims abovestated. In fact, if the reasons for the rules
are properly understood. it may .be necessary to
regulate the number of roller passes, and the com-
bination of construction machines to achieve the re-
quired cone indices (qc) and to control wetting or
settlement, etc. There are some volcanic cohesive
soils for which over-compaction may be inevitable. In
such a case, carefully considered rules are necess-
ary for embankment stability, the working efficiency
of construction machines, control of unevenness in
the finished surface of each layer in embankments,
countermeasures for rainfall, etc. Changing the upper
limit of the degree of saturation from 95 to 98 per
cent in this revised edition better approaches the ac-
tual construction situation.
(2) Sufficient strength (qc ~ 1000 kPa) can be pro-
vided in the fill, despite failure to meet the degree of
compaction specified by the rules for dP.grP.P. of .
saturation (S,) and dry density (yd). by means of the
special provisions for compaction control following.
But, before applying a value obtained under the
special provisions, it is essential to confirm ade-
quately:
(i) the applicability of the provisions, and
(ii) the fill stability due to seepage, by a compaction
characteristic test, modelt performance, etc. of
the material.
Refer to Fig. 3.3(ww is a moisture content corresponding to
90
90 per cent ol the maximum dry density as read from the wet
side ol a compaction curve - Translator.)
t (or, test strip - Translator)
15
The special provisions value (degree of compaction)
should exceed 95 per cent of the dry density at the
natural moisture content (about the same as the bor-
row site) of the fill material as required by KODAN A
1210.
The dry density after rolling
The dry density according to x 100 ~ 95%
KODAN A 1 21 0 of the fill
material at the natural moisture·
content (3.1)
The soil compaction characteristic test stated calls
lur measurement of the correlation between 'numb.er
of compaction blows' and S,, v 8 , Qc, CBR etc., using
samples made at moisture contents wn, wn - a .
Wn + •r, and Wn + 2·r. aand measured in the unsoaked
and thoroughly soaked CS,~ 85 per cent) conditions.
As regards the soaked condition, refer to Section 3.3,
'Requirements for Subgrades'.
(3) When using broken rock or stone as embank-
ment material, care must be taken about the following
points:
(a) It is necessary to fill the voids with scrupulous
care, reducing placement (layer) thickness or in-
creasing roller passes during actual execution.
(b) When fine-grained material is available, con-
stru~tion can be made with alternate layers of
fine and coarse material such as broken rock or
stone; but it will be necessary to spread the
coarse .and fine materials evenly by bulldozer.
prescribing the operating distance so as to pre-
vent segregation, and to roll in.
(c) It is preferable to use as heavy a roller as
possible or a high force vibrating roller (a 25 t
rubber-tyred roller, or 4 t towed vibrating roller,
or larger size).
(4) The correction for gravel content cannot be ap-
plied when the proportion of broken rock or stone
(over 38.1 mm) exceeds 30 per cent. For construc-
tion with such materials, the following methods may
be used:
(a) If the finished thickness of a layer falls below
specification after compaction, each layer
should be compacted until no further settlement
is observed using the heaviest possible roller or
largest vibratory force (a 25 t rubber-tyred roller,
or 4 t towed vibratory roller, or larger).
Moreover, as a general rule, the compaction
moisture content should be the same as the
moisture content of the foundation soiL
(b) The number of roller passes should be decided
with each roller to be used on the site, from a test
trial. Construction control should be effected by
regulating the number of roller passes and soil
volume treated per day by tachometers installed
in the rubber tyred rollers, etc.
(5) Stability must be ensured, especially in the
design and construction of high embankments, giving
careful attention not to cause large pore water
pressures or a high water table in the fill by reference
to the following examples.
 16
(a) Examples for fine-grained soils:
Embankment Material:
Kanta-Loam
Reference Fig. 1 (Tomei-Ashitaka)
Wn :110-150percent, 1', :1.23-1.CIOg/cmJ
Sr: 05;97 per cent, qc: 1G0-700 kPa
In addition to the Tomei, Ashitaka, there are examples
in the Chuo Highway, Kosamuzawa (Kanta-Loam) and
the Kyushu Jukan, Ueki (Kaido*).
(b) Examples for coarse grained. soils:
Reference Fig. 2 -The Tomei and Matsuda
Example (a) is an embankment structure in which it
was calculated to lower the pore water pressure by
installing an internal filter (drainage) layer 300 mm
thick in every 5 m of embankment height. In example
(b) materials of mudstone and gravelly rock were
both placed alternately so as to lower the water table
in the fill, paying heed to adequate drainage for the
impermeable layers caused by heavy construction
traffic etc., during embankment construction. The
mudstone in (b) was moreover very easily weathered.
References
Report on the Ashitaka Test Embankment, Tomei
Expressway, October, 1965. Report on the
Hachioji Test Embankment, Chuo Expressway,
May, 1965. Report on the Ueki Test Embankment,
Kyushu Jukan Highway, February, 1969.
(6) The sloping surface of the embankment should
generally be constructed simultaneously with the fill,
and be compacted uniformly to the same degree of
compaction as the fill (refer to Section, 4.5 'Slope
Compaction').
Volcanic ash soil - Translator.
ARR No. 51
(7) An embankment which requires sod tamping
work (refer to Section 8.2, 'Vegetation establish-
ment') should as f;:ir ;:is rossihlP. h::ivP. thP. slone
finished at the same time as the fill is placed, and
man-power for sod tamping construction avoided by
leaving room for mechanised construction of the
binding sod work. In such a case, the embankment
structure should allow seepage to drain quickly
(refer to Section 4.4, 'Sod tamping').
(8) A cross sectional camber greater than 4%
should be maintained in each embankment layer, and
the surface must be finished smoothly at the end of
each day to effect good drainage after compaction.
3.2.2 Rejection of Soils
Soils not to be used for embankments should be
3pecified separately ot every oite, taking into oon
Side.ration the 111'.\Ce.ssi:iry funr.tinn in P.i'lr.h J1i'lrt of the
~mlJankrmml, lt~iyltl ul lite tm1bankrnenl, the con-
struction methoo. economy, time required for com-
pletion, etc.
Notes
The required properties for an embankment
material are stability of the embankment, stable resis-
tance to settlement (compressive) due to the self-
weight of the embankment, and to repeated traffic
loads, trafficability, etc. (refer to Section 4, 'Fill Bat-
ters' and Section 7, 'Analysis of the Stability of Cuts
and Fills'). All such soils as do not yield an economi-
cal embankment structure after this investigation
should be rejected.
The following items describe, for reference,
cases where soil rejection should be considered.
(1) Bentonite, highly-weathered serpentinite,
residual volcanic muds, acid white clays, frozen soil,
organic soils, etc. because of their substantial swell-·
ing and compressive properties, should commonly be
rejected.
(2) Cohesive soils which affect the trafficability ci
heavy construction machinery are as a rule to be re-
jected, except in cases of exceptionally high bank-
ing, rapid embankment construction, the upper select
fill and the subgrade, etc. However, most cohesive
soils can be used even-if trafficability is not adequate
for earth hauling vehicles, by keeping a transporta-
tion road for construction work at the site; or if con-
struction machinery with a low ground contact
pressure is used.
(Examples)
At the Surface of the Machines
Embankment Used
Kanto-Loam qc;;.: 100kPa Ultra swamp-dozer or ordinary
swamp-dozer
Kaido (Kumamoto)' qc"" 100 kPa Ultra swamp-dozer or ordinary
swamp-doter
Volcanic ash soil from the vicinity of Kumamoto City -
Translator.
Filter drainage layers were installed in each metre of these
embankments.
 ARR No. 51
TABLE 3.1
TRAFFICABILITY OF CONSTRUCTION MACHINERY
(ON KANTO-LOAM)
Construction Machine
Ultra Swamp Dozer
Swamp Dozer
Bucket Dozer
Ordinary Bulldozer
Scraper Dozer (4 m3 )
S1:1aµl!1 OuLl!r (em•)
Twin Type Motor Scraper
Towed Type Scraper (6 mJ)
Self Propelled Scraper
Dump Truck
Notes:
• (1) The qc values show the strength enabling two to four runs on the same track.
(2) To measure actual field values of qc, .the cross sectional area is 323 mm 2 and the cone tip angle 30°.
(3) The selection of construction machines and .the
criteria for rejection of soils should be investigated
by performing a full-scale construction trial and tak-
ing into account the number of machines on hand to
the contractor for handling earth and sand in large
quantities, and the soil quality as regards
trafficability.
The usual relationship between construction machin-
ery and the average minimum value of the cone-index
(qc) for Kanta-Loam is shown in Table 3.1.
(4) The compressive settlement of the embankment
is not, in general, the decisive factor in rejecting
soils, because the amount of residual compressive
settlement is rather small and the settlement time is
also brief compared with the settlements in soft foun-
dations. ·
(5) Volcanic cohesive soils generally have greater
clay content in ·the deeper (older) layers and contain
abundant free water caused by a non-·pervious layer
below. Because they are frequently unsuitable as
select fill material, care should be taken in the dis-
tribution of bulk soil.
(6) Spreading and· rolling on snow, ice or frozen
soil, etc. leads to .inadequate rolling at the contact
surface and causes failure of the embankment or set-
tlement of the road surface by softening of the em-
bankment after construction. Such. matters should be
investigated at the design stage.
3.2.3 Upper (Select) Fill Sections
(1 ). Material Properties.
Maximum size : under 300 mm
Soaked CBR of soil compacted to the specification :
over 2.5 ·
Remarks: Refer to the section on soaked subgrades.
(2) Compaction
(a) Degree of compaction. The same as for the
specification for lower (ordinary) fill sections.
(b) Moisture content at the time of construction. A
moisture content such that the soaked CBR of
soil compacted in accordance with regulation (a)
is greater than 2.5.
17
qc • (KPa) Remarks
150-200
200-400
300-400 Swamp Type
400-700
300-500 Swamp Type
500-600 ora1nary Type
300-500 Self Propelled Type
500-700 Drawn by ordinary Bulldozer
1000+
1000+
(c) Construction layer thickness. The finished layer
thickness after compaction - less than 300 mm.
Notes
(1) The reasons for stipulating a CBR greater than
2.5 per cent for the upper (select) fill are as follows.
(a) Situated immediately beneath the subgrade, it
will be affected to some extent by traffic loads at
the time of construction of the subgrade and
pavement. Therefore, if the strength ofthis part is
not regulated, the subgrade thickness.becomes
appreciably thicker and may develop into an
uneconomical cross-sectional structure.
(b) A bearing capacity of CBR 2.5 is necessary in
order to achieve sufficient compaction of the
subgrade, also this strength enables the upper
fill to support compaction by a relatively light
weight towed type tyred roller. Moreover, if
CBR = 2.5 and qc= 200 to 300 x CBR, .then qc
is 500-700 KPa.
(2) The required CBR value and moisture content at
the time of construction of the upper fill section
should be obtained by the following methods.
(a) For soils obtained in situ at a den.sity greater
than 90 per cent of the maximum dry density as
given by the plunger compaction ~est method
(KODAN A 1210), use the method shown in Fig.
3.3. It must be confirmed that CBR is '3. 2.5 in the
natural moisture content condition, (m), and if the
result is a C~R < 2.5, it must be confirmed that at
a condition w n - 6 per cent CBR "3t 2.5. If a
CBR'3 2.5 still cannot l;>e secured in a condition ·
wn - 5 per cent, the soil should not be used.
Orv
Density
moisture content, w(%) Soaked CBR (%)
Natural Moisture Content (of foundation soil)
Fig. 3.3 - Modified CBR method diagram
(Diagram for the method of obtaining the modified CBR)
 18 ARR No. 51

(b) Soils for which compaction is specified by the
degree of saturation or the air voids ratio, use the
method $hown in Fig. 3.4.
(i) Material at natural moisture content Wn and
progressively dried material is to be com-
pacted in three layers using a 2.5 kg rammer
and 10,25,56 or 92 blows in accordance
with KO DAN A 1 210.
(ii) The air voids ratio and the degree of satura-
tion should be measured immediately after
plunger compaction, and the CBR test
should be done after soaking (degree of
saturation greater than 85 per cent). Plotting
the test results as in Fig. 3.4 allows the con-
struction moisture content limits w 1 or w 2 to
be determined. If the moisture content
reduction necessary to obtain the
prescribed CBR cannot be obtained
economically, the material must be avoided.
Moreover, ·reduction of the moisture content
by curing is usually only a few per cent.
c c
B
R
R bly changed by the influence of underground water
(%)
,I'll>)
Wn.
1211 ). Compaction testing must be done on
material Which passes a
38.1 mm sieve. The
standard value of the dei:iree of compaction is
then chosen to be the value corrected according
to the admixed quantity of t:oari;e l1acliu11 re-
tained on a 38.1 mm sieve and the dry density of
that fraction in accordance with KODAN A 1214.
(b) Construction Moisture Content A moisture con-
tent capable of providing the required degree of
compaction and a modified CBR greater than 5.
(c) Construction Layer Thickness. Finished thick-
ness of each layer after compaction : less than
200 mm.
Notes
(1) Materials Testing. The soaked CBR at minimum
density 1nelhod.
The requisite modified CBR samples are formed by
various numbers of blows in the vicinity of the natural
moisture content (moisture content in-situ), and
soaked (see Fig. 3.5 ). The natural moisture content
may be continuously changed by seasonal and
weather conditions, etc. and the moisture content
should be measured at more than 500 mm beneath
ground surface, excluding periods of rain, frost, thaw,
etc. Care should be taken to make a number of
measurements, for the moisture content is considera-
tables and the variability of materials.

W • natural moisture content

s9turation 0
W. -11 "' driAd by B hafow
" natural moisture content
w -2a a dried by 2a below
" natural mobture content

1Ww901 • moisture content. wet side, eorrelPQnding to 901' densltv on compaction curve
10 56 92 Wn "" most probebte moisture content, in actu•I comtruction
Coml)8':tion blo.., log N ~

Fig. 3.4 -Method for deciding the construction moisture content Fig. 3.5-Diagram for obtaining modified CBR and compaction
tor the upper subgrade moisture c.ontent limits

(3) The cross-sectional camber of the finished sur- (2) Moisture Content at the Time of Construction.
face of the upper fill should be determined so as to When compacting with a standard compaction
assure drainage during construction, having con- energy but varying the soil moisture content, a com-
sideration for the properties and economics, .etc. of paction curve w -Yd can be obtained, and there is
the upper fill and lower subgrade materials. a moisture content (the optimum moisture content) at
which the dry density becomes a maximum. It is
3.3 REQUIREMENTS FOR SUBGRADES recognised that soil compacted at optimum moisture
The required properties for materials used in the content is in a somewhat plastic state, but resisting
subgrade, and compaction requirements, are water penetration and not likely to soften, and in the
generally as follows. most stable condition for soil structure. Therefore it
is desirable to compact at optimum moisture content.
3.3.1 Lower Subgrade There are however, subgrade materials for which the
(1) Material Properties. difference between optimum moisture content and
natural moisture content (the in situ moisture content)
Maximum size : 1 50 mm is greater than that which it is possible to adjust.
Passing 74 microns (No. 200 sieve) in a sample finer Also, for broken rock, etc. the natural moisture con-
than 4.76 mm (No. 4 sieve) : less than 50 per cent tent is on the dry side of optimum moisture content.
Plasticity index for the under 420 microns (No. 40 From actual construction results up till now, in
sieve) fraction : less than 30 general a moisture content adjustment of 2 to 3 per
cent has been made at the site. But taking care to
Soaked CBR at the specified minimum density :
compact at the construction optimum moisture con-
greater than 5. tent• must not be ignored, in accordance with the
(2) Compaction. purport of the foregoing remarks.
(a) Degree of Compaction. More than 90 per cent of
the maximum dry density as determined in accor-
dance with the method for making compaction i.e. the optimum moisture content corresponding to construc-
samples by the CBR Test Method (KODAN A tion conditions - Translator.
 ARR No. 51
(3) Like with the upper subgrade, a soil which does
not satisfy the specifications for a lower subgrade
can be used, if the lower subgrade material can be
made durable enough by soil stabilisation treatment.
To decide the suitability of a stabilised lower
subgrade material, the test methods of Section
3.3.2(8) for stabilisation treatments of the upper
subgrade can be applied.
3.3.2 Upper Subgrade
(1) Material Properties
Maximum size : 100 mm
Passing 4.76 mm (No. 4 sieve) : 25-100 per cent
Passing 74 microns (No. 200 sieve) : 0-25 per cent
Plasticity index for the unde.r 420 microns (No. 40
sieve) fraction : less than 1O
Soaked CBR at the specified minimum density :
greater than 1O.
(2) Compaction
(a) Degree of Compaction. More than 95 per cent of
the maximum dry density as determined in accor-
dance with the method for making compaction
samples by the CBR Testing Method (KODAN A
1211 ). The standard value of the degree of com-
paction is then chosen to be the value corrected
according to the admixed quantity of coarse
traction retained on a 38.1 mm sieve, and the dry
density of that fraction, in accordance with
KODAN A 1214.
(b) Construction Moisture Content. In general, about
the same as optimum moisture content.
(c) Construction Layer Thickness. Finished thick-
ness of each layer after compaction : less than
200 mm.
Notes
..
(1) The soaked CBR at minimum density method.
The requisite modified CBR samples are formed by
various numbers of blows in the vicinity of optimum
moisture content, and soaked (see Fig. 3.6 ). Because
large differences may exist between optimum
moisture content and natural moisture content for SM,
SC and SM-SC materials, it is necessary to perform
the CBR tests at natural moisture content. Possible
adjustment of moisture content in situ is generally
about 3 per cent from the moisture content of the
original soil. The compaction should be adequately
investigated not only as regards moisture content
adjustment but also as regards the method of rolling
(use of heavy construction machinery, etc.). (See ex-
planations (3) and (4) in Section 3.2.1, 'Lower Fill
Sections'.)
o..,
Densi
Moisture Con11n1 Wl"I CBR (")
W95 • wet side moisture content correspanding to 95" dry density on compaction curve
Fig 3-6 Diagram for obteining modified CBR and coml)DC1ion moisture content limiu
Fig. 3.8-Diagram for obtaining modified CBR and compaction
moisture content limits
19
(2) For material such as sand-gravels from which
the fines separate easily, crushed rock and poorly
graded (uniform graded) sand, .etc. 95 per cent of the
KODAN A 1211 density is rare and the specifications
can be relaxed to better than 90 per cent of
KODAN A 1211, after confirmation of suitability for
the upper subgrade by means of a test strip at the
site, etc. However, the soaked CBR must be more
than 10 at 90 per cent of (the maximum dry density
according to)* KODAN A 1211 in this case.
(3) When it is extremely difficult to obtain material
fulfilling the specifications for minus 74 micron con-
tent and plasticity index (Pl) as an upper subgrade
material, it is permissible to relax the specifications
for material not satisfying the Pl and minus 7 4 micron
content stipulations if coarse grained materials such
as crushed rock, coarse rubble or gravel, etc. are
. available, and provided the long-term stability is con-
firmed by laboratory and field tests. However, it is
necessary to consider carefully the following mat-
ters.
'Stability' here refers to elapsed time changes and
uniformity of weathering (changes of moisture con-
tent), degree of deformation (flexure) (CBR) under
repeated load, 74 micron (200 sieve) grain size
plasticity index (Pl) etc.
(a) Some tufts, tuft-breccias, mudstones (shale),
quartzporphyrys, granular quartzites, olivine tufts
(peridotite), well-weathered slates, graphitic
schists, green-schists, sandstones, granites
(masa soil)** etc. become finer or finally change
to clay by continued repetition of drying-wetting
or loading.
(b) Particular care is required when using material
which does not meet the 74 micron content and
Pl specification for subgrades in places where
hot springs or deep frost exists. Hot spring
localities include cuttings, the boundary of a cut
and fill either transverse or longitudinal, the
depressions in a longitudinal profile, the ap-
proach to a structure, etc.
(c) Whenever relaxing the specifications, investig-
ate the economic and constructional aspects in-
cluding also the replacement ratiot of the poor
subgrade portion and the pavement structure.
(d) Stability testing and investigation methods
should be decided each time individually, with
reference to the following examples.
(i) Aggregates of tuft, mudstone, etc. are to be
removed from the oven after 24 h oven dry-
ing at a temperature of 50°C, and the sample
temperature reduced to room temperature.
The samples are then soaked in water for 24
h, and again brought to surface dry condition
by insertion in the drying oven. This is to be
repeated five times. For example, a
Pl = 20-40 was measured due to the forma-
92 blOWI
tion of fines by the abovestated testing even
Curve for near oPtimum moinure content though plasticity testing was not possible on
the original aggregate.
Interpolated for clarity - Translator.
(A granitic sand - common in heavy rainfall areas -
Translator.)
t 'Equivalency' is probably meant - Translator.
20 ARR No. 51

(ii) The grading before and after compaction is

generally different for granular material3, but
3 layers 92 blows
the 7'1 microns (No. 200) quantity of a well- 3 layers 42 blows
30
weathered granite increased 20-40 per cent 3 layers 17 hlows
after compaction as compared with before
20
compaction. CBR
(%)
(iii) A crushed rock being used for a subgrade in
10
road construction changed to non-uniform
clay a few months after construction. A
change of materials and replacement was 15 20 25
made. Moisture Content (%)

(4) Poorly-graded (uniform grain size) sand, etc.

may also be stabilised in one of the upper layers to 30
ensure trafficability and to prevent erosion.
20
(5) There are various kinds of mountain sand, the CBR
(%)
suitability or unsuitability of which is not clear. The 1Q
grading of mountain sands being used so tar is shown
in Fig. 3. 7, and it is seen from the curved grading lines
0
that there is a large difference between the two 10 15 20 25
grqups, ABC and DEF. The group ABC has much Moisture Content (%)
minus 74 micron (No. 200) material and bad
trafficability as well as low CBR values at natural
moisture content. However the DEF group show com- 1.7
paratively good trafficability as well as fairly high
CBR.
1.6
Dry
100 Density
(t/m') 1.5
90

80 1.4
[
70

60
Moisture Content (%)
(%)
60

40
1.7

30
1.6
Dry
20
Density
(t/m') 1.5
10

0
1.4
0.074 0.106 0.25 0.42 0.84 2.0 4.76
Grain Size (mm)

0 10 20 30 40.
Fig. 3. 1 - Grading curves for mountain sands CB R (%1

Wn 20-30%

maximum size 2mm

(6) Material classified SM, SC and SM~sc by the
Unified Classification (Materials of the 'B' group ...
soils liable to over compaction ... described in the
explanation of the CBR Test in 'Soil Testing Methods'
of the (Japanese) Soil Engineering Society) when
used as a subgrade ·material must have careful
thought given to the suitability of many properties at
natural moisture content, size of rollers and heavy
construction vehicles (dump trucks, etc.), construc-
tion roads on the site,etc. · (7) Stabilisation Treatments.
Such materials (the ABC group type stated
before ... uniform-graded sands) which have large
differences between natural and optimum moisture
content are troublesome to reduce to a prescribed
moisture content even by aeration. Also, according
to Fig. 3.8, the CBR increases with the number of
compaction blows up to 17 per cent moisture con-
tent, but above 20 per cent moisture content is con-
siderably reduced.
-4.76mm (No.4) 100%
- 74µ (No.200) 13-20%
Pl 10.7
specific gravity 2.63
Fig. 3.8-Fine sand (A, B, C) investigation results
(a) Even soils which do not fulfil the specifications
for an upper subgrade material in laboratory and
field testing results can be used if such upper
subgrade material can be stabilised to withstand
adequate service use and is economical in con-
struction cost and construction time. Because
there are still many doubtful points concerning
the effect of various additives, the test methods
for stabilised soil used as subgrade material
TABLE 3.2 )>
:D
:D
KINDS AND SPECIAL FEATURES OF STABILISERS FOR SUBGRADES
z
9
Ul
.....
Kind of Additive Appropriate Amount of Principal Treated Disabilities Remo.rks
Additive Reaction Soils Additive 1 Appraisal Density
Tests for
Treated Soil
Cements Ordinary Portland Hydration of the Sandy soils and soils 2-6% CBR test, q 0 • Not' little effect on Is posstble to use together with pozzolans and
Cement, Slag Cement Cement· only slightly cohesive Durability changed organic soils oxidise·j iron filings; add CaC1 "for organic soils
containing sulphate

Slaked- - Changes in the

absorbed water film
Clay soils and soils
containing clay
2-10% CBR test, q 0
Durability
• Decrease little resistance to
freezing-thawing,
Is posstble to use together with oxidised iron
filings; similarly spent carbide
lime
on the clay particles, little effect on soils
flocculation. then containing sulphate
formation of silicate

Quicklime - Decreases the soil Cohe.sive soils of high 5-20% CBR test. q 0 • Decre<1se As above Very efl&ctive for Hydrated Halloysite (very l\ttle
moisture content. moisture content Durability required), for Allophane 20% must be added
otherwise the same (The Ka:ito-Loam clay mineral)

Lime-
Pozzolans
Lime-FlyaSh
lime-Gypsum
Mainly pozzolanic
reaction between the
Sandy soils and soils
only slightly cohesive
Lime-
2-5%,
CBR test, qu ,
Durability
Decrease As above. -
The required amount
Lime-granulated stag Lime and Silicic Acid Pozzolan- of flyash is excessi~e
in the Pozzo Ian 10-20% .
Bitumens Cutback Binding coarse grains Sandy soils with little 4-6% CBR test. qu. Decrease Necessary to cure by Slaked-lime or organic cations may be added
Bitumen, by the adhesive or no cla~· content Durability drying also
Bitumen Emulsions, strength of the
Tar bitumen

Chrome- Calcium Gelation by oxidation All kinds of soils, 5-10% CBR test, q 0 • Increase Littl~ effect for The ligr.in-slaked lime method is possible also
Lignin Lignosulfonate. ot the lignin, . especially. organic Durability excessive moisture
KandNa dispersive by the soils contents
Bichromates anionic active agent

Notes;
(1) The percentage of additive is calculated on.the dry weight of the Soil.. •"
(2) For granular materials, slightly increased.
 22
should be investiqated in detail each time, and
established. On such occasions, the main points
following should be carefully conoidcrcd.
(i) Main points which ought to be investigated
by laboratory testing.
(1) Kind of soil, the additive and the additive
amounts, compaction moisture content.
(2) Strength of the stabilised soil (CBR, uncon-
fined compressive strength), stability and
durability (long:.term soaking, repeated dry-
ing and wetting, freeze-thawing).
(ii) Main points which ought to be investigated
by field testing.
(1) Pulversing, mixing and compaction methods
for the soil and a field test of curing.
(2) A running test by dump trucks (detlection
measurement and olJ:;(:lrvation).
(b) For the stabilisation of subgrade materials, the
following methods should be considered.
(i) Mechanical stabilisation (grading adjust-
ment with secondary crushing of the rock
waste from .tunnelling, etc.).
(ii) Soil stabilisation by additives:
cement (for monosized sand),
lime and lime-pozzolans (for cohesive
soils, Kanto-loam).
bitumen (for monosized sand),
chemicals.
Table 3.2 shows some of those considered practical
from the viewpoint of construction costs. Because it
is generally not stated, however, what mix material i:;
suitable for various soils, it is necessary to perform
practical tests on the spot. Table 3.2 is for reference
on such occasions. It is also desirable to select an
additive easily available at the site as far as possible.
References
1. Test Report on the Drying and Stabilisation of
Kanto-Loam. Tomei Expressway, Keihin Expressway
Construction Bureau. Nihon Doro Kodan. June, 1966.
2. Report on the Kanta Loam Lime Stabilised
Subgrade Work. Yamato First Construction Work on
the Tomei Expressway, Keihin Expressway. Con-
struction Bureau, Ni hon Doro Kodan. October, 1967.
3. Kiyose Test Embankment Work, Tokyo-Kawagoe
Highway. Parts I and II, Kawagoe Construction Office,
Tokyo Branch, Nihon Doro Kodan. September, 1968.
4. Kawasaki Test Embankment Work. Tomei Express-
way, Keihin Expressway Construction Bureau, Nihon
Doro Kodan. September, 1964.
(8) Proof-rolling is required to investigate the
necessity for additional rolling and also to get a
uniform subgrade at the finished surface of the
subgrade. The following two precautions apply.
(a) Additional Rolling. An additional rolling of more
than three roller passes by a tyred roller over
25 t across the whole subgrade surface is re-
quired to compensate for an insufficiency in com-
paction and to prevent future loss of shape.
Moreover, in order to check the uniformity of the
subgrade a tyred roller of 5 t weight and 700 KPa
pneumatic pressure in each tyre must be used.
ARR No. 51
(b) Checking the Uniformity. Acceptance is judged
by an acceptable deflection value with a dump
truck, inspecting at the time of construction in-
dividual places where difficulties arose during
construction (reconstructed, replaced, hot
springs, road shoulder, structural unit placement
vicinity, places of very variable material, and
special construction method places). The truck
to be used for this measurement must be dual
wheel, 5 t weight and 700 KPa pneumatic
pressure in each tyre.
(9) Results of proof-rolling (wheel load 5 t,
pneumatic pressure 560 KPa, permissible deflection
7 mm) performed on the Meishin* are as shown in Ta-
bles 3.3 to 3.5. Firstly, Table 3.3 classifies the par-
ticular sources of rejected areas as a ratio of the
totally replaoed area. Table 3.4 is similarly the ratio
of re.je.ctf'!<i Meris by depth, and Table 3.5 the ratio of
lh~ location of rejected areas to cut sections and fill
sections.
(10) Cross-sectional slope of the subgrade.
(a) The cross-sectional slope of the subgrade sur-
face is to be made 2 per cent for sections where
it is less than 2 per cent, and exactly the same as
the cross-sectional slope of the pavement sur-
face for sections where the latter is more than 2
per cent. The transitional distance for the cross-
sectional slope of the subgrade is to be a shorter
distance (about 20 m) than that of the pavement,
and a gentle slope into which water penetrates
easily is to be avoided.
(b) The finished surface of each part is to be finished
wholly parallel to the cross-sectional slope of
the uµµer :;ubgrade, in general. However, the
cross-sectional slope at the time of construction
of each layer can be fixed so as to ensure suita-
ble drainage during construction by considering
the shape of the section, the construction
method, the properties of the materials in each
layer, economical considerations, etc.
(c) The thickness of the upper subgrade which must
be shaped parallel** to the pavement surface in
the course of subgrade preparatory work is to be
more than the design thickness at the centre of
the roadway and more than 70 per cent of the
design thickness at the edges of the roadway
(see Fig. 3.9).
Pavement Surface
Upper Subgfsde Surface boil <:Oit:ltru<:tion
grodel
Fig. 3.9 -Upper subgrade thickness limits in shaping the camber
(2-lane case)
(11) The upper subgrade cross-sectional slope can
be finished parallel to the pavement surface even at
sections less than 2 per cent cross-sectional slope if
a continuous pavement construction is undertaken,
and it is then seldom necessary to consider matters
of drainage.
An Expressway - Translator.
The text here reads, actually . . . made parallel by plaslic
surgery ... ! Translator ('by shaping' is probably best
equivalent).
ARR No. 51 23

TABLE 3.3 3.3.3 Requirements for Subgrades in Cuttings.

The upper subgrade, lower subgrade, upper (select)
THE SOURCES OF REJECTION AND THEIR fill, etc. were described principally as for embank-
PERCENTAGES ments, but the same way of thinking applies to cut-
tings. However, the foundation material exposed in a
Mixing of cohesive soils 32.2(%) cut section should in principle have the following
High moisture content 15.6 composition.
,
Rejected surroundings of structural units 3.8 (1) When the foundation ground is rock (hard or soft
Effects of underground water on low embankments 10.4 rock).
Reduced bearing capacity due to insufficient (a) The excavated surface of the rock should be
subgrade thickness 19.5 adopted as the finished surface of the earthwork,
Concentration of water at the boundary surface of in this case the same as the finished surface of
cut and fill 10.9 the subgrade.
Sprlr1g water on tne slope ol a cutting 5.5 (b) Depressions in the rock caused by excavation
Inadequate back-filling for pipes and catch basins• 0.5 must be filled by material of better class than the
Segregation of materials 1.4 lower base course material and unaffected by
water, and must be adequately compacted to a
Destruction of the subgrade under heavy traffic 0.2
smooth finish (see Fig. 3.10 ). ·

• 'Storm Drains' might be an alternative reading- Translator.

TABLE3.4
Fig. 3.10 -Case of subgrades on rock foundations
DEPTHS Of REJECTED PLACES (mm) AND
(c) Properties of the fill material:
·THEIR PERCENTAGES
Maximum size; less than 50 mm.
Passing 4.76 mm (No. 4) sieve: 30-70 per cent.
Beneath the Subgrade Surface Passing 7 4 microns (No. 200) sieve: 0-1 O per
cent.
Less than 300 mm 7.9(%) Plasticity index of the fraction passing .420
microns (No. 40) sieve: less than 6.
300-500 mm 51.7 Soaked CBR at specified minimum density: more
than 30.
510-.1000 mm 36.2 (2) ~h~n the found_a,tion ground material is accep-
table within the spec1f1cations for an upper subgrade
Below 1000 mm 4.2 material:- By rolling the foundation ground, it should
be constructed to the specified density for the upper
subgrade.

TABLE3.5
LOCATION OF REJECTED PLACES AND THEIR PERCENTAGES

}
0.25-8 m from the centre of banked sections 1.8(%) Area Rejected .

8 111 = "'l1vuldt11 11 v111 Iii" """h"' ul IJ1111i...,..i ~i.;liurn; 3.0 Total Banked Beeuon Area

0.25-8 m from the centre of cul sec lions

8 m-shoulder from the centre of cut sections

1.6

7.0
}~ Area Rejected

Total Cut Section Area

Rejected Backfills

L
Backfilled sections at structural units 8.9
Structural Unit Backfilling

Cut and Fill boundary zones 5.6 Rejected Boundary Sites

Cut and Fi II Boundary Zones

 24
(3) For cases other than (1) and (2) above:
Replacement should be effected, calculating the
subgrade thickness according to the strength of the
natural ground by the methods in Section 3.4,
'Subgrade I hickness Ues1gn· in these cases.
(4) By comparison with embankment subgrades,
cutting subgrades have many more possibilities for
infiltration of ground water and rain water into the
subgrade centre. Therefore adequate drainage work
should be installed referring to para. 5 of Section 3
'Underground Drainage Provisions' which deals with
subsurface drainage; and free-draining materials not
greatly affected by submersion should be selected
as subgrade materials.
(5) In the case of cuttings where it is necessary to
have different subRrade thicknesses, or where there
are different properties in the original soil as shown in
Fig. 3.11, a transitional section having a gradient of
1 : 5 should generally be established at such bound-
aries.
(6) The cross-sectional camber of the finished sur-
face of the earthworks and the excavated surface
(corresponding to the upper and lower subgrade)
should be the same as in the case of embankments.
(7) As to subgrade preparation work, the thickness
of the subgrade must be formed parallel to the ·sur-
face of the pavement, the same as tor banking (cf.
notes (10) and (11) in Section 3.3.2).
. 5 gradient)
Fig. 3.11 -Case of different subgrade properties in a cutting
surface
Notes
Many cases must be distinguished when excavating,
because of soil properties in the vicinity of the
finished surface of the earthworks in a cut section. So
when choosing a design the subgrade thickness must
be estimated approximately from the drilling results
and the properties of the finished surface of the earth-
works can be confirmed at the time of construction.
That is, the required subgrade thickness may be ten-
tatively selected according to Section 3.4,
'Subgrade Thickness Design' at the construction
stage, and the subgrade cross-section must be
finally determined by means of a test strip with this
cross-section. Moreover, because material in the
vicinity of the finished surface of earthworks also
suffers a strength reduction through weathering, ex-
cavation and the repeated loading of construction
vehicles, it is advisable to investigate construction
methods also.
3.3.4 Subgrades for Cold Regions subject to Freeze·
Thaw
When there is reason to fear freezing or frost heave,
replacement must be effected down to the freezing
depth• with a frost-resistant material.
Freezing depth is the depth from the surface of the pavement.
ARR No. 51
(1 ) Material properties.
Maximum size: bU mm,
Amount passing 4.76 mm (No. 4) sieve : 30-70 per
cent,
Amount passing 7 4 microns (No. 200) sieve : less
than 1 O per cent,
Plasticity index of the portion passing 420 microns
(No. 40 ) sieve : less than 6,
Soaked CBR at the minimum dry density : more than
10.
(2) Determination of the replacement thickness.
The replacement thickness* is generally to be deter-
mined by measuring the freezing depth, but when the
replacement thickness is known from experience,
such value is to be adopted.
Moreover, when an experimental value or a
measurement cannot be obtained, it is to be obtained
trom the following equation:
z = cJF (3.2)
where
Z = freezing depth (cm)
C =constant
F freezing index (°C-days)
The constant 'C' will change according to site condi-
tions, but will commonly be equal to 4.
The freezing index 'F' is to be obtained as the
summed product of the monthly mean temperature in
the coldest winter year and number of days in those
months (only) whose monthly temperature was less
than o·c. from the monthly mean temperaturet data
over the past 1 O years.
Notes
(1) When the material outlined in Section 3.3.4 (1)
cannot be obtained, then by investigating the
materials used in nearby national highways, a
material may be used if it is judged to have had ade-
quate resistance to changes caused by freeze-thaw
In prevlou~ yaari>.
(2) In cold regions subject to freeze-thaw, replace-
ment with freeze-resistant material up to the freezing
depth is to be made, but in this case, because
thickening of the lower basecourse to freezing depth
should also be considered, a decision to proceed by
either method must not be made without an economi-
cal comparison, Investigating adaquately the pave-
ment circumstances.
(3) When the values shown in the footnote above
cannot be obtained, the values measured by an
automatic temperature recorder installed in situ in a
multi-louvred box can be used.
(4) From investigation of drainage conditions, soil
types and weather conditions at the pavement sur-
face, etc. the constant C to be used for obtaining the
freezing depth is to be taken as 5 when the subgrade
of a northern aspected mountain road has a high per-
meability to ground water due to the siltiness of many
soil types, and 3 when, on the other hand, there is
Because, according to location. a replacement thickness
less than 100 mm may be considered, the minimum replace-
ment thickness is to be made 150 mm.
t The monthly mean temperature is to be calculated from the
arithmetical mean of daily mean temperatures, obtained from
the arithmetical mean of the temperature values measured
eight limes a day (from twelve o'clock every 3 h).
 ARR No. 51 25

adequate sunlight and drainage conditions and soil Also, the Casagrande system described below
conditions are not so bad. For freezing coefficients of has been most commonly used as a standard
specific soils, the Asphalt Paving Manual (revised reference for frost heave occasioning actual damage.
edition) may be referred to. (a) When the uniformity coefficient is less than 5
An example of freezing depth calculation (Table (a very uniform soil) and more than 1O per cent of
3.6): the soil is less than 0.02 mm grain size.
(b) When the uniformity coefficient is greater than 15
TABLE3.6 (non-uniform soil) and more than 3 per cent of the
soil is less than 0.02 mm grain size.
SPECIMEN CALCULATION OF THE
FREEZING INDEX (7) Provisions for replacement material in other
systems.
Month Mean Days (temp.) (a) Material specifications of the Hokkaido Develop-
monthly x(doyo) ment Bureau: ·
temperature
crushed gravel: 20-70 per cent passing the 4.76
r·cJ mm (No. 4 sieve).
less than 9 per cent of the 4.76 mm passing,
10 + 10.6 31 + 328.6 fraction passing the 74µ. (No. 200) sieve,
11 + 2.0 30 + 60.0 less than 20 per cent loss in the Stability test.
12 - 1.1 31 34.3
1 - 3.8 31 - 120.9 crushed rock: 15 ,..., 65 per cent passing the 4. 76
2 2.9 28 - 81.2 mm sieve,
3 - 0.8 31 ·24.8 less than 1 5 per cent of the fraction passing 4. 76 ·
4 + 4.0 30 + 120.0 mm, passing the 7 4 µ. sieve.
-261 slag: as for crushed rock.
e summation
(0.5 and more
rounded upwards)
sand: clean, hard, durable with no deleterious
matter such as dirt, mud. organic impurities, etc.
less than 6 per cent passing the 7 4 µ. sieve.
The freezing depth becomes volcanics (containing volcanic gravel): coarse-
Z = C~F = 4~261 64 (cm) grained, no signs of weathering, free draining,
less than 20 per cent passing the 7 4 µ. sieve.
(5) Freezing depth measurements are to be made less than 4 per cent loss on ignition; however,
with the following provisions. when its non-frost -heave nature has been ap-
proved, frost heave tests are not perforn:ied.
(a) Where it is presumed there is no risk of frost
heave, the following investigations are to be (b) Material specifications of the State of Oregon,
made when not undertaking site investigations. U.S.A.
(i) Construction records and circumstances of
frost heave damage for existing roads and
Amount
railways. passing
(ii) Inquiry about the circumstances of damage 420µ o-3 3.....,4 4..... 5 5-10 10'.-15 15-20 25%
from residents. (No.40)
sieve
(iii) Non-soil gutter cracked linings.
(iv) Inspection ·of hilly ground excavation in the Pl -< 20 <15 < 12 <6 <4 <3 o.
prime frost heave season (about the last ten
days of February).
(b) The freezing depth is to be measured by the
following methods during the winter season or (c) The following specifications are common in the
the prime frost season of the last ten days of U.S.A. ·
February. less than 5 -1 O per cent passing the 7 4 µ.sieve,
(i) Measurements on an exploratory hole (using less than 25 liquid limit,
a cylindrical thermometer, etc.) less than 3 ....., 5 plasticity index.
(ii) Measurements by thermometers inserted (8) Matters for attention which are generally in-
below ground. volved in design, .etc.
(iii) The methylene blue freezing depth meter. (a) It is desirable to give adequate heed to all points
of basecourse drainage in the various common
(6) Soils susceptible to frost heave. cases following, where there is a risk of frost
Because silty soils are most susceptible to damage.
heave, and frost heave affects mudstones, slates and (i) It is desirable to install underground drains
mudstone types of rock whose grain size is greatly both in cutting and embankment sections,
reduced soon after construction due to repeated considering the feasibility of off-road
wetting, it is desirable to decide the extent of soil drainage in short sections.
frost heave from freeze-thaw tests and frost heave (ii) It is desirable to use a suitable backfill
tests. material considering its efficacy and
When decidirg the risk of soil frost damage by regional nature besides adding a cross
the Unified Classification System method, Table2.3 slope at the top surface, because for box
may be referred to. construction there is a risk of frost heave
 26
when the road surface is locally deeply
frozen in cold weather, and when there is a
tendency for high water content around sub-
soi I transverse pipe drains with scanty soil
cover, etc. · the soaked CBR.
(b) It is desirable to install subsoil services below
the depth of freezing to avoid freezing.
(c) Because it is necessary to leave some margin in
the reinstatement width so that there is no in-
fluence from frost heave in adjacent parts, both
sides are to be kept 300-500 mm each ..,ider
than the pavement width.
3.4 Subgrade Thickness Design
3.4.1 Design Approach
(1) In general, the most economical decision is to
be made in material selection and subgrade struc-
ture. Therefore thought must be given to the use of
easily procured select material, generally using local
material for the imported excavation soil when there
is insufficient volume of subgrade material from the
road excavation to spread for the embankments.
When the quality which subgrade material ought
to possess is not satisfied by local materials, an
economic decision must be made after a comparative
investigation of the quality and efficacy of purchased
select material and the pros and cons of stabilisation.
(2) The subgrade structure is to be decided by
calculating it from the representative CBR and laying
the same structure for at least 500-1000 min length
so as to maintain uniformity and ease of co!1struction.
(3) The minimum subgrade thickness is to be made
300 mm except in sections of rock cutting and when
the uppermost material exceeds the requirements for
a subgrade material.
The greatest subgrade thickness is to be 1 m.
Because it frequently seems to be uneconomical
when more than 1 m, a selection of the most economi-
cal structure must be made from a comparison of:
(a) estimates of the safe strength of the upper fill and
the in situ soil/rock;
(b) use of a prescribed subgrade material with a high
modified CBR; and
(c) estimates of the soil impro.vement from stabilisa-
tion.
(4) The ease of construction and original soil con-
ditions of the planned subgrade structure are to be
reinvestigated, by a test construction.
3.4.2 Design Procedure
(1) When it is economical to seek to change the
material of the upper and lower subgrades, the
subgrade thicknesses for two-layer structures are to
be calculated from Fig.3.12.
(2) When the upper and lower subgrades consist of
two different materials, the subgrade thickness for a
three-layer structure is to be calculated from Figs
3.13 (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), and (ix).
(3) To express the material strength by a deforma-
tion coefficient E (KPa), a conversion is to be made
from the CBR by the following equations.
In situ soil/rock and upper fill material
E = 2000 x design CBR (3.3)
Subgrade material E = 4000 x design CBR (3.4)
ARR No. 51
Furthermore, when the embankments and in situ
soil/rock are of coarse-grained material and when an
undisturbed srimplP. crin be collected of in situ
soil/rock for a modified CBR, the design CBR is to be
(4) When the upper fill or in situ soil/rock is weak,
the subgrade thickness is to be calculated as shown
below, because rolling the subgrade material is in-
effective.
When the subgrade CBR is more than three times
the CBR of the upper fill and the in situ soil/rock, and
the CBR of the upper fill and in situ soil/rock is less
than 5, the lower subgrade is to be designed at a
lower strength as in the following table (refer to the
calculated example).
In Situ Soil/Rock Thickness with Calculated
or Upper Fill Lower Strength Overlay Strength (CBRJ
CBR* (mm)
5 200
5x2=10
2.5 400
lower 200 mm: 2.5 x 2 = 5
upper 200mm: 5 x2 = 10
• when less than 2.5 a test construction investigation is to be made,
designing the subgrade thickness to a limit of 60 ems for the
. thickness of the reduced strength calculated overlay.
(5) When the subgrade cross-section becomes
more than a three-layer structure with respect to
strength, the subgrade thickness may be calculated
by converting to an average strength using the
following equation.
h1E11/3 + h2E21/3 + ....... + h;E;l/3+ .... +hnEnl/3)3
E; ( (3.5)
h 1 + h 2 + ...... + h; + ...... + hn
where
E = average strength (kgf/cm 2 )*
L; = thickness of the ith layer (cm)•
E; = deformation coefficient of the ith layer (kgf/cm 2 )
(6) The thickness of the upper and lower subgrade
is made the nearest 50 mm unit (rounding down 20
and rounding up 30) from Figs 3.12 and 3.13, obtained
as above.
Notes
(1) The subgrade structures in Figs 3.12 and 3.13
are calculated so that when 5 t t~ndem wheels (air
pressure 700 KPa, ground pr~ssure 550 KPa,
equivalent ground radius 1 70 mm) run at 1-2 km/h on
the finished surface of the subgrade the greatest
deflection will be 5 mm.
Previous construction practice, the Pavement
Design Manual and the Pavement Guide (Road
Association), etc. are the stipulated references for
general criteria in this regard, from the necessary
viewpoints both of: (1) achieving a uniform subgrade
structure, and (2) maintaining strength in the pave-
ment foundation superior to design and construction
(plans**).
Preferred metric units are KPa for kgf/cm• and mm for cm. 1
kg I/cm•~ 100 KP a and 1 cm = 10 mm.
Interpolated for clarity (Transla.tor).
 AAA No. 51 27

100
BO
70
60
. 50

h
(cml
JO Notes
E1 : Subgrade deformation
20 coefficient (kg/cm 2 I
E2 : In situ soil/rock or upper fill
deformation coefficient (kg/cm 2 )

h : Subgrade thickness (cm)

30 40 50 60 BO 100 150 200 300

E,

Fig. 3.12-Subgrade thickness tor 2-layer construction

100
100
80
80
70
60 60
50 50
h2 40 h1
(cml 40
(cml
30 JO

20 20

10 .....~__.~.........,..,__...._.....__,_.......__.__......_.__,_~__.L.....--1
1000 2000 3000 4000 6000 10000 20000 500 1000 2000 3000 5000
E, E,

(ii Subgrade thickness for 3 layer construction (h 1 =15, E, =JOI CUI Subgrad• thickness for 3 layer construction fh 1 =30,E,=301

100 100
90
80 80
70 70
60 60
h,

(cml 50 50
h,
40 40
(cm)
30 30

20 20

10 10L...J.....l...l-L...L~~..i...~..i..--<L-...l.-~"---....l..--'--'....I.-'--'-~~,____,,
. 400 600 1000 2000 4000 500 700 1000 2000 3000 500 7000 10000 ..
E,
(iii) Subgrado thickness for 3 layer construction (h 1 =45, E3 =JOI E,
IM Subgrade t!>lckness for 3 layer construction {h 1 =15, E, = 501

Fig. 3.13 -Subgrade thickness tor 3-layer construction

 28 ARR No. 51

100 100
\'-
.' ' ' '\ I
', ' \
,,
\ \
80
\I'- ' ' 80
\\
" ''
\. \"' - - \
,~~
GO ... \. >-- 60 ~J __ "' - -
~ \. g "' 'O ...
'""''" I\."
' '
50 50
\~ ~ 0 0
,~- >--
~\~\Q
hi
h, I'-~ _, >-- (cm)
40 40
(cm)
~ ,'
\.!\.A..,
JO
' ~CS'~~\. <::> \.

\ JO
. "o.~ \. '\ \ '.'
~-S
~I~
((\
>.... --~ \
20
~· o~~\\' "
20
~~'\\. \
"'a1:10 ' b ~

10 I 10
. 200
400 600 1000 2000 3000 JOO 400 600 1000 2000

(vi Subgrade thickness for J layer construction (h 1 =JO, E 3 =50) (vi) Subgrade thickness for J lay~r construction (h 1 =45, E 3 = 50)

100 100
' "' ' I l
' I
80
\ . '\. "\.\. 80 ·\
1
I
I
~ ' ..
'
((\
60 60 \ !!'
" '~o \''~ \..., !
-
50
h, I"~ " "c::> - - 50 ·,
..., it.0 ~g ,....
>-- 00

'
Q
40 Q h,
(cm) (cm) 40
\ II..
"......... II.. {
JO '\. """'
~O°'-.
"'-1oo

'\
\.
30
"- \\ \ \

20 ~~·~~': ~ "
~"
20
"' '\ \
\\

""' \~,
'! \
1

"'

II
~.
"" " \

10
10
400 500 800 1000 1500 2000 JOOO 4000
200 JOO 400 600 800 1000 1500

C:;

(vii) Subgracle thickness for J layer construction (h 1 =15, E3 =100) (viii) Subgrade thickness for J layer construction (h 1 =JO, E3 =100)

100
I
80
70
I
60 ' !!'
50
!
h, ..., Q
Q

(cm) 40 ""
Si? Q
Q

Notes: E,: upper subgrade deformation

JO coefficient (kg/ cm 2 )
\ E,: lower subgrade deformation
coefficient (kg/cm 2 )
20 -"' \\
~
E,: in situ soil/rock or upper fill
deformation coefficient (kg/cm 2 )
-
11,: uppet subgrade thickness (cm)
h,: lower subgrade thickness (cm)

10 II
100 200 JOO 400 500 700 1000 1500

(ix) Subgrade thickness for J layer construction (h 1 =45,E 3 =100)

Fig. 3.1 3-Subgrade thickness for 3 layer construction (continued)

 ARR No. 51 29

(2) Rolling is ineffective on subgrades of weak up-
per fill or weak in-situ soil/rock. The strength of a re-
rolled layer is limited to three times the stiffness of
the lower layer. In such cases it is necessary to verify
with test constructions the cross-sectional structure
arrived at by calculation, since it is difficult to apply
the relationship of eqn (3.4) uniformly.
(3) A design calculation example for subgrade
thickness.
(a) · A design calculation example for two-layer con-
struction (using Fig. 3. 12)
A lower subgrade thickness h 2 !:::!:! O is ob-
tained as the intersection of E1 and E2 from
Fig. 3.13 ix.
Because the lower subgrade thickness
becomes zero due to a CBR = 20 subgrade
material being placed immediately over a
CBR 5 fill, it must be rereckoned in accor-
dance with clause (4) of Section 3.4.2.
An example of the calculation method for ex-
ample 3 for reference.
Soil Conditions

Soil Conditions
Upper Subgrade CBR=20

Subgrade CBR=10
t
hem
Lower Subgrade CBR=6

Select fill CBR=2.5

Select Fill CBA=5
*
Conversion coefficients for subgrade and fill
from eqns (3.3) and (3.4)
Conversion coefficients for upper and lower
subgrades and fill from eqns (3.3) and (3.4).
E1 = 4000 x 20 = 80000 = 80 MPa
E1 4000 x 10 40000 40 MPa E2 = 4000 x 6 = 24000 = 24 MPa
E2 2000x5=10000=10MPa E3 = 2000 x 2.5 = 5000 = 5 MPa .
From Fig. 3.12, the subgrade thickness (h 700
mm) is obtained as the point of intersection of E 1 (iv) When the upper subgrade thicknesss (h 1 ) is
and E2 • assumed to be 150 mm. A desirable
subgrade thickness is not attaif1ed, ·since
(b) A design calculation example for three-layer there is a lower subgrade thickness h 2 >
construction (using Fig. 3.13). 1 m from the intersection of E1 and E2 in Fig.
3.13 iv.
Soil Conditions
(v) When the upper subgrade thickness (h 1 ) is
assumed to be 300 mm. From the intersec-
CBR=20 tion of E1 and E2 in Fig. 3.13v a lower
Subgrade h subgrade thickness h 2 850 mm is obtained.
CBA=8
A desirable subgrade thickness is not at-
tained in this case, since the total subgrade
Select fill CBA=5 thickness h = h 1 + h 2 = 300 + 850 1.15
m.
Conversion coefficients for subgrade and fill
from eqns (3.3) and (3.4) It is necessary to consider carefully the
E1 = 4000 x 20 = 80000 = 80 MPa economics etc. in accordance with Section
E2 = 4000 x 8 =· 32000 = 32 MPa 3.4.1 Clause 3. ;
E3 = 2000 x 5 == 10000 10 MPa
(vi) When the upper subgrade thickness h 1 is·
assumed to be 450 mm. From the intersec-
(i) When the upper subgrade thickness (h 1 ) is
tion of E1 and E2 in Fig. 3.13vi a lower
assumed to be 150 mm.
subgrade thickness h 2 300 mm is obtained.
A lower subgrade thickness h2 == 400 mm is
In this case the total subgrade thickness h =
obtained as the intersection of E1 and E2
h 1 + h 2 = 450 + 300 750 mm.
from Fig. 3. 13 vii.
. In this case, the subgrade total thickness (3) An example of the design calculation when.Sec-
becomes h = h 1 + h 2 = 150 + 400 == 550 tion 3.4.2 Clause (4) is relevant (using eqn (3.5) and
mm. Fig. 3. 12').
(a) When the design CBR of an upper fill or in situ
(ii) When the t,JPPer sybgrade thickness (h 1 ) is soil/rock is 5. ·
assumed to be 300 mm.
A lower subgrade thickness h 2 150 mm is Soil Conditions
obtained as the intersection of E1 and E2
from Fig. 3.13 viii.
In this case, the subgrade total thickness Subgrade h
t CBR=20
becomes h ~ h1 + h 2 = 300 + 150 450
mm. i CBR=5
Select fill
(iii) When the upper subgrade thickness (h 1 ) is
assumed to be 450' mm. (al
30 ARR No. 51

Because in Fig. (a) when the fill CBR = 5,

20/5 > 3 the subgrade thickness must be calcul-
ated by following Clounc (4) of Section 3.!1.2. CRR,.,:>n

CBR=5

A chosen cross section as shown in the

CBR=5x2
=10
20cm fiaver using
Lreduced strength
J diagram above is obtained.
(b) When the design CAB of an upper fill or in
situ soil/rock is 2.5.
....,
u
CBR=5
Q;
Cl)
=
;;:
(b) Soil Conditions

Subgrade CBR=30
HP.rP., if decreased strength and the thickness in
which 'it is decreased are considered, a cross-
Fill CBR=2 fi
sectional structure as shown in (b) is obtained.
The individual layer conversion coefficients from
eqns (3.3) and (3.4) are (a)
E1 4000 x 20 = 80000 = 80 MPa
E2 . 4000 x 10 40000 = 40 MPa
l cm
E3 = 2000x 5 = 10000.= 10MPa
In this case, because it is very tedious to use Fig.
3.13, tlie required subgrade thickness is calcul- t CBR=30

h CBR=5x2=10
h,

I
~~
£Cl

l
ated using Fig. 3.12, computing an average
I
Subgrade
20<m}
strength E for the subgrade from eqn. (3.5). ·~;
CBR•2.5>2•5 ~~
20cm ~..5
(i) Let h 1 = 200 mm (h h1 + 200 = 200 + ! -f
200 = 400 mm).
Fill CBR=2.5
From Eqn (3.5) the average subgrade stiff-
ness E1 is
(bl

30 ~ 800 113 + 20 x 400 113 ) 3

In the case of Fig (a) above because 30/2.5 > 3
( for a fill CBR = 2.5, the subgrade thickness must be
20 + 20
computed applying Clause 3.4.2 (4). Here, if
decreased strength and the thickness in which it is
decreased are considered, a cross-sectional struc-
ture as shown in (b) is obtained:

(9.3: 7.3)
3
The individual layer conversion coefficients from
eqns (3.3) and (3.4) are
~ 570
40 x 30 1200
40 x 10 400
40x 5- 200
From Fig. 3.12, reading the intercept for E1 20 x 2.5 50.
= 570, E2 = 100 a subgrade thickness
h = 450 mm is obtained. The subgrade thickness is calculated as shown in the
principal calculation example (a).
· Because 45 > 40 ( = h1 + 20) (assumed
thickness), another h1 value is assumed and
the calculation repeated. (i) Let h1 300 mm (30 cm) (h = h 1 + 200 +
200 = 700 mm).
(ii) Let h1 = 25 cm (h = h 1 + 20 = 25 + 20 =
45 cm From eqn (3.5) the average subgrade stiff-
ness E1 is
(a) the average subgrade stiffness E1 , by the
same method, is

~
o x 1200 113 + 20 x 400 113 + 20 x 200 113) 3 ~
E1 = ~ 580
30+20+20
113 113 3
25 x 800 + 20 x 400 )
( R:< 640
25 + 20 When E1 = 580 and E 2 = 50, reading the in-
tercept for E1 and E2 from Fig. 3.12, a re-
quired subgrade thickness of h 780 mm is
From Fig. 3.12, reading the intercept for E1 obtained.
= 640, E2 100 a subgrade thickness h = Since h 1 h - (200 + 200) = 780 400
430 mm is obtained. Since 430 ~ 450, this = 380 mm, the assumed thickness is insuffi-
cross-section is adopted. cient (300 < 380).
 ARR No. 51 31

(ii) Let h, 400 mm (40 cm) (h h, + 200 + Notes

200 800 mm).
(1) Having regard for economy and compaction
The average subgrade stiffness E, by the
effectiveness, backfill material A and backfill material
same method, is
Bare to be used, separating the backfill cross-sec-
tion into two grad~s. A and B respectively.
(2) Backfill material A is suitable for upper
subgrade material. backfill material B is suitable for
40 x 1200 113 + 20x400 113 + 20 }( 200 ' 3) 3
1
""650 lower subgrade material; and considering in addition
40 + 20 + 20 the backfill construction, a number of regulations are
provided for it.
(a) For preventing material segregation at the time
From Fig. 3. 12, when E, 650 and E2 = 50, of construction and for improving compaction
the required thickness h 700 mm. effectiveness. the maximum grain size sho1.1ld be
h 1 = 70 (20 + 20) = 30 cm = 300 mm, made 50 mm for A and 100 mm for B. However,
the assumed thickness exceeds the required when it becomes very uneconomical according
thickness. Therefore, h 1 lies between 300 to local circumstances and only with a good
and 400 mm, and if working in 50 mm units, material grading where there is no fear of
h1 350 mm is obtained. Hence the re- material segregation, the maximum grain sizes
quired subgrade thickness is 750 mm. shown in Table 3. 7 can be relaxed up to the
3.5 CONSTRUCTION BACKFILLING following values.
3.5.1 The Preferred Properties of Backfill Backfill material A 100 mm
The material properties, compaction and drainage Backfill material B 150 mm
methods required for backfill are to accord in princi-
(b) As a rule, because rainfall concentrates easily
ple with the provisions following.
during construction in backfill sections, adequ-
(1) Material properties ate drainage is to be installed as well as
establishing some control over fine grained
The material to be used is to conform with Table material, the percentage passing the 74 µ. sieve
3. z However, for embankment material when the and the Plasticity Index.
classification lies in the range of SP to GW as shown
in Table 2.1, it is not necessary to use material of par- (3) In principle, having regard for economy, road
ticularly good quality. excavation material is to be used for backfill material
B, but for material which does not satisfy the values of
Table 3. 7 the method of clause (4) _following can be
TABLE 3.7 adopted.
PROPERTIES OF BACKFILL MATERIAL (4) When the greater part of the soil is soft cohesive
soil, backfill material B satisfying Table 3.7 is to be

I~
!Maximum 476~ sieve 74µ sieve Plasticity Soaked brought in, but only when this is quite uneconomic as
grain ptO/)(Jllion proportion Index CBRatrhe
s
I diameter passing passing minimum well as for a numerically suitable earth pressure
(mm) (',) (ljc) density coefficient in bridge abutment design in cohesive soil
o-1s (KH = 0.75), then the Fig. 3.13A type (of construc-
BackfiU Materiat A 50 2s-100 less than 10 above 10
(upper backfill material I tion)• can be adopted.
Backfill Material 8 100 0-30 less than 20 abow 5
(tower backfill material)

(2) Compaction
1-Jm
Backfill material A is to be used in the upper
subgrade and backfill material B is to be used in the
lower subgrade, respectively. material exca•ated
from the road
TABLE 3.8
BACKFILL COIYIPACTION
Fig. 3.13A

i~
Degree of Construction Finished
3 Compac110n Motsrure Thickness
I Content of each layer
(5) The regulations, especially of Table 3. 7, need
Backllll Material A near optimum
above95%
(KOOANA 1211) moisture contenl
less than 20 cm not be applied for materials lying in the range SP to
Backfill Material a above~ moisture conten1 tes.s than 20 cm GW of the Unified Classification, but when they are
IKOOANA 1211i at which a modified CSR
greater than sand the
classified GM and GC investigation is needed in the
degree ofcompai:tto11 following cases.
can be obtained
(a) where plasticity index or natural moisture con-
tent are high
(3) Because rainfall concentrates readily i~ a back- (b) In particular, where the content of highly
fill, the following drainage is generally to be installed. weathered gravel is substantial.
(a) Provide weep holes at construction wall faces.
(b) Provide a· filter zone running the length of a con-
struction wall, connected to a blind drain. interpolated for clarity Translator.
 32 ARR No. 51

(6) To provide .drainage of the backfill lengthwise
along the wall surface of structures and the weep-
holes set in the structures, a filter layer and rubble
drains are to be_ laid (refer to Figs 3.14 and 3.15.
Weep holes of 75 mm diameter are generally to
be provided at 2 m intervals in the vicinity of the foun-
dations and surroundings for water removal at bridge
abutments.
It is desirable to provide weep holes also for the up-
per part of bridge abutments (in the vicinity of backfill
materials A and 8) in individual places where there is
no problem of good appearance or of the outlet spac-
ing.
It is also desirable to provide weep holes for box
culverts if there is no problem of good appearance.
Standardizing on a 2 m filter spacing, the
methods for fixing porous concrete blocks or syn-
thetic resin pipes (perforated pipes, network pipe$
and so on), etc. are to be prepared.
Because the objective is drainage during con-
struction, after completion of the pavement construc-
tion if it is confirmed that no water emerges from the
weep holes provided for a normal embankment sec-
tion, the holes may be stopped up.
3.5.2 Backfilling of Culverts
Backfilling of culverts is to be standardised on the
following kinds of structures, according to culvert
location.
(1) When the upper surface of the culvert is within
the subgrade, the cross-section and drainage work is
to be effected as in Fig. 3. 16, using backfill material B
in that part corresponding to upper fill and lower
subgrade.

approw. 3m

Fig. 3.16 - Backflii construction when the upper surface of a

culvert Is in the subgrade
approx. 3m

Pavement. _ _ _ . _ (2) When the upper surface of the culvert is within

.the upper fill. The cross-section and drainage work is
to effected as in Fig. 3.17, using backfill material 8 in
that oart corresponding to lower fill and backfill
material A in that part corresponding to upper fill.
2.00 2.00 2.00

rubble drain
2.00 filter
I Backfill
material B

Fig. 3.14 -An example of backfill drainage work for a box

culvert

Fig; 3.17 - Backfill construction when the upper surface of a

· culvert is in the upper fill

(3) When the upper surface of the culvert is within

the lower fill. The cross-section and drainage work is
to be effected as in Fig. 3.18, but no particular provi-
sions need be made for backfill material.

I/ rubble drain ------- -- - - ---- -

-------------'='",,.,,,,---lowerwbg,ade
- - - - --1.ip:,pottubgftde

.. filter m11terittwhhno

-
spoci.11..-ovb:lont

~inforcement
alls •PPto•. 3m

.
-
-- -
/ '

Fig. 3.16-Backfill construction when the upper surface of a

weephole culvert is in the lower fill
..
(4) When the culvert is at a cut and fill boundary.
Fig. 3.15-An example of backfill drainage work for a retaining The culvert is to be placed as shown in Figs 3. 19 or
wall type bridge abutment 3.20.
 ARR No. 51 33

approx. Jm

upper subgrad&
lower subgrede
upper fill

approx. lm
approx, 3m
Fig. 3.23-Backfill construction for a gravity type bridge
Fig. 3.19 -Backfill construction when, within the upper fill or the abutment to an embankment
subgrade, the upper surface of a culvert is at a cut approx. 3m
and fill boundary
vpper subgrade
lower subgrade
upper fill

lower fill

"-.. monrial with no

approx. 3m
'-......_ 1paei1t provhiont
lower-fill "-....

' ""' Fig. 3.24 -Backfill construction for a floodway type bridge
abutment to an embankment
(2) Cutting sections.
Using backfill material A for the part up to about 3 m
from the lower subgrade topside, backfill material B
is to be used for sections lower than this.
Fig. 3.20-Backfill construction when, within the lower fill, the
upper surface of a ·culvert is at a cut and fill boundary The cross-section and drainage work are to be
as shown in Fig. 3.25.
Note
(1) For backfilled structures where there is a high
underground water table a half-buried box culvert is
to be specially designed with adequate thought for
on-the-spot circumstances.
3.5.3 Backfilling of Bridge Abutments
Backfilling for bridges and elevated structures is to
be standardised on the following structures, accord-
ing to location and form of the bridg~ abutments.
(1) Embankment sections. rubble drain

Fill material B is to be used for sections beneath the Fig. 3.25- Backfill construction for a bridge abutment in a cutting
lower fill, using backfill materia.1 A at sections co.rres-
ponding to upper fill and lower subgrade. Notes
(1) So as to ensure level ground necessary for roll-
appro•. Jm.
ing operations, in about 3 m beside the original foun-
-- - - - - - - - - - -uppettube:rade dation at an embankment section, a rolled width of
. t_ . I:<' ~o= ~~~rad& about 2-3 m is to be provided near the uphill side of
the backfil I.
lower fill
(2) So as to ensure also a transitional distance from
the embankment and the operative ability of heavy
machinery, the gradient of a backfill is to be
made 1 :2.
Fig: 3.21 -Backfill construction for an anchored wall type bridge (3) Construction backfilling is divi.ded into two
abutment to an embankment parts, A and B. Backfill material Bis to be placed with
adequate rolling, mainly in a transverse direction,
after the structures and adjacent embankment parts
upper subgrade have been finished.
lower subgrade
upper fill Backfill material A is to be placed with adequate
rolling in all directions, following after backfill
material B and preceding the adjacent embankment
parts.
However, when constructing adjacent embank-
ment parts after completion of the structures, the
Fig. 3.2 2 - Backfill construction for a rigid frame type bridge backfill section can be constructed parallel to the ad-
abutment to an embankment jacent embankment part.
 34 ARR No. 51

4. EMBANKMENT SLOPES Strictly, the slope of an embankment should be

4.1 APPLICATION
This chapter sets out the fundamentals of embank-
ment slopes as regards selection of slope gradient,
installing berms, necessity for sod tamping, slope
compaction methods, special slope treatments, etc.
in embankment design.
However, such criteria are only reference stan-
dards, so what criterion to adopt must be determined
after thorough investigation of the embankment
materials, condition of the embankment foundations,
topographical location of the embankment, environ-
mental topography, geology, and weather conditions,
etc.
Refer to Section 7 'Stability Investigation of
Embankments and Cuttings' and Section 8 'Slope
Protection' for embankment stability investigation
methods and slope protection.
4.2 EMBANKMENT SLOPE GRADIENTS
The gradient of an embankment slope should be the
standard value in Table 4.1 according to the type of
embankment material and the height of the embank-
ment.
Notes
(1) The standard values in Table 4.1 were drawn up
by reference to actual results with existing, .embank-
ments, the steepest slope gradients for standard em-
bankments in the Guidelines for Highway Earthworks,
and standard embankment slopes in the previous
design manual.
determined from a stability calculation in order to ob-
tain adequate f.ltability, but it is generally borne out
by experience that the gradients shown in Table 4.1
for various kinds of embankment material and height
of embankment are sufficient for embankment
stability. So the stability calculation can be omitted if
an embankment is within the range of standard
values.
(2) The suitability of the slope is to be investigated
according to Section 7, 'Stability Investigation of Em-
bankments and Cuttings', performing soil tests, even
for embankments where the foundation afforded
enough bearing capacity for the embankment height
and is not affected by immersion, in the following
cases.
(a) When the height of an embankment exceeds the
st;:inrl:m1 vRh1e in Table 4.1.
(b) When it is necessary to steepen the slope cor-
responding to the embankment height in Table
4.1 due to site restrictions or suchlike.
(c) When a banked section with the same soil
materials extends over a fairly long distance.
But calculation of the stability can be omitted despite
stipulations (a). (b) and (c) when the embankment
materials consist of sand, gravel, gravel-sand mix-
tures, broken rock, rock waste and coarser materials,
because there is considered to be adequate embank-
ment slope stability except for erosion by rainfall, and
there is virtually no danger of collapse, even without
performing a stability calculation. For safety
however, it is necessary to check in advance
whether to provide berms, etc. considering the
economics.

TABLE 4.1
STANDARD SLOPE GRADIENTS.ACCORDING TO MATERIAL AND
HEIGHT OF EMBANKMENT

Embankment Material Height of Gradient Remarks

Embankment 2

well graded sand, 0- 6(m) 1 : 1.5 GW,GP,SW.

gravel and gravelly GM,GC
sand . 6 15 ·1 : 1.8

poorly graded sand 0-10 1 : 1.8 SP

broken rock or rock 0 10 1 : 1.5

waste 10- 20 1 : 1.8 GW,GP,GM

sandy soi Is, stiff 0- 6 1 : 1.5 SM, SC. CL, OL

cohesive soils, hard
clay (Diluvial cohesive 6-10 1 : 1.8
soils. clay, etc.)

soft cohesive soils 0- 6 1 : 1.5 CH,OH,VH,

(Kanto-Loam. etc.) to 1 : 1.8 3 ML,MH

Notes:
(1) This table can be applied to foundation ground having adequate bearing capacity and not affected .
by inundation.
(2) Height of embankment means the vertical height from the road shoulder down to the toe of an
embankment.
(3) A gradient up to 1 : 1.8 is to be adopted where a gradient of 1 : 1 .5 is considered unsafe.
 ARR No. 51
Table 4.1 shows the prerequisite slopes for
slope protection seeding work, but there are cases
when a steeper slope using structures such as shown
in Section 8, 'Slope Protection' is more economical. It
is necessary to compare costs especially when the
embankment is on a naturally steep slope.
(3) Except for (2), a stability investigation must be
performed in the following cases, in accordance with
Section 7, 'Stability Investigation of Embankments
and Cuttings', post, from the results of soil investiga-
tion and soil test.
(a) When the embankment materials consist of clay
or cohesive soil with high moisture content.
(b) When the embankment is constructed over soft
foundation ground.
(c) When the embankment is constructed on founda-
tion ground with a prior history or landslip or
landslide, etc. or such unstable foundations.
(d) When the embankment is constructed in regions
subject to flooding by overflow, etc. of rivers and
ponds.
4.3 BERMS
In general, berms are to be provided when the height
of the embankment is more than 1O m, but they must
be decided upon only after adequate consideration of
the economics. Also, when installing berms they are
to be every 6-10 m from the shoulder, and 1.5 m
width, as a standard, according to the soil properties.
Notes
(1) The effect of berms for high embankments is to
raise embankment stability, decrease the velocity of
water running down a slope by breaking long slopes
in short sections, as well as to prevent severe ero-
sion by limiting the rainfall catchment area or effect
improvement by way of maintenance and repair to the
footings.
However, there will !Je landslips and erosion of
the slope when rain soaks into an embankment from
outside or accumulates in local spots on the berm if
the drainage disposal provided for the berm is not
adequately considered.
(2) When a part of an embankment section having an
embankment height more than 1O m is only short a
berm need not be provided. However, in such a case,
construction methods may be considered based on
the use of woven fences or structural protective
works, etc. to prevent erosion of the slope (refer lo ·
Section 8 'Slope Protection').
(3) The standard spacing of berms is about 1Om for
broken rock or .rubble, and about 6 m for other
materials arranged stepwise from the slope shoulder.
An appropriate location for the berms should be
determined for each respective embankment section,
considering the longitudinal drainage gradient and
the relationship between berm location and embank-
ment height.
(4) The drainage system provided for the berm is to
be as prescribed in Section 5.3 'Berms'. Moreover,
the. width of a berm can be widened up to 2 m as re-
quired, the same as for cuttings.
35
4.4 SOD TAMPING
Sod tamping is not generally to be performed.
However, sod tamping is to be performed in the
following cases.
(1) When the embankment materials are soils un-
suitable for plant growth (strongly acidic soil,
strongly alkaline soil, containing harmful consti-
tuents. etc.) the standard thickness is to be 200
mm perpendicular to the slope.
(2) When the embankment materials are coarse-
g rained materials such as broken rock
unscreened gravel, etc. or soils easily scoured
out by rainfall (Poorly graded sand, pumice,
volcanic ash, volcanic sand, etc.) the thickness
is to be about 500 mm perpendicular to the
slope.
Notes
(1) Since slope protection is generally effected by
planting, sod tamping work is to be done when the
embankment consists of soils unsuitable for plant
growth.
(2) In this Manual, the sod tamping thickness
necessary for plant growth is considered to be 200
mm. Also, the necessary thickness having water re-
tention capacity is considered to be 500 mm.
(3) It is desirable, as far as possible, to use
. gravelly-sandy soil or gravelly cohesive soil for sod
tamping, instead of homogeneous clay soil.
(4) Poorly-graded sand and sandy soils are readily
accepted under the compaction provisions (more
than 90 per cent of the maximum dry density in accor-
dance with KODAN A 1210, for example), but they are
extremely unstable and crumble away readily if the
side face is not previously confined.
Moreover, because it is difficult to ensure
trafficability* with poorly-graded fine sand, a cross-
sectional structure such as shown in Fig. 4.1 is to be
considered, utilising both the slope protection and
the haul roads simultaneously.
during construction
Fig. 4.1 -Example of a poorly graded sand embankment
4.5 ROLLER COMPACTION OF SLOPES
(1 ) Compaction of a slope is generally performed at
the same time as roller compaction of the embank-
ment itself using heavy machinery. However, small
vibratory rollers, small vibratory compactors, etc.
can be used for compaction of slopes on the ap-
proaches of an embankment to a structure, and for
sod tamping work on a subgrade section, etc.
(2) A slope. is to be compacted uniformly to the
same degree of compaction as that of the lower fill.
· ... of construction vehicles' is meant
 36
Notes
(1 ) Compaction of the surface layer of a slope is
especially important tor embankments .. However,
compaction of the surface layer of a slope 1s not go?d
enough compared with that of an embankment fill,
because performance near a sloping surface is too
difficult with the latest mechanised soil construction
methods. Therefore near the surface layer of a slope
it becomes non-uniform, and slope surface failure is
frequent, since abnormal pore water pressures occur
from heavy rain (refer to Figs 4.2 and 4.3).
As a protection from this kind of failure, it is
necessary to achieve a uniform finish, placing the in-
itial part of the slope surface layer at the same time
as the embankment fill, to the same degree of com-
paction as the fill. Fig. 4.3 is taken from an inquiry into
the Mei-Shin (Expressway•). where the cone
penetration index (qc) did not reach 1.5 MPa down to
a depth (Z) of 1 m, and penetration of rain water
caused a collapse of the slope surface.
Water head from the rainfall
(abnormal pore water pressure)
')'W xz
z -/,,
Uneven layer formed in
construction (impermeable layer)
Fig. 4.2 -Non-uniformity in a slope surface layer and abnormal
pore water pressures
rainwater
qc ;;;;.1.5 MPa
Fig. 4.3- Embankment slope surface compaction conditions
(2) Fill materials which require sod tamping are
almost never encountered, except for strongly acid
soils unsuitable for planting, uniformly graded sand
(SP) easily eroded by rain water, etc. (refer to Sec-
tion 8.2, 'Planting Work').
Moreover, slope surface construction by man-
power is to be limited to the case of sod tamping
work etc. at the approaches to a structure and for
subgrade sections. Because slope surface construc-
tion is not performed by manpower at the same time
as the embankment fill, it is easy to form a non-
uniform layer near the slope surface.
lnserled for clarity - Translator
ARR No. 51
Therefore, to prevent a slope surface failure,
slope compaction with the heovy machinery in
Clause (3) should be performed if at all possible..
Moreover, as it is particularly important to design a
slope where heavy machinery compaction is feasible,
protective work by turf-laying, turf-binding, seeding,
etc. and shallow sod tamping work is not desirable.
For a small-scale slope, however, performance
by man-power can be advantageously adopted.
(3) It is desirable to effect slope compaction by the
following methods.
(a) Construction by bulldozer compaction. The con-
struction method is to compact the whole width
of the embankment in each layer, and, in every
one to three layers rise, to perform a slope com-
paction in the lateral direction.
(b) To increase the width of the embankment,
followed by shaping and grading. This construc-
tion method is to increase the width of an em-
bankment, and then to scrape off with a drag line
or a backhoe any fill which is insufficiently com-
pacted. This construction method can be used
where there is sufficient width for the embank-
ment, or there are sidepaths, etc.
(4) It is not necessary to shape• the. surface of _a
slope manually, even if there is some unevenness m
the surface from the caterpillar tracks of bulldozers,
because it is desirable (to have some unevenness)tt
in slope protection work by planting (hydro-seedingt
etc.), and also it is by no means an obstacle to good
appearance if plants are grown. Also, adequate care
should be taken when shaping a sloping land surface
with poor internal binding power, because such sec-
tions may be easily stripped by rain.
(5) B~::;iues 11011-uniforrnity of the surface layers of a
slope, slope collapse is considered to be due to
splash water from the water running in longitudinal
and temporary gutter drains, etc. at places where the
watercourse gradient changes suddenly, to the in-
verts of a longitudinal gradient, to the boundary of cut
Text reads, literally, 'Plastic surgery'
tt Interpolated for clarity
t Text reads, literally, 'seed spraying'
 ARR No. 51
and fill, to the approaches to a structure, to an em-
bankment on a sloping foundation, to fill material with
a high permeability, to insufficient control of infiltra-
tion water from rainfall and hot springs on the. tracks
of access and haul roads, as well as to defective em-.
bankment structures.
·/
37
Refer to the other relevant clauses in respect of
these.
(6) Compaction and finishing of a slope is generally
to be performed by heavy machinery but minor
modifications can be performed manually.
 38 ARR No. 51

5. CUTTING SLOPES Notes

5.1 APPLICATION
Soil properties in natural foundations being highly
non-uniform, the strength of foundations are quite
different according to the degree of weathering, con-
ditions of stratification, fissuration, etc.
A stability calculation can be omitted when the
gradient of a cutting slope is determined to be within
the range of standard values. Accordingly, the slope
gradient in a cutting is generally to be fixed on a stan-
dard gradient, but the work must be performed with
an overall judgement of the condition of the site and
existing similar slopes.
Also, in the stability investigation of a cutting
slope, refer to Section 7, 'Stability Investigation of
Embankments and Cuttings', Section 8, 'Slope Pro-
tection', Section 9, 'Prevention of Falling Stones' and
Section 1 0, 'Prevention of Slope Failure and Restora-
tion Measures' for slope protection work.
5.2 THE GRADIENT OF A CUTTING SLOPE
The gradient of a cutting slope is to be taken from the
standard values in Table 5. 1 according to condition
and height of the cutting, and the kinds of strata com-
prising the foundation.
(1) The ~li:mtli:utl value~ in Table 5.1 were drawn up
by reference to the standard slope gradients for cut-
tings in the Highway Earthworks Manual and the stan-
dard slope gradients for Expressways, etc., but soil
properties of natural foundations being very non-
uniform, and because the strength of foundations is
considerably different according to the degree of
weathering and fissuration, stratified condition, and
pore water quantity, so an overall judgement must be
made when determining the gradient of a slope, giv-
ing adequate consideration to local conditions.
geology, topography, soil, weather, under-ground
water, depth of cut and so forth, investigating the ex-
isting condition of similar slopes, making a stability
calculation if necessary, and comparing with the
standard values of Table 5.1.
(Reference) When the slope consists of rock,
as well as the degree of weathering, degree of crack-
ing or fissuring in bedding, jointing or schistosity, etc.
the slope gradient must be decided from a considera-
tion of the correlation between the fabric direction
and the direction of the slope. At present, however, a
quantitive judgement of these is extremely difficult..
Therefore, there are many cases where slope gra~
dients of 1 :0.5 in hard rock, and 1 :0.8 in soft rock, are
adopted as standard; irrespective of rock type, from
previous experience.

TABLE 5.1
STANDARD SLOPE GRADIENTS FOR IN SITU SOIL/ROCK PROPERTIES

In situ soil/rock Height of Cutting Gradient Remarks

properties

hard rock 1 :0.3-1 :0.8

soft rock 1 :0.5-1 :1.2

sand 1 :1.5- 1 SW.SP

sandy soil dense less than 5m 1 :0.8-1 :1.0 SM,SC

5-10m 1 :1.0-1 :1.2
loose less than 5 m 1 :1.0-1 :1.2
5-10m 1 :1.2-1 :1.5

Sandy soil with dense less than 10 m 1 :0.8-1 :1.0 GW, GM, GC, GP
gravel or broken or 10-15m 1 :1.0-1 :1.2
rock mixed in well graded

loose less than 10 m 1 :1.0-1 :1.2

or poorly 10-15m 1 :1.2-1 :1.5
graded

Clay and cohesive soil 0-10m 1 :0.8-1 :1.2 ML. MH. CL. OL. CH.
VH

Cohesive soil with less than 5 m 1 :1.0-1 :1.2 GM,GC

broken rock or rubble 5-10m 1 :1.2-1 :1.5
mixed in

Note:
(1) '1 :1.5' indicates a more gentle slope than 1 :1.5.
ARR No. 51
(2) When a deep cutting is to be made through non-
uniform soils, the slope gradient can be changed ac-
cording to the strength of each soil type, as shown in
Figs 5. 1a and b.
(al (bl
Fig 5.1 - Cutting slope gradients when the soil is non-uniform
When the depth of a cutting is shallow, however, and
changing the slope has little significance, the same
gradient can be cut in the intervals a, b, c of Fig. 5.1. In
such a case, it is desirable to adopt a gradient on the
safe side (the 1 :n gradient of the sandy soil in Fig.
5.1).
(3) The necessary factors for deciding a slope gra-
dient, degree of· weathering, existence of spring
water, non-uniformity, etc. in a soil/rock cutting, are
not necessarily enough for a thorough appreciation,
even if a fairly detailed investigation were made.
Therefore, when there is insufficient confidence
in the slope gradient of the original design, a partial
excavation is desirable to verify the rock and soil
properties, the presence of spring water, etc. and
either to change the original design slope or, leaving
an operating width for construction machinery after
the excavation, to change the slope gradient accord-
ing to the actual soil/rock conditions.
(4) For cuts in earth and sand, the suitability of the
slope gradient must be investigated in the following
cases, making a stability calculation in accordance
with Section 7 'Stability Investigation of Embank-
ments and Cuttings', and generally making an in-
vestigation of the soil properties.
(a) When the height of a cutting exceeds the values
shown in Table 5.1.
(b) When it may be necessary to make the cutting
slope steeper than the. standard values shown in
Table 5.1 because of the land requirements and
suchlike.
(c) When the same soil properties, topography,
weather, spring w.:itcr and Guoh oonditiono ore
thought to be the same extending over a fairly
long distance.
There are, however, many factors not taken into ac-
count (non-uniformity of soil properties, stratified
conditions, ground water fluctuations, the existence
of spring water, topography, weather, etc.) in the
calculation of slope stability for a. cutting as com-
pared with the case for an embankment. Furthermore,
because a correct judgement of soil strength charac-
teristics is fraugrt with many difficulties, etc. a low
reliability for the .:alculation is common. Therefore, it
is dangerous to determine a cutting slope gradient by
a stability calculation only, and the gradient must be
decided from an overall judgement, as stated in Note
(1 ).
39
(5) Because there is a danger of slope failure when
making a cutting in the following soil and geological
conditions, it is necessary to consider counter-
measures in advance, always performing a soil and
geological investigation of the slope stability.
(a) Where there are alternate permeable layers (for
example, a sandy gravel layer) and impermeable
layers (for example, a clay layer) and their boun-
dary surface slope is in the same direction (as
the cutting)" - see Fig. 5.2. This kind of failure
begins with the lower clay layer becoming
weakened by underground water, with a clay
layer slipping off the sloping surface, and failure
gradually extends upwards ti.II the whole sandy
gravel layer fails.
underground water
Fig. 5. 2-When there are permeable and impermeable layers in
contact
(b) Where there is rock beneath a permeable soil
layer (talus, etc.) and the boundary surface in-
clinati.on is in the same direction as the slope:
see Fig. 5.3. There are many instances of failure
running along the boundary of the soil and rock
for a permeable soil. In this case. there is much
Jess relationship to the gradient of the slope.
underground water
Fig. 5.3-When there is a rock foundation underneath a
permeable layer
(c) Where a cutting is to be made through talus
deposits (see Fig 5.4.) A talus deposit has a con-
tinual, ceaseless creeping movement, and a cut-
ting halfway up or at the lower end is inviting a
major failure. Therefore, when cutting in this kind
of foundation, a most careful stability investiga-
tion must be made, adequately studying the talus
layer thickness, the properties of the talus layer
itself and the groundwater permeation condi-
tions, etc.
Fig. 5.4-Talus section case
Interpolated for clarity - Translator
 40
(d) For shales, mudstones and other sedimentary
rocks, or graphite-schist. greenschist and other
metamorphic rocks, where the inclination of the
bedding or schistosity is in the same direction as
the inclination ot the surtace ot the cutting: see
Fig. 5.5. When the surface of the cutting and the
inclined layers are in the same direction much
care is needed, because a major failure will run
along the bedding or schistosic inclined surface
following the permeation of rain water.
~
~
----$chistosity or bedding
Fig. 5.5 -When the inclined layers dip towards the cutting
Therefore, when making a cutting in this kind of foun-
dation, an adequate investigation of the properties of
the layers, and the direction of inclination of bedding,
schistosity, and joints must be made in advance,
studying their correlation with the slope gradient.
(e) Where there is metamorphosed serpentine,
shale, mudstone, etc.
(f) Where the foundations are in an unstable condi-
tion, having a history of recent landslides or
mountainside failures. Such foundations must be
absolutely avoided in the initial selection of the
route, but when out of sheer necessity a cutting
must be made, an adequate geological survey
REFERENCE TABLE 5.1
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SLOPE GRADIENT AND ELASTIC WAVE
VELOCITY
(Values determined by the Ripper meter)
elastic wave velocity (m/s)
rock type
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 11 00 1200 1300 1400 1 500 1600 1 700
granite
claystone shale
black clay
chert
quartz-Porphyry
sandstone
limestone
claystone-
sandstone interbedded
claystone-
chert interbedded
ARR No. 51
must be made to evaluate the risk of failure, and
as far as possible a minimum depth of cutting
planned.
(g) Where there is a fault or geological condition in-
fluenced by a fault; because faults or geological
conditions influenced by faults commonly have a
weakening effect, and cutting in places with such
geological conditions invites sudden slope
failure.
(h) Where there is a sandy layer containing water
and a substantial fine fraction, especially highly
weathered granitic rock in a 'masa·• condition,
and old terraced sandy gravel layers.
(i) Where there is soft clay.
(j) Where there is hard clay having slickensides or
hair cracks: the overall strength of such a clay
being weak and unstable, and the cracks open-
ing as the pressure decreases In the upper part
during cutting, the clay itself is weakened by
water infiltration. This type of failure is the origin
of major failures such as landslides and block
stripping along fissures.
(Reference) The correlation between rock quality,
elastic wave velocity, and the gradient of slopes is
shown in Table 5.1. This diagram was made by colla-
tion the results of investigations on the finished
slopes of the Mei-Shint as measured by the Ripper
Meter. However, there was not much data and the
adequacy of the slope gradients was not clear,
because the time lapse after construction of the
slopes studied was not long, etc.; but although it is
a granitic sand Translator
t An Expressway
c::::::J 1: 1.2 Surface slope
fZZZJ 1:1.0 Surface slope
t2S2S2SJ 1 :0.8 Surface slope
~ 1 :0.5 Surface slope
 ARR No. 51
dangerous to have complete confidence in it, the
relationships in Table 5.1 may be considered as a
tentative reference for arriving at a decision on a cut-
ting slope gradient from an investigation of the
elastic wave velocity.
5.3 BERMS
Berms are generally to be provided at every 7 m
height of a cutting slope, and their width is to be 1.5 m
as a standard. When drainage facilities are to be pro-
vided for berms, a cross-sectional gradient of 5-10
per cent is to be made towards the mountainside as in
Fig 5.6a or when it is unnecessary to install a
drainage facility, a cross-section gradient of 0-5 per
cent is to be made towards the highway. as in Fig
5.6(b).
Also. a suitable longitudinal gradient is to be pro-
vided considering the position and structure of the
drainage.
Fig. 5.6 -Cross sectional gradient for berms
Notes
(1) The principal purpose of berms is to weaken the
energy of rainfall or spring water flowing down the
slope as far as possible to minimise erosion of the
slope.
Therefore, for a slope in hard rock, where ero-
sion presents no difficulty and good stability is no
problem, etc. the spacing of berms can be widened or
in some cases they can be omitted.
Also, where the berm constitutes a weak point
due to the soil properties, and a failure is feared, an
investigation is to be made to omit berms as far as
. possible. In such a case. it is necessary to consider
details of performance. maintenance and repair.
(2) The height for berms need not always be fixed at
7 m. It can be fixed within the range of 5-10 m having
consideration for the height of the cutting and the
boundaries of the soil layers.
(3) It is desirable to provide berms as far as pussi-
. ble at the boundary between soil and rock, or
permeable and impermeable layers etc., having con-
sideration for spring water where the soil layers are
different. ·
(4) The width of berms is 1.5 mas a rule, but may be
: widened up to 2 m according to local circumstances
when it is feared that soil easily eroded by rainfall will
· accumulate earth and sand on the berms.
: (5) When there is an easily eroded soil on the cut-
ting slope or when stripping of the surface layer of
· the slope by freezing is feared, it is desirable to pro-
vide an additional width outside of the road shoulder
, in the cutting.
41
5.4 ROUNDING THE SLOPE.
(1) The shoulder of the cutting slope is generally to
be rounded. However, it is not necessary for the
shoulder of a berm.
(2) The width of rounding at the top of an ordinary
. cutting slope is to be limited to 2.0 m, with a tangen-
. tial length of 1.0 mat the upper and lower parts of the
shoulder of the cutting.
(3) Where it is necessary to make a larger rounding
for better appearance, the rounding is to be har-
monious with the topographical surroundings.
(4) The shape of the rounding is to be a circular or
parabolic arc.
Notes
(1) It is desirable to undertake rounding to prevent
. shoulder erosion, to set vegetation, or for ap-
, pearance, etc. However. the shoulders of berms are
: not to be rounded, to maintain the requisite width of
· the berm.
' (2) Where rounding can be done irrespective of the
• width of the site, at the inside edge of slopes visible
. over a wide range from a great distance, or hilly land
rising off a plain, or service areas, interchanges, etc.
; the following equation is to be used.
; T = a/3 ·
: where
: T = tangential length (m), and .
a = the maximum length of the slope (m).
top of
the slope
Fig. 5. 7 -Width of rounding
top of the slope
maximum
inclined
t
length
Fig. 5.8 - Extent of rounding
(3) The curve of the rounding may be either a circu-
: lar or a parabolic line, but a parabolic line is easier to
i install than a circular one for a large rounding. The
l curve is installed in this case by ordinary methods.
 42
5.5 THE MANAGEMENT OF SURFACE AND SPRING
WATER
' Where there is a danger ot surtace gullying or ot
slope failure, a drainage ditch must be provided at the
shoulder or berm. Attention should be paid to the
selection and layout of such facilities, considering
spring water localities and the quantity of water en-
try, especially for spring water.
Notes
(1) Slope surfaces are damaged in various ways by
weather conditions, but since erosion is mostly
caused by rainfall runoff, if the drainage is adequate
this misfortune can mostly be prevented. Therefore, it
is necessary to construct the slope drainage
facilities as quickly as possible.
(2) When designing drainage, careful attention
should be paid to these points in advance, because
overflows from exceeding the drainage system's
capacity will cause a washout on both sides of the
drainage channel. A treatment sufficient to prevent
washouts from runoff flowing over the slope or the
surface of the highway is to be made whenever verti-
cal or oblique drainage systems are installed.
(3) .The Drainage of surface water.
(a) Shoulder drainage.
(i) When planning to provide standard shoulder
drainage facilities, they must be designed
only after a thorough investigation of their
necessity, since there are cases where no
surface water runs down, as along the crest
of a mountain ridge or at other places where,
topographically, there should not be much
runoff down the slope.
(ii) A. concrete U-type drain or a simple exca-
vated side-drain lined with cement-mortar as
shown in Fig. 5.'9 is mostly to be used for the .
shoulder drain. However, a simple exca-
vated sidedrain may be enough, with god-
ding as necessary, where it is felt there is no
fear of washouts owing to the small amount
of flow (refer to Section 3, Drainage, 4.3.3,
'Drainage Facilities for Slope and Shoulder').
cement mortar
(or concrete)
50-100 mm thick
Fig. 5.9-Cement mortar (or concrete)
a. Shoulder drains
b. to discharge water by a
drainage ditch over the hillside
Fig. 5. 1o -Arrangement of shoulder drains
ARR No. 51
(iii) It is best to use a concrete drain for the
water from berms and such accumulated
large flows with a high runoff velocity as a
shoulder drain in parts where there is a fear
that the drain might be washed out (refer to
Section 3, 'Drainage' for the construction of
concrete drainage facilities). In this case,
site circumstances permitting, the drains
can be led to a place unrelated to the slope
surface and discharged over the hillside, and
thus will not catch the eye and can shorten
the length of the sidedrains.
(b) Drainage of berms.
When draining berms, a concrete U-type drain or
a V-type cast-in-situ drain as in Fig. 5.11a is to
be provided for slopes where a considerable
quantity of water is expected. For slopes where
the quantity of water is expected to be small. a
drainage ditch is to be provided constructed
from cement-mortar or concrete, putting a
crossfall on the berm as shown in Fig. 5.11b, or,
without providing a drainage ditch, the runoff is
led away by making a cross-sectional gradient
down towards the lower slope, according to the
soil properties.
~""'"~
;--i:z::z:z::C&;z:\rP
cement mortar (or concrete)
(b) 50·100 mm thick !al
Fig. 5.11 -Examples of berm drains using cement mortar (or
concrete)
Note
When installing concrete U-type drains it is desirable
to install plastic soil-cement and cement-mortar bet-
ween the original ground and the drainage channel
(Fig. 5. 12) to prevent water permeation behind the
drain. It is not necessary to install such concrete
drainage channels on all the berms; they are to be
provided especially for berms and suchlike under a
slope with spring water, or berms thought subject to
much water.
U type channel
plastic soil-cement
Fig. 5.12-U-type channel protection
ARR No. 51 43

(4) Drainage of spring water.

(a) Accumulated water exuding near the soil surface
must be drained by a rubble drain or a slope water
gabion as in Fig. 5. 13.
synthetic resin pipe
cohesive soil
~60·100mm
s:tsk~s. etc. -----..,,.. Fig. 5.14....::. Exampl;of horizontal drainage bo.re
~ ican be omittedi
(b) Where deep-seated spring water soaks up into
concrete the surface the deep water must be drained by
or cohesive soil installing a horizontal bore with perforated steel
ial (!;I) pipe or synthetic resin pipe inserted as a
horizontal drain hole (refer to f!ig. 5.14 ). The
depth of the horizontal drain hole must be more
Fig: 5.13 - Rubble d~ain for slope drainage than 2 m, at least.
 44
6. EMBANKMENTS ON SLOPING
FOUNDATIONS, ONE SIDE CUT,
ONE SIDE FILL, AND THE CUT AND
FILL BOUNDARY ZONE
6.1 STEPCUTS
When the surface slope of the foundation ground
where an embankment is to be placed is 1 :4.0 to
1 :0.5 a stepcut must as a rule be provided, after
removing the top soil (deleterious soil containing
organic matter).
The standard dimensions of a stepcut are to be
as follows.
(1) Where the foundation consists of earth and sand:
the minimum height i$ to be 500 mm, the minimum
width is to be 1 m.
(2) Where the foundation consists of rock: the depth
of a stepcut is to be at least 400 mm vertically•
from the rock surface.
Notes
Because the zone near the boundary of an embank-
ment and its original foundations (in situ soil/rock) is
prone to be a source of slip and settlement. a stepcut
is to be made to prevent this.
foundation ground
(in sitv so~l/rock)
Fig. 6.1 -Stepcuts, edgecuts, and subsoil drainage
When the foundation ground is earth and sand, it
is necessary to make the width of a stepcut about 3
m, being generally decided by the width of the con-
struction machinery when using a bulldozer. Because
stepcuts are generally made for roadside embank-
ments, the bulldozer should follow the contour lines
to get the excavation surface level. Also, it is desira-
ble to make the stepcuts in places where retaining
structures are to be installed. When the surface gra-
dient is steeper than 1 :0.5 it becomes very
uneconomical to install stepcuts, and they are not
provided. In such a case, care should be taken not to
allow any unrolled fill during construction in the
vicinity of the boundary between the fill and the in-
situ soil or rock.
'at right angles to the rock surface' is meant (see Fig. 6. 1 -
Translator).
ARR No. 51
6.2 SIDECUTS, SIDEFILLS AND THE CUT AND FILL
BOUNDARVZONE
('I) A transitional section is to be provided to join
the lower surface of the lower subgrade in the fill
section (the upper select fill surface) to the lower
$urtace ot the cut section sub'grade (the cut sur-
face) ) as is shown in Fig. 6. 1 for the boundary zone
between a side cut and a side fill. The gradient is to
be made 1 :5.
(2) The transitional section is to be provided as
shown in Fig. 6.2 at the cut and fill boundary (eleva-
tion of the contact zone between cutting and embank-
ment).
The subgrade thickness and boundary zone
dimensions shown in Fig. 6.2 are just by way of exam-
ple (longitudinal sections).
iai No reinstatement of a cutting subgrade
(b) Reinstatement of a subgrade in cuts
...... 3oomm
(c) When it is uneconomical to adopt a long transitional
cross-section because the natural foundations are rock
Fig. 6.2 -Subsoil drainage and the cut and fill boundary zone
6.3 DRAINAGE OF SIDE CUTS, SIDE FILLS AND THE
CUTANDFlLLBOUNDARYZONE
Subsoil drains are to be provided as a rule at a cut
surface or the upper surface of a select fill in the case
of side cuts, side fills and a cut and fill boundary zone
(see Figs 6.1 and 6.2 ). The construction of the sub-
soil drnins should be dP.tP.rminert from ri consirtern-
tion of the spring water situation, topography and soil
type etc. (refer to Section 3, 'Drainage'). Moreover, it
is desirable to deal with the outflow end of a subsoil
drain by a downslope drainage channel, planning so
as to drain in short sections.
Notes
(1 ) Even when there is no spring water at the time of
excavation, careful attention is needed because
springs may appear in certain seasons or weather.
ARR No. 51 45

If a subsoil drain was not provided.because there
was no spring water at the time of excavation, the fill
moisture content will increase to the point of slope
collapse, so the embankment part will move down
and cause a discontinuity with the cut part.
Again where there is no spring water, subsoil
drains should still as a rule be provided, because
there are many instances where rainfall on the work-
ing surface has been the reason for washaway slides
at the boundary between a fill and the in-situ
soil/rock.
(2) When the foundations consist of permeable and
impermeable layers, it is necessary to investigate the
provision of subsoil drains as in Fig. 6.3 at the bottom
surface of the permeable layer. For example, adequ-
ate disposal of spring water should be effected
because if this disposal is insufficient, much greater
construc;tion costs will be needed for construGtion
countermeasures.
(3) When there is considerable spring water at the
toe of the embankment in a side cut and side fill sec-
tion, it is necessary to consider the provision of a
drainage layer as in Fig. 6.4 selecting the coarsest
possible material for use at the toe of the embank-
ment (For drainage layer materials, see Section 3,
'Drainage'.)
An average 300 mm thick layer of suitable
crushed gravel will serve as a drainage layer filler
material. but subsoil drains should be installed with a
width and depth of 500 mm. Also, it is desirable to use
perforated pipes when there is a considerable quan-
tity of spring water.
(4) When placing fill over inverts such as in Fig. 6.5,
drainage channels are to be provided at the surface
of the invert filling, but It is necessary to investigate
the provision of an adequate drainage layer to drain
the bottom part of the embankment.
(5) It is essential to make observations after rainfall,
especiaily observations of roadworks, because
spring water often emerges from in situ soil/ro"c::ik in-
itially during construction. Again, it is ne~essary to
consider this in the initial planning stages because of
(the need for) countermeasures. ·

impermeable
layer
subsoil drain

A A Section

Fig. 6.3 -Drainage for alternating permeable and impermeable Fig. 6.5 - Example of drainage at an invert section of
layers in the natural soil an embankment

phreatic line for no drainage layer

phreatic line with the drainage layer

..-r-""'*~~~~= .. drainage layer (the length of the drainage layer is determined on the amount
of spring water, but it must be more than 5m)

Fig. 6.4-0rainage layer example

 46 ARR No. 51

8. SLOPE PROTECTION Also, because there is a tendency for the

8.1 APPLICATION
Slope protection is generally classified into slope
surface protection by structures and slope surface
protection by vegetation.
Vegetation is aesthetic and effective in climbing
up slope surfaces. giving a cover growth which is in-
tended to prevent rainfall erosion. to ameliorate
ground surface temperatures. and to suppress frost
heave failures by binding the surface soil tightly with
its roots.
Slope protection by structures is generally to be
used only when protection by vegetation does not
maintain surface stability, and when reducing the
slope gradient is reckoned to be economically or
topographically undesirable, or when it is economi-
cal to increase the gradient using an appropriate
sandguard method.
Therefore, in selecting a slope surface protec-
tion method, where the vegetation itself is unsuited or
the slope surface stability cannot be ensured solely
by vegetation, an appropriate structural protection
work is to be undertaken, according to circums-
tances. However, because construction costs are
high compared to vegetation, the appropriate protec-
tion work must be chosen with all due consideration
for local conditions, such as soil properties, slope
stability, economics, good appearance and mainte-
nance management.
Where there is spring water it is necessary to
provide a filter layer, rubble drain, etc. at the slope
$urface so a$ to aischarge this spring water.
weathering rMP. tn 11Ar:line with the passing of some
months or vears. it is necessary to include at the
planning stage a careful consideration of the mainte-
nance management.
The standard types and principal purposes of
slope surface protection work are as set out in Table
8.1.
8.2 VEGETATION ESTABLISHMENT
8.2.1 Vegetation Establishment and the Construction
Season
(1) Though the working methods are different ac-
cording to construction season. and it is also
necessary to choose a method in accordance with
the purpose, seed spraying work should generally be
adopted, but when the construction time Is unsuitable
or the construction area is small, etc., seed spraying
work gives trouble. In such cases, vegetation plant-
ing is to be undertaken.
(2) The suitable and unsuitable seasons for con-
struction follow. Moreover, because the Tokyo dis-
trict is used as the standard when describing the
seasons, .it is necessary to modify the seasonal time
intervals at other places.
(a) It is possible to use any work method between
the last ten days of March and the last ten days of
June (daily average temperature 10-25"C) or the
last ten days of August to the last ten days of
September (15-25°C) because these times are
the most suitable for vegetation establishment.·
(b) Summertime construction in the last ten days of
July to the last ten days of August (over 25"C)
uughl lo be avoided, because it is easy to get

TABLE 8.1
SLOPE SURFACE PROTECTION WORKS AND THEIR PRINCIPAL
OBJECTIVES

Protection Work Principal Purpose

Vegetation establishment
Seed spraying method Protecting slope surfaces by
Vegetation mat method vegetation, and for use with
Sodding method afforestation and structural slope
Vegetation streak method protection work.
Parallel sodding method
Vegetation plate method
Vegetation bag method
Vegetation hole method

Basket weave fencing method Preventing weathering, erosion,

Concrete block lramework frost heave. etc. on slope
Mortar spraying method surfaces.
Concrete spraying method
Block lining method
Stone lining method

Slope surface protection by Cast-in-situ concrete framework A sandguard for individual places
otruoturoc Concrete lining rP.r.1;1iving little cnmpaction, to
Slope anchor work prevent slope failures.

Slope gab ion work A sandguard for individual places

Concrete block crib walling with abundant spring water, or
where differential settlements are
expected, or there is some fear of
outbursts.

Block surfacing A sandguard.

' Stone surfacing
ARR No. 51 47

dessication and high temperature damage.
However, when working under these conditions
it is desirable to employ construction methods
which make it difficult for dessication damage to
occur. Thus it is possible to use parallel sodding,
. the streak method, or vegetation mat work on an
embankment slope surface and the vegetation
bag method, hole method, or mat method can be
used on a cutting slope surface.
(c) Work should be avoided from the last ten days of
October to the last ten days of March ( < 15°C).
because it is easy to get dessication damage,
slope failures. etc. due to frost heave. However,
when working under these conditions, occa-
sionally vegetation mat work etc. can be used,
omitting seed.
(3) June to August is the appropriate construction
time for very cold regions, because the yearly tem-
perature is low, the growing season for slope surface
grass is short, and difficulties arise from snowdrifts in
wintertime.
Note
It is desirable to consider adding supplementary fer-
tilizer every springtime, when it is thought there will
be a lapse of more than one year between the com-
pletion of construction and the commencement of
performance.
8.2.2 Vegetation Establishment and Soil Properties
(1) When the slope soil properties are suitable for
vegetation establishment, seed is directly sown on

TABLE 8.2
SUMMARY OF METHODS FOR VEGETATION ESTABLISHMENT

Type Description Features Seedtime and standard

seeding rate
Average Seeding
day rate
temp. (perm 2}
Seed spraying Water is added to materials to be (1) Suitable for cut slopes (Spring) Kentuc:ky 31
method A blown such as seeds, fertiliser (2) Capable of spreading seeds 10-25·c fescue20g
and soil to make a relatively stiff- thickly on a germination bed. Weeping
consistency muddy mixture and (3) Allows works at high (Autumn) lovegrass0.5 g
this mixture is blown against the elevation and on steep slopes. 25-15"C White clover 0.5 g
slope lace by a blowing machine. (4) Suited for double-layer
blowing. (Seed blowing method (Summer) Kentucky31
C.) 25"Cand lescue20g
(5) Can be used with grooving higher Weeping
and additional soil. (Seed lovegrass 1 g
blowing method 0.) (Winter)
1s•cand Kentucky31
below fescue20g
Ryegrass8 g

Seed spraying Materials such as seeds, fertiliser
methodB and fibre are dispersed in water
and the mixture is sprayed over
the slope lace by a spraying
machine.
(1) Generally applicable for
embankments and cut slopes.
(2) High work efficiency.
(3) Suitable for low places and as above as above
gentle slopes.
(4) Canbeusedwithgrooving
and additional soil.

Mat method Entire slope lace is covered by a (1) As the slope is covered by
mat inseminated with seeds, the mat until vegetation is
fertiliser, etc. The mat may be a established work can be done in
non-woven mat, loose-texture either winter or summer seasons.
fabric·. paper, straw screen, straw
mat, cul straws, felt mat, or such.
A plastic mesh may be used
jointly for reinforcement.

Plate method Fertilised soil or peat is shaped (1) Has the same effect as (Spring) Kentucky31
into plates and seeds are set on additional soil. 10-2s·c fescue8g
the surfaces thereof, the plates (2) Capable of providing a
are placed together in strips in lasting fertiliser effect due fo the (Autumn) White clover 0.2 g
horiiontal grooves formed al abundant organic fertiliser. 2s-15·c
given intervals on the slope Kentucky31
surface. Standard groove interval (Summer) lescue3g
is 50 cm and number of plates 25°Cand Weeping
used is 8/m'. higher lovegrass 3.2 g

(Winter) Kentucky 31
1s•c and fescue 8g
lower Ryegrass 3.2 g
48 ARR No. 51

TABLE 8.2
SUMMARY OF METHODS FOR VEGETATION ESTABLISHMENT

type Description Features Seedtime and standard

seeding rate
Average Seeding
day rate
temp. · (perm 2)

Bag method Mixture of seeds and fertilised (1) Suffers little loss of seeds (Spring) Kentucky 31
soil is packed in net bags and and fertiliser. 10-2s·c fes~ue6g
these bags are placed in (2) Bags are easily attached the
hori:i:ontal grooves formed at ground because of their (Autumn) White clover 0.2 g
given intervals on the slope. Net flexibility. 25-15'C
bags may be polyethylene net (3) Can be used for seeding on a Kentucky31
bags or cheesec lolh. Vermiculite steep slope and in either winter {Summer) fescue6g
may be mixed in place of soil. or summer seasons. 2s•cand Weeping
Standard groove interval is 50 higher lovegrass 0.3 g
om and tho number of bage ucod
is 6/m". (Winter) Kenlucky31
15'Cand fescue6g
below Ryegrass 2.4 g

Hole method Holes are formed in the slope and . (1) Additional soil can be placed (Spring) Kentucky31
solid fertiliser is placed in the deep in the slope. 10-25'C fescue 3.0g
bottoms of the holes. then a (2) No loss olfertiliser occurs.
mixture of complex fertiliser, (3) Suitable for hard areas of cut (Autumn) White clover 0.1 g
additives and earth from another .slopes. 2s-1 s·c
place is charged into the holes Kentucky31
and seed papers are placed {Summer) fescue3.0g
thereon and covered up with soil 2s·c and Weeping
and germinated. Standard number higher lovegrass 0.2 g
of holes is 18 per 1 m 2•
(Winter) Kentucky31
15'Cand fescue 3.1 g
below Ryegrass 1.2 g

Streak method Strips of cloth or paper (1) Capable of establishing

impregnated with seeds and vegetation covering quicker than
fertiliser are placed in horizontal parallel sodding.
streaks during tamping of a fill (2) Suitable for an embankment
slope. Strip-forming material may slope.
be cloth, paper, straw or such.
Elongated bags containing
seeds, etc., may also be used.
Slam.lard i11lerval ur slrt1<1k::1Is30
cm.

Parallel sodding Long strips of tur1 are arranged (1 ) Used for embankment slopes.
horizontally along the slope lace (2) A netwo!l( structure of tur1
from the bottom of the slope by sods are held by lamping the soil
lamping the soil. and then soil is with a batter board to stabilise it.
Ii lied and tamped with a baller
board lo finish the slope face.
Standard streak interval is 30 cm.

Sodding Wider strips of tur1 are arranged
horizontally from a slope
shoulder and space filling soil is
applied by tamping so that the
turf attaches closely to the slope
face, and then the tur1 is fixed by
bamboo nails. Solid sodding and
strip sodding are known.
(1) Can be used generally for
embankment or cut slopes.
(2) As turf is laid at the same time
as the construction won.;, this
method can be used for easily
eroded terrain.

the slope surface, or alternatively sod fixing is per-
formed; on embankments unsuitable for vegetation
establishment, sod tamping with batter boards and
additional topsoil cover is performed; for cuttings.
topsoil is imported for vegetation establishment.
(2) In choosing vegetation establishment methods,
the specification standard chosen is to be the hard-
ness of the slope surface. Because the limiting value
of the soil hardness index for plant root penetration is
27 mm, it is desirable to use a method fostering the
growth of plant roots by bringing in topsoil when the
(local) hardness exceeds 27 mm. Suitable methods
for vegetation establishment on embankment slope
surfaces are to be chosen by reference to Table 8.3,
and for cutting slope surfaces to Table 8.4.
(3) In Hokkaido, the Tohoku district, mountain land
high above sea level, and such very cold places. it is
essential to choose <! good method for securing the
roots in localities where frost heave and snowdrifts
cause considerable slope surface failure. For em-
bankment slope surfaces, vegetation mat work and
for cutting slope surfaces vegetation hole work, bag
 ARR No. 51 49

TABLE 8.3
VEGETATION ESTABLISHMENT FOR EMBANKMENT SLOPE SURFACES

Slope Material Imported Topsoil Suitable Methods Remarks

Sand good grading As a rule, sod tamping with batter (1) for a mechanically finished o when undertaking vegetation
(SM.SC) boards not lo be used. slope surface work it is best to use a protective
- seed spraying method B membrane cover'. becau~ the
poor grading . Slope surface to be covered with moisture retention power is
(SW.SP) good quality material. (2) for a slope surface finished. weak.
by sod tamping with baiter
The standard thickness for sod boards o Because erosion by rain is
Volcanic ash, compaction on the slope is to be - seed spraying method A easy. provision of woven fences
volcanic sand, 50 ems vertical to the slope vegetation mat method and a filter layer should be
pumice surface. ve11etatio11 $oddina method investiaated.
(SM, SC. SW, SP, VH) parallel sodding method·
vegetation streak method

Sandy soil As a rule, sod tamping with batter o When the soil is unsuitable for
SM.SC boards not to be used plant growth (strongly acid,
strongly alkaline, or containing
deleterious substances. etc.), it
Loam is desirable to effect vegetation
ML.CL work by means of sod tamping
with batter boards.

Clay
MH,CH,VH

Gravel and Slope surface to be covered with o Vegetation establishment is

gravel-sand good quality material difficult if sod tamping is not
mixtures done.
(GW, GP, GM, GC) The standard thickness for sod
compaction on the slope is to be o The removal of subsoil water,
Riprap 50 ems vertical to the slope seepage water, etc. by providing
(GW, GP, GM, GC) surface. a filler layer etc. should be
investigated.

work, seed spraying method B or seed spraying
method A, with grooving and imported topsoil at the
same time are to be considered. For cutting slope
surfaces. net is used to ensure adhesion.
(4) For sod tamping on the slope, sandy soil mixed
with gravel or cohesive soil mixed with gravel are to
be used as far as possible.
Notes
(1) For vegetation establishment over the whole
surface there are seed spraying methOds A and B, the
vegetation mat method, the sodding method, etc.
which cover the whole slope surface from the outset.
(2) For partial vegetation establishment there are
the vegetation hole, bag, plate, and streak methods,
etc. in which seedlings are planted or sowing
effected in streaks, holes, or grooves on the slope
surface, followed by grass growth to cover the whole
surface.
(3) It is desirable to use seed spraying method A in
places where there are soils with bad quality
seepage waters, or slope surfaces with gradients
steeper than 1 :1, because for high slopes with spray
heights over 20 m the seed spray pressure will be in-
sufficient and also much available water predisposes
to slump flows; but seed spraying method B can be
used in all other circumstances, over a wide range,
because of its high efficiency.
(4) Two-layer seed spraying is not spraying twice
by seed spraying methods A or B, but spraying a 1O
. mm seeded soil layer on to a (prior)" subsoil layer.
Two-layer seed spraying is to be used where there is
a possibility of only partial vegetation (growth) due
to considerable unevenness in a soft rock surface or
considerable pitting, furrowing or fissuring degrada-
tion of the soft rock. ·
(5) It is desirable to maintain uniformity in the work
throughout the·same geological formation when there
are all kinds of soil properties mixed through the sur-
face. For example, uniformity is to be maintained as
shown in Fig. 8.1 for soil spraying method A.
(6) At spring water localities, it is necessary to in-
vestigate gabions, rubble drains, or a filter layer, etc.
(7) Vegetation establishment is impossible in
places shaded by bridge and roofing structures, etc.
because plants will not grow where the rainfall is in-
tercepted.
(8) When there is insufficient information at the
planning stage about slope surface soil properties, or
soil hardness, or the time of construction, it is desira-
ble to consider carefully whether to select several
methods able to cope with the foregoing conditions
or at the same time to use grooving and imported top-
soil.
• Translator's note: interpolated for clarity.
 50 ARR No. 51

TABLE 8.4
VEGETATION ESTABLISHMENT FOR CUTTINGS

Sui/ Pt uµ1;11 li1:11> Suitable Method:> Romarkc

Coarse sand, fine sand Topdressing with imported soil (15 ems) The whole surface must be quickly covered.
(SW.SP) Seed spraying method B because it is particularly susceptible to
Vegetation mat method erosion. In that case. the safest procedure is
Sodding method (mat fashion) vegetating the whole surface by bringing in
topsoil over all (and using a concrete block
framework, etc.).

Sandy loam. gravel or Soil hardness Seed spraying method B The whole surface, though suitable for
riprap mixed with sandy lessthan27 Vegetation mat method vegetation establishment, must be covered
loam mm Sodding method (mat fashion) at an early stage since it is comparatively
ISM.SC susceptible to erosion, and a denuded slope
GM.GC) surface must not be allowed.
~-"" ..... ~·-.:-''".,...'

Soil hardness Seed spraying method B

greater than (grooving and importing topsoil at the same Because root penetration is difficult in
27mm time) places where the hardness exceeds 27 mm,
Seed spraying method A it is appropriate to bring in topsoil to
(ditto) promote the root penetration for vegetation

. Vegetation Bag method

Vegetation Hole method
Vegetation Plate method
establishment.

loam. gravel or riprap .Soil hardness Seed spraying method B Attention must be paid to the construction
·mixed with loam, clay. less than 27 Seed spraying method A season, because of the susceptibility to
(ML, CL. MH, CH) mm Vegetation mat method frost heave.

Seed spraying method B Because root penetration is difficult in

Soil hardness (grooving and importing topsoil at the same places where the hardness exceeds 27 mm,
greater than time) it is appropriate to bring in topsoil to
27mm Seed spraying method A promote the root penetration for vegetation
(ditto) 11stab1ishment. .A!!enOon mw;t hP. paid to the
Vegetation Bag method construction season, because of the
Vegetation Hole method susceptibility to frost heave.
Vegetation Plate method

Soft rock Se!!d spraying method B For fine friable soft rocks, ditches are cut
(grooving and importing topsoil at the same and seed spraying method B (using grooving
time) and imported soil) or seed spraying method
Seed spraying method A A (using grooving and Imported &iii) or llu;
(ditto) vegetation bag method is used. Where holes
Vegetation Bag method can be punched, the vegetation hole method
Vegetation Hole method is to be used.

Note:
In Tables 8.3 and 8.4 the approximate group classification symbols for soil types and embankment material have been inserted.

Seed Spraying Seed Spraying

Method B - - -::-- Method A

Vegetation
Bag Method

Vegetation
Hole Method
...
(uoed vvi 111 grnoving
and additional soil)

Fig. 8.1 - Maintaining uniformity with a seed-spraying method

 ARR No. 51 · 51

8.2.3 Prime Slope Control Grasses for Vegetation
Establishment
(1) The principal slope control grasses for vegeta-
tion establishment are to be selected suitable for the
construction season, the job materials, etc. and
blended evergreens are principally to be sown.
(2) The choice of slope grasses, seed quantity and
blend proportions is summarised in Table 8.2, Work
Materials for Vegetation Establishment. Table 8.5,
Characteristics of Slope Grasses, should also be
referred to.
(3) A winter grass must be chosen as the principal
slope grass type in cold regions such as Hokkaido,
Tohoku, and high mountain land. Examples are Ken-
tucky 31 fescue, Orchard grass, Creeping Red
fescue, Redtop, etc. and Timothy can be used as
well.
(4) For special regions, weeping love grass is
suitable in places such as seashore sand dunes; reed
canary grass in places subject to flooding or ex-
tremely moist from spring water; and orchard grass in
places with a north* aspect and almost.no sunlight.
Translator's note: This refers to northern Hemisphere condi-
tions. For Australia, re;i(l 'sovth',

TABLE 8.5

CHARACTERISTICS OF SLOPE GRASSES

Type Characteristics Lifespan Suitable Sowing Season

Ground (daily average air temperature, °C)
(yearly
average Suitable Possible Unsuitable
air Time Time Time
temperature
·cJ
Weeping love A summer grass, top dies off in wintry Perennial Honshu, Spring Spring Spring
grass regions. Grass length I 00 ems slender Shikoku, 15-25° 10-15° <10°
and drooping. Rapid growth and strong Kyushu Summer Winter
regrowth, strong in arid conditions and (>10°) >25° <20°
hot weather but weak in shade and cold. Autumn
20-25°

Kentucky 31 A winter grass, evergreen, with very Perennial All Japan (southern Spring Spring Spring
fescue strong growth. Grass length 60-100 ems, parts of Honshu, 10-20· 20-25° >25°
broad and drooping. Very suitable in Shikoku and Kyushu Autumn Winter Autumn
cool shade but rather weak in arid excepted) 15-25° <5" 5-15°
conditions. (<16°)

Creeping Red A winter grass. evergreen, with a Perennial North of central As above As above As above
fescue creeping stalk. Grass length reaches Honshu
10-30 ems. Strong in cool and arid (<14')
conditions. Slow initial growth, but forms
a mat on the slope when fully grown.

Kentucky A winter grass, evergreen, grass length Perennial Hokkaido, Tohoku As above As above As above
Bluegrass 10-30 ems, spreading out by an (<12°)
underground stalk. This is the typical turf
grass of Hokkaido. Strong resistance to
cold, but weak in hot weather.

Orchard Grass A winter grass, evergreen, grass length Perennial North of central As above As above As above
reaches 20-120 ems. Good durability in Honshu
shade and will grow in barren soil also. (< 14°)
Weak in arid conditions.

Red top A winter grass, evergreen, grass length Perennial North of central As above · Asabove As above
20-100 ems. Spreads strongly, with Honshu
strung underground stalks which give a ( <: 14°)
very strong cover. Fond of cold, wet
conditions. May be used for temporary
affurtlslallun.

Ryegrass A winter grass, with extremely rapid Short Life North of central As above As above As above
growth, but particularly weak to heat and Henshu
aridity. Grass length 60-100 ems. (<14°)
Italian 1-2 years life
Perennial 2-3 years life

Timothy A winter grass, strong resistance to cold, Perennial Hokkaido As above As above As above
. and water.loving, but weak in hot Tohoku
weather. Grass length reaches nearly 50 (<12°)
ems.
 52 ARR No. 51

TABLE 8.5 (Cont.)

CHARACTERISTICS OF SLOPE GRASSES
Type Characteristics Lifespan Suitable Sowing Season
Ground (daily average alf temperature. "CJ
(yearly
average
air Suitable Possible Unsuitable
temperature Time Time Time
'CJ

Reed Canary A winter grass. which grows wild in Perennial All Japan As above As above As above
Grass Japan. Grass length reaches nearly 1oo (>10')
ems, and is re'sistant to hot and cold
weather. Suitable lor wetlands and land
subject to llooding.

Hybrid Bermuda A summer grass, whose top dies ofl. Perennial Western Kanto. Spring Spring Spring
Crt13:! Hybrid Bcrmudn gr!l33 grow3 well when Western Japan, eummcr 16-20' Autumn
the average air temper<1t1.1re is <ibove Kyushu 20-30' Summer Winter'
26'C. Ito oharaotcriotico rcocmble ( ::-14°) ::-30' < 1 fi 0

Koraishiba•, being resistant to aridity, Autumn

with excellent spreading power, but 15-20•
weak in shade. Established from cut sods
or by inserting runners. ·

While Clover A winter grass. evergreen, grass length Perennial All Japan Spring Spring Spring
10-20 ems, developing from creeping (< 16') 10-20° 20-25' >25'
stalks and long straight roots. White Autumn Winter Autumn
· color flower. A member of the pulse 15-25' <5' 5-15'
lamily.

A summer grass, whose top dies off in Perennial Honshu Spring Spring Spring
Noshiba t ('field winter. To be used for fibrous turf work, Shikoku 15-25' 10-15' < 10·
turf') turf covers. Resistant to aridity but weak Kyushu Autumn Summer
in shade. Used for cut lawns. (>8') 15-25' >25'
Winter
< 15'
Koraishiba' A summer grass. whose top dies off in Perennial Honshu, As above As above As above
winter. The blade is more slender than Shikoku,
noshiba. Is used for cut lawns in places Kyushu
where serious consideration is to be (e)(cept northern
given to the most attractive appearance. Tohoku)
( >12')

A native Japanese grass

A native Korean grass

Notes 8.3 STONE FACING, BLOCK FACING AND

CONCRETE LINING
(1) For a summer grass. weeping love grass is the
typical slope grass, but it has faults because the top 8.3.1 Stone Facing and Block Facing
dies off in winter and it becomes difficult to maintain a It is necessary to use stone facing and block facing
good appearance, and there is also a fire danger. If for slope gradients steeper than 1 :1, to prevent
possible. better not used except for summer season weathering and erosion of the slope as well as to
performance. resist adequately the earth pressure on the retaining
(2) Since Kentucky 31 fescue is a typical slope wall constructed.
grass, it can be used widely either blended or by it- (1) Slope gradient and slab depth
self.
Slope gradients and slab depths in Table 8.6 are to
(3) Because the germination and early growth of be regarded as standard.
ryegrass is extremely rapid, it is suitable for tempera
ry slope protection in winter. However, since Italian (2) Coarse Gravel* Backfill
ryegrass is an annual, it must be blended with peren- (i) Table 8. 7 is to be taken as the standard for thin-
nial grass or else a repeat construction must be made ning the upper and thickening the lower parts of
the next Summer with a perennial grass. In cold embankments.
regions perennial ryegrass (four to five years life)
(ii) The thickness of both upper and lower parts is to
may be used.
be 300-400 mm in cuttings.
(4) For white clover, there is fear that in the vicinity
of land cultivation damage to food plants due to •Translators note: the te)(t reads 'pebble backfill' : a size about
harmful insects will occur. 20-30 mm diameter is meant.
 ARR No. 51 53

TABLE 8.6
VERTICAL HEIGHT, GRADIENT AND SLAB DEPTH

Vertical height (m) 0-1.5 1.5-3.0 3.0-5.0 5.0-7.0

embankments 1:0.3 1 :0.4 1:0.5
gradient
cuttings 1 :0.3 1 :0.3 1 :0.4 1:0.5
drystone
wall 35 35-45
slab mortared
depth wall (body 25 35-45 45
(CMS) 1111 on1y)
mortared
wall (body (25-35) + 10 (35-45) + 15 (35-45) + 20
fill and 25 + 5• = 30
35-45 = 50-60 55-65
support fill)

• thickness of the con.crete support fill.

TABLE8.7
THICKNESS OF COARSE GRAVEL BACKFILL

vertical height (m) 0-1.5 1.5-3.0 3.0-5.0

upper part 20-40 20-40 20-40

thickness (ems)
lower part 30-60 . 45-75 60-100

TABLE 8.8
STANDARD CROSS-SECTIONS FOR STONE FACING (CUT* STONE) AND BLOCK FACING
ON EMBANKMENTS -

vertical slope embankment drystone retention coarse gravel · concrete

height gradient material or depth backfill (ems) backfill
(m) mortared . (ems)
type upper lower t
part part

yuuu drystone ::lb <!U 33

0.-.1.5 1:0.3 ordinary ,, 35 30 45
bed ,, 35 40 57

good
,, 35 20 46
1.5'--<3.0 1:0.4 ordinary mor\ared 35 30 60
bad .. 35 40 74 10

good ,, 35 20 63 15
3.o-5.0 1:0.5 ordinary ,, 35 30 .80 15
bad ,, 45 40 97 15

t lower portion thickness of coarse gravel back lilt when the vertical heights are 1.5. 3.0 and 5.0 m.
• Translator's note: this is not dressed, but rough cut
 54 ARR No. 51

(3) Standard cross sections Notes

Table 8.8 is to be regarded as standard tor cross-
sections of stone facing and block facing on embank-
ments.
Notes
Stone facing has been used since antiquity as a slope
protection and sandguard, but recently this is chang-
ing and block facing is being used for embankments.
Stone facing and block facing is the name used
for gradients steeper than 10 per cent; whereas
gentler ones are called stone lining and block lining.
As regards stone materials, these are to be
restricted to boulders and cur stone in three sizes,
250 mm (for boulders only), and 350 and 450 mm, ac-
cording to local conditions.
The limiting height for embankments is to be 7 m,
or 5 m for a mortared wall (body fill only), or 3 m for a
drystone wall. Water removal is to be achieved with
one hole per 2 m2.
When providing concrete footings, the standard
cross sectional dimensions are to be taken from Fig.
8.2.
As well as slope prole1.:lio11, slo11e li11i119 a11d IJlot:k
lining is also to be used for the restoration of small-
scale slope failures, the facades to bridge abutments,
the reinstatement slopes to bridges and overpasses
and when economising on land resumption by
steeper slope gradients.
When boulders and cut stone are used for stone
facings, their size is to be restricted to 350 mm (250
mm for boulders).
Concrete retaining blocks are generally to be
the 350 mm type, but Table 8.9 gives the required
standards for special places according to gradient.
When there is spring water or seepage water.
unscreened gravel or pebble backfilling is to be pro-
vided. In such a case, the thickness of the backfilling
io to be 200 mm. Drystone facing is suitoblc for spring
water localities, but because there is a danger of out-
bursts when the slope is high, a limit of 3 m is
prescribed for the vertical height. Where there is
spring water on high slopes, drystone facing can be
used only at the spring site itself.
The standard for weepholes is one per 2 m2"
Slabs are used. for low heights and gentle gra-
dients at bridge abutments and beneath overpasses.

""Concrete Body1lll

Concrete Backing
:r f'.r,l-fli:tMf.,,._ _____ Coarse Gravel
Backfill

H : Vertical Height Fig. 8.3 Stone lining cross-section

A : Retention Depth
B : Concrete Backfill thickness 8.3.3 Concrete Lining
u. C : Upper width of coarse gravel Concrete lining is to used as the method of control for
D : lower width uf coarse gravel many baserocks and loose steeply dipping layers
when there is any fear of failure.
K K It is desirable to use anchors or an anti-slip sup-
port of iron bars and wire netting on high slopes or
Fig. 8.2-Stone facing cross-section
steep gradients.
8.3.2 Stone Lining and Block Lining Generaily, ferro-concrete is to be used for lining
gradients of 1 :0.5 and unreinforced concrete for gra-
Stone and block lining is· to be used for slopes of dients of 1 :1.
easily eroded clays, non-cohesive sandy soil, and
red eartht, for gentle slopes not exceeding 1 :1, prin- Notes
cipally to prevent weathering and erosion of the
The failure of slopes due to weathering is to be pre-
slope. vented by restricting the seepage of ground surface
water into the baserock by the use of mortared fac-
(1) Slope gradient and depth of retaining slabs ings and suchlike. Thus it is necessary to prevent the
infiltration of rainwater by adequately cutting into the
The standard values in Table 8.9 are to be used for baserock at the top edge, as well as ensuring a com-
stone and block lining retaining slab depths, accord- plete disposal by means of drains and weepholes
ing to slope gradient. wherever spring water is seen or anticipated in
future, so as not to make the lining a source of
Translator's note : this is not dressed, but rough cut. weathering.

t Translator's note: 'DOTAN' - This is a very hard but fine- Weepholes are generally to be provided at a rate
grained soil associated with tertiary mudstones. of one to two holes per 2 m2.
 ARR No. 51 55

TABLE 8.9
SLOPE GRADIENT AND RETAINING SLAB DEPTH
Places General Slope Protection of special places
(reinstatement slopes for bridges
and overpasses. face slopes
to bridge abutments. etc.
Slope Stone Block Stone Block
Gradient Lining Lining Lining Lining
1.......1.2 35.25· 35 35 35
1.2....,,.5 35,25 35 25
1.5--11.8 14-18
1.8..... <14

Note: suitable for slopes of less than 7 m vertical height

• stone lining slabs of 25 cm, boulders only, may be used for heights less than 3 m.

At least 200 mm thickness is necessary fpr Notes

unreinforced concrete linings. Moreover, construc-
tion joints are to be vertical to the slope.
The standard for antislip anchors is to be one
anchor per 1-2 m2 , driven in 1.5 to 2 times the thick-
ness of the concrete.
Fig. 8.4(a) -An example of concrete lining
Generally the frames are precast, and it is desirable
to set anti-slip stakes or iron bars at the intersection
points of the frame~.
Inside the framework it is desirable to effect pro-
tection by vegetation after infilling with good soil; but
when good soil is unprocurable. or when there is a
fair quantity of spring water, or the slope gradient is
steeper than 1 :1.2, etc. and there is a likelihood the
vegetation will be dislodged, this is prevented by
setting in pebbles, either mortared or drystone
fashion. In such cases it is undesirable to stabilise
with stones of small size or weathered rock.
When serious consideration must be given to a
good appearance, it is also possible sometimes to
tamp seeded loam into the apertures of the stone lin-
ing, sometimes to use seed spraying, or to plant
shrubs if the vegetation bag method fails.
It is necessary to provide a gutter for slopes with
over-abundant spring water.
There being all sorts of cross-sections for con-
crete block frameworks, they are chosen with due
consideration for economy and quality only.
vegetated after reinstatement wid~ 9001.l quuli t v >vii
concrete block

Srnne surfacing Md plan' growth combined

Fig. 8.5(a) -An example of concrete block framework

Fig. 8.4(b)-Contact joints in a concrete lining

8.4 CONCRETE FRAMEWORK

8.4.1 Concrete Block Frameworks
These are to be used for localities unsuitable to plant
growth, on embankments steeper than the standard
. gradient or highest slope, and cuttings with spring
water, according to circumstances; or when there is
· fear of surficial failures even when vegetated. II may
be used for slopes with gradients less than 1 :0.8
also. Fig. 8.S(b) -An.example of concrete block framework
 56 ARR No. 51

According to circumstances, anti-slip stakes or

anchors are placed at the intersection points of the
framework.
There are (special)• methods for installation at
the top of the slope and methods for setting the
frames into the slope.
A concrete base is necessary when the place-
ment is over weak foundations.
Fig. 8.5(c)-An example of concrete block framework
8.5 MORTAR AND CONCRETE SPRAY WORK

8.4.2 Cast-in-situ Concrete Frameworks
These are to be used in places where it is feared that
concrete block frameworks might collapse, or where
some doubt exists about long-term slope stability, for
high slopes with spring water and weathered rock.
Notes
Protection is effected by adequate spring water
management and a cast-in-situ reinforced concrete
frame; within which vegetation, concrete lining, block
lining, mortared stone lining or. smooth stone slab*
lining is used according to circumstances. When
there are many fissures in the baserock and it is
feared that seepage water will facilitate weathering
and be a cause of failure, grouting with cement gr9ut
or mortar spraying can be used. · interpolated for clarity
Translator's note . text reads 'stone pedestal of a Buddha'.
These are to be used in localities unsuitable for
vegetation, where there is no spring water on the
slope and no danger of imminent collapse but an
easily weathered rock, or a rock liable to sloughing,
or boulderst mixed in soil and sand, or dotantt (red
earth), etc.
Mortar spraying is to be used for oomparativcly
thin work and concrete spraying for. comparatively
thick work.
Notes
The work can be done easily regardless of slope gra-:-
dients or the shape of the slope surface. · · · ·
Translator's notes:
We would say 'large floaters'
tt see footnote earlier

conorete blocl1

!:"L'"I
J...I: I I
TITI II
...L
TTfrTI.T fT
I I.L}ILI
7
Reinforcement
'--+-+-densely packed
4700 coarse gravel
500 500

Fig. 8.6-An example of cast-in-situ concrete framework

 ARR No. 51 57

--
Generally the standard spray thickness is to be Bamboo or Brushwood
50-100 mm for mortar spray work and 100-200 mm
for concrete spray work.
Pine
The spray thickness is chosen after careful con- logs\
sideration of the slope condition and the weather
conditions, but generally it is necessary to allow an Bamboo or
extra 100 m.m in cold districts and regions with /,.Brushwood
stormy weather conditions.
Before spraying, the slope surface is completely
cleaned of weathered layers and loose stone by Fig. 8.8(a) -An example of basket weave work
compressed air and held back by wire netting at-
tached to the slope surface with anchors.
The anchors are necessary both to check tile re-
quired thickness and to fix the mortar and concrete to
the slope surface. They are to be one to two per m2 ,
varying according to the shape of the slope surface,
as a standard.
Where there is any spring water or fear of spring /
water on the surface to be sprayed, it is necessary
not to obstruct weepholes providing adequate
Fig. 8.8(b) -When installed in Fig. 8.8(c) -When installed in
drainage disposal, as the spray residues will become
embankments ·cuttings
a source of subsequent failure.
Furthermore, it is necessary to set stakes so as 8.6.2 Slope Anchoring
to prevent slumping when the slope gradient is steep At a slope surface in hard or soft rock, when there is
and the spray is thickly applied. any fear of collapse or sloughing• due to the pre-
sence of joints in the baserock, or when there is any
fear of falling stones from a loose steeply-inclinedt
layer, localised anchoring is frequently used,
together with a concrete framework or concrete sur-
facing.

Notes
There are instances of slope surface anchor work
where concrete surfacing and retaining walls, or con-
crete frameworks have to be at the same time tightly
bound to (sound)tt baserock with PC rolled steel; or
where individual falling stone (blocks)tt have to be
tightly bound with rock bolts.
Fig. 8. 7 -An example of mortar spray work

When anchoring to baserock with PC rolled

steel, a hole is first bored horizontally into sound
baserock, PC rolled steel then inserted and grouted
8.6 MISCELLANEOUS SLOPE WORKS
into the hole within the anchoring zone only. After the
8.6.1 Basketweave Fencing grout has adequately set and bonded the retaining
length, and putting the PC rolled steel into tension,
Basketweave fences are to be used whenever there
the remaining portion is grouted.
is fear of earth and sand discharge from the slope
surface between the introduction of vegetation and After preboring to sound baserock with a rock
the time required for the slope surface to stabilise. drill a rockbolt's tip is secured, the bolt tensioned,
then mortar is stuffed in.
Notes
When stabilising a slope surface by vegetation, suffi- PC steel rod q, 27 mm
cient plant growth should be ·achieved according to
conditions of the soil, slope gradient, weather and
season, etc. before the slope surface is washed away
by rain. Basketweave fencing is established as a
sand barrier, woven in brushwood or bamboo, etc.
between wooden stakes driven into the slope sur-
face, as shown generally in Fig 8.8, as a protection for
the slope surface until such time as the vegetation Fig. 8.9(a) -A rock bolt
has made adequate growth. When establishing
basketweave fencing on a slope surface, the fence is 'Intermittent falls' could also be acceptable here.
generally to be set in step cuts followed by adequate
roller compaction to the stipulated cross-section. t The conical deposits of volcanic scoria, when cut, are
Furthermore, in such cases the weaving is to be specifically meant here.
buried below ground level (see Fig. 8.8b ). tt Interpolated by translator.
58 ARR No. 51

8.6.3 Slope Gabions

ThP.sP. i'UP. to he used where there is fear of slouQhim:i

from slope surfaces subject to frost heave, or when
restoring places wnere a previous failure has occur-
red, or whi:;>n thF.!H~ is fP.Ar nf P.Arth and sand flows due
rods to spring water in the slope surface.
Fig. 8.9(b) -An example of slope otnchor work
Notes
Gabions are widely used, generally for lining water-
courses, bridge abutments, scour prevention at
bridge piers, etc., but they are also used effectively
for the protection of slope surfaces on high embank-
ments prone to settlement and places with con-
siderable spring water.

81ope surface gabions can also be used even tor

slope surface work in cold ground, since lhey do nut
collapse even when there is frost heave, because of
their flexibility. Construction costs are relatively
cheap if in situ materials can be used and boulders
obtained near at hand.

A reno mattress may be used when some weight

is needed for surface stability.

The gabion netting used is generally wire net-

ting, but recently synthetic fibre netting has also
Fig. 8.9(c) -An example of slope anchor work become available.

Fig. 8.10(a)-Example of a gabion Fig. 8.10(b)-Example of a mattress

For reference, examplet of gabion shapes and sizes are shown as follows:.

(1) ordinary gab ion (3) freeform gabion

D =450, 600, 900 mm 0 = 450,600, 900 mm

L=3-Bm H = 300, 400, 600 mm
L=3-8m

(2) mattrets (4) flattened gabion

H =400, 500, 600 mm 0 1 = 450, 600, 900 mm

W = 1200, 1800, 2000 mm 0 1 = 300, 450, 600 mm
D=2-4m L = 3-Bm

(5) semicircular gabion

H = 450, 600 mm
l--L-1
W=1m L=3-6m
w
-w-
 ARR No. 51 59

TABLE 8.10
STEEL WIRE DIAMETER AND MESH (Gabions)

longitudinal 3.2 4.0 5.0

wires mesh
Steel wire 10 13 15
{ems)
diameter {mm) circumferential
wires 4.0 5.0 6.0

Carriageway

steel rod <P 19mm

concrete block

Fig. 8.11 -An example of concrete block crib walling

8.6.4 Concrete Block Crib-Walling
This is to used when installing sandguards at places
where there is an unstable slope surface resulting
from excessive spring water, and also where there is
a risk of unequal settlements due to a weak founda-
tion soil.
Notes
Both the long strips and the short ends are generally
to be made of precast concrete, dovetailed into
hollow crib form. Each part is joined to the other with
a transfixed steel spike, set in with cement paste.
The centre of the hollow crib is filled in with com-
pacted rip-rap, coarse gravel, rubble, etc. Like the
mattress gabions, these are very good for dealing
with seepage water; also as they are very flexible
they can be called, so to say, a flexible gravity retain-
ing wall..
Their distinctive features are their flexibility,
ease of maintenance for the framework, simplicity of
construction, and ability to minimise bearing capacity
requirements for the foundations, etc.
60 AAA No. 51

11. COUNTERMEASURE available cheaply, it also can be used provided

CONSTRUCTION
11.5 COUNTERMEASURC: CONSTRUCTION
METHODS (DEEP SOIL. STABILISATION)
There are many countermeasure construction
methods for soft ground and these methods can be
classified into methods principally to prevent founda-
tion failures, methods principally used to counteract
settlement, and methods which combine both the
foregoing. The effect of each of these methods is
different, so it is necessary to plan a suitable and
economical method according to the condition of the
site, and understanding the purpose of the method, or
to attempt to increase the effectiveness by using a
combination method.
(1) Sand blanket method.
This is an artificially laid sand layer, on the embank-
ment foundation, having a thickness of 0.3 to ·1 .0 m,
rubble drains or s1.1ch ~rP. insta11P.c1. HnwP.vP.r, in
places where san(:I piles Cire to be driven, the
sand grading must be such as will not interfere
with driving the piles.
Care must be taken i"10l Lu i11lt:1 [t:rt: with the
drainage effect by mixing mud or clay into the
sand during placement of the blanket or subse-
quent banking work.
(b) Rubble drains.
Rubble drains using gravel, broken stone or per-
forated pipe should be installed to enhance the
drainage effect when a fine sand such as moun-
tain sand must be used, or when effective
drainage by the sand blanket cannot be ex-
pected because of an abundance of ground
water.
.... -1
0.5·1.0m
Rubble
Drains
Rubble Drain E

il\~'\lt~!~~-~:~.;
which is placed on a soft top soil with a high ground
water table; such as a rice field or swamp area where
there is no problem of subsidence or sliding, or
where sand piles are to be installed.
The effect is to drain excess water from the sand
(Section)
piles as well as the embankment itself, to shut off (Plan)
ground water from rising into the embankment, arid to Fig. 11.38 -Rubble drains in a sand blanket
act as a bearing layer permitting heavy machinery
operations. TABLE 11.9
(a) Materials and construction for the sand blanket EXAMPLES OF RUBBLE DRAIN
method: INSTALLATION
Materials for this method must be either coarse Project Kind and Cross Section Spacing of the
sand or gravelly sand having a good permeability of Rubble Drain Rubble Drains
(a coefficient of permeability greater than 1 o-3
Aiko SO cm xSOcm, 75 cm x 100cm 30mx30m
is desirable). If a fine-grained sand such as moun-
tain sand (permeability 10-3 to 10-s cm/sec) is Yaizu 60 cm x 60 cm (perforated pipe, 20
cmdia.) 30mx30m
Fukuroi 60cm x 60cm 10mx20m

TABLE 11.8
KINDS AND CLASSIFICATION OF COUNTERMEASURE
CONSTRUCTION METHODS FOR SOFT GROUND
Methods for preventing Foundation Failures Counterweight Fill Method
Replacement Method (Partial Replacement)
Banking Rate Control Method
Sand Compaction Pile Method

Methods Used to Counteract Settlement Pre-Loading Method .

Sand Drain Method
Cardboard Drain Method

Methods for Preventing Foundation Failures, Replacement Method (Complete Replacement)

and to Decrease Settlement Sand Compaction Pile Method
The Method of decreasing the load imposed on the
Embankment by installing Structures

Methods to Compact a Loose Sandy Layer Vibrollotation Method

Well Point Method
8hock Compaction Method, by Detonation, etc.

Other Special Methods Vacuum Method (Atmospheric Pressure Method)

Thermal Treatment Method
Electro Chemical Method
Geotechnical Fabrics. Synthetic Mesh, and Wire-mesh
Laying Methods

Note:
The Sand Blanket Method should always be used for soft ground, as a drainage layer, and to ensure
tralficability for construction machinery.
ARR No. 51
(2) Removal and Replacement Methods
(a) Kinds of Removal and Replacement Methods.
(i) Full Depth Removal Method (Fig 11.39a).
This method is to remove entirely all soft
layers under the base of the embankment.
This method should be performed when the
soft layer is thin, or when it appears that
deflection will be a problem under the future
traffic, especially in the case of a low em-
bankment. The limiting depth for economical
removal of soft soils is usually less than 2 m
below the ground level, although this will
vary according to soil properties and thick-
ness of the soft layer, depth of the gro1..1nd
water table and capacity of the excavators
to be used.
(ii) Partial Full Depth Removal Method (Fig
11.39b ). Removing the full depth at the toe of
slope and replacing it by good quality
material is used where there is risk of a slid-
irig failure but no problems arising from con-
solidation settlement.
(iii) Upper Portion Removal Method (Fig.
11.39c ). Only the upper portion of the soft
layer is replaced by good quality material,
where a thin layer is desired so as to reduce
the time of consolidation and the amount of
settlement whenever there are relatively
thick soft layers.
(iv) Upper Portion Partial Removal Method.
Where there is a risk of a sliding failure, and
thick soft layers are present, the upper por-
tion only is to be replaced by good material.
In this case, however, it is necessary to
verify the safety of the part below the
replaced zone, assuming a larger sliding
surface.
Embankment
soft Replaced
layer Portion
(a) Complete Removal
I
Embankment
I
I soft layers and the position of the possible sliding
Replaced portion
(b) Replacement at the toe
Embankment
soft layer
(cl Upper Portion Replacement
Fig. 11 .39 - Removal and replacement methods
61
. (b) Execution of the Removal and Replacement
Methods
(i) Excavation and Removal. The trafficking of
soft ground by heavy construction equip-
ment such as bulldozers is often impossible.
Therefore, an excavating machine such as a
dragline, slackline or a dragscraper, or
dredging equipment such as a suspension-
dredger is effective. The slope of the ex-
cavation must be chosen relatively low
because a steep excavation slope cannot be
maintained when excavating soft layers. A
good material with good drainage properties
should be selected as the replacement
material.
(ii) Removal Method Using the Self Weight of the
Embankment (load-induced Replacement
Method). This method displaces the soft
layers by the self weight of tt:ie embankment.
Additional fill is added to the top of the em-
bankment and a 2-3 m deep excavation
made at the toe of embankment to promote
the displacement; jetting water into the soft
layers at the same place can be considered.
This method could not be applied in a thickly
settled area or an agricultural area.
(iii) Explosive or Detonation Removal Method.
The explosive method is used to remove soft
layers completely or to displace them side-
ways but only where there is no danger for
settled or agricultural areas.
Reference 1 A praetical example of the
partial full depth removal method in the con-
struction of Tomei Express Highway at
Fukuroi.
Reference 2 A practical example of the up-
per portion removal method in the construe~
tion of Tomei Express Highway at Ohi.
(3) The Counterweight Banking Method
(a) Application: A counterweight embankment as
shown in Fig 11.40a is installed to act as a counter-
balance (to increase the resisting moment to sliding
failure) on a foundation thought liable to sliding
failure, when the strength of the soft layers is insuffi-
cient to resist sliding even allowing for an increase of
strength after consolidation.
The required cross-section of a counterweight
embankment is determined by the thickness of the
surface. The calculation of stability when planning a
counterweight embankment should be performed by
the following procedures in which it acts as a coun-
terbalance at the side of an ordinary embankment the
sectional area of which is considered 4nsafe against
sliding. · ·
A counterweight embankment must be placed
without delay during placement of the main body of
the embankment. This method must be adopted
where there is room, or where the counterweight em-
bankment can be utilised as a side road, only after
considering the costs for land purchase and con-
struction.
(b) Determination of the Required Cross Sec-
tion of a Counterweight Embankment. The required
cross section of a counterweight embankment is to
be determined as follows.
62 ARR No. 51

(i) Assumed conditions when considering a

counterweight embankment: When the safety factor 0
(refer to para. 11 .3.3(2)b,) • considering the increase
of strength after consolidation, falls below 1.25. the
counterweight embankment is to be considered thus:
F
52
= l:(c. l + m. I (p0 + U.l:ip - pc)+ W.cosiltan¢u)

:E(W.sinil)

< 1.25 (11.44)

{3

where
The numerical value of the
numerator in eqn. (11.44), and Fig. 11.40(a) -Counterweight embankment

The numerical value of the

denominator in eqn. (11 .44). (v) If the shoulder of a counterweight embank-
rin:inl prulruues uulsiue the slip circle as shown by
(ii) Determination of the weight of a counter- the dotted line in Fig. 11.40b, the height of the
weight embankment: counter-weight embankment must be increased
above the critical height He.
1.25 {3 Q B
W'sin/J' = (11.451
1.25

where
w· The total weight of the counter-
weight embankment, and
II' The angle of intersection bet-
ween the perpendicular through
the centre of gravity of the coun-
terweight embankment and the
w'
vertical line from the centre of
sliding on the slip circle (refer to
Fig. 11 .40(b) -Breadth of counterweight embankment
Fig. 11.40a ).

(iii) Determination of the height (H) of a coun-
terweight embankment.
The height of a counterweight embankment can be
considered as the possible critical height of the
momentary embankment from eqn (11 .46):
1T.C
H = Hc
(vi) In the above situation, a second stage
counter-weight embankment must be designed, mak-
ing a stability analysis of the first stage embankment,
because its stability becomes questionable in such a
case.
(11.46)

where
c Initial strength of the foundation
soil, and ·
Yi Unit volume weight of the bank-
ing material.
Fig. 11.40 (c) -A second stage counterweight embankment
(iv) Determination of the breadth of a counter-
weight embankment (B,): (4) Pre-Loading Method
(a) Surcharge Method (Additional Banking Method).
(i) This method is used to force a larger settle-
-a ment than expected from the planned embankment
1.25 load by adding additional height. The purpose is to
1.25{3-Q
accelerate settlement, or to decrease the residual
. Bx = (11.47) settle.ment a~er completion of the pavement, and the
pavement is constructed following removal of the ad-
ditional banking after completion of the additional re-
B, is determined by increasing its numerical value quired settlement. When undertaking banking and
from 0 to larger values in regular increments (sin/I' paving on soft ground some small settlements, such
becomes larger in proportion) until eqn (11.47) is as 20 to 30 mm a year, will continue. The accumul-
satisfied. ated differential settlement sometimes reaches 200
or 300 mm between the embankment and structures
:i:(cl + Wcos8 tan
• F = is referred to ......... Translator
supported by pile foundations. Additional banking
E Wsin8 higher than the planned height of the embankment
ARR No. 51 63

causes the rate of settlement to accelerate visibly f; / / Add•1ional Banking

,·:'- f',,'
above the settlement curve for the design load. '\:' /'' Planned Height PH
Therefore. the surcharge method can be used for ac- :...•- - - - - - - - - - !
,.~··,,.
PHE
celerated settlement where there is no problem of
slope stability. When the upper part of an alluvial H(m ort/m 2 1
True Embankment
layer is in direct contact with clay layers the sand
pile method is easily performed. However, this
method is generally uneconomical or difficult to per-
form when there is sandy gravel or many thin sandy Loading SCn = SHH Unloading SH
seams in the upper profile clay layers, either because Ratio ,, Coefficient -H +SH-

the driven length of the sand piles etc. required is

greater, or driving through such layers is too difficult. Fig. 11.41 -Additional height of banking
In such cases. the surcharge method is more
economical than sand piles, for this method consists
of adding Only an additional preload to the surface of (1) The final settlement (S 1 ) and the residual settle-
the soil. ment after paving are first obtained from the S-t
(ii) The height of additional fill (surcharge, curve (the dashed line in Fig 11.42 ). performing a
SH(m) ). The so-called surcharge means an addi- settlement calculation for the load of the planned
tional embankment load placed on the upper part of embankment height (refer to Section 11 .4.5, 'The
the planned height (PH) of an embankment, and SH is Estimation of Settlement (Detailed)').
expressed in (m) or (tlm 2 ). The ratio of the height (2) The residual settlement (for the planned height)
H(m) and the surcharge SH(m) greatly influences the after unloading is obtained (the solid line in Fig
effectiveness of the method. The loading ratio SC 9 is 11.42) from the S-t curve, assuming two or three
expressed as follows, according to actual results heights of surcharge.
from the Meishin and Tomei Expressways (3) The optimum height of surcharge is to be
designed so that a residual settlement of 100 mm
SH(2 "-' 7 m)
sc9 = = o.4 "" o.a , remains. As shown in Fig. 11.42, this means that
H(5 "-' 9 m) the difference between the final settlement (S1 )
for the planned height of the embankment (H) and
SH the settlement just before unloading the
0.3 '\, 0.45
H +SH surcharge is to remain 100 mm.
(4) The sum total of the residual settlement of each
Naturally, the surcharge changes according to thick- layer must be a value less than the permissible
ness of the soft layers and the soil characteristics. residual settlement, calculating the settlement
Actual observations whilst banking, including addi- for each soft layer. (It should be noted that the
tional banking (surcharge). is in progress are to be residual settlement of other layers is not to be
carefully taken, especially where complicated alter- decreased even if the residual settlement of a
nating layers, layers having different settlement layer exceeds its final settlement (S 1 .) .
characteristics or thick clay layers exist; using in situ
settlement gauges, especially screw type plate
gauges.
Paving Planned
The time for removal of a surcharge, estimation of Embankment
Height (ml Height H(ml
the final settlement or the superelevation required
are to be investigated, having reference to data from
actual observations (refer to Section 11 .4.6, 'The
Estimation of Settlement' (When obtained from Actual
Observation Values) ). Setdement
(cmsl
Banking of sections to be constructed by the
surcharge method needs to be started as early as
H <SO
possible, so that the loading time (4 to 6 months or
more) can be achieved, and also to enable the ready Fig. 11 .42 -Surcharge method settlement curve
transfer of surplus embankment material as well as
the allocation of a sufficient quantity of soil. Materials
to be used in the subbase of the pavement can first be
economically applied for additional banking.
The stability of an embankment (see Section
11 .3) should be thoroughly investigated wjere the
surcharge method is planned, because there are oc-
casions when embankment stability is a problem. The
surcharge method calculation procedure is essen-
tially performed as follows.
(iii) Design philosophy for settlement estima-
tion and the surcharge method.
The following procedure is to be used for
I~ Planned height .1 Height of Surcharge

of Surcharge
estimating settlement when planning the surcharge
height (SH). Fig. 11.43- To obtain the surcharge height
64
(b) Preloading Method
(i) Application
There are often large differential settlements at the
approaches to a structure supported by pile founda-
tions because of the large settlement of the embank-
ment when an embankment and a structure are
combined. The pretoading method aims to reduce
such a differential settlement.
There are two methods for this preloading.
(1) The method of making the structure and embank-
ment settlements identical. Use of this method is
limited to structures without pile foundations, for
which some settlement is allowed, such as box-
culverts or pipe-culverts. A surcharge or bank-
ing is to be undertaken at the planned location
prior to placement of the structure, so as to
equalise settlement of both embankment and
structure and also to restrict the residual settle-
ment of the structure to within its permissible
range. This method also accelerates settlement
and strength increase.
(2) The method of effecting a prior settlement of the
embankment at the approaches to a structure.
This method is applied for the approaches (abut-
ments and ramps) to a structure with a pile
foundation (bridge) to prevent any residual set-
tlement of the embankment by increasing the
prior loading at the abutment or ramp location.
(ii) Magnitude and duration of the preloading.
(1) The height of preloading Hpre (m) is determined
by settlement calculation; but based on actual
results, Hrire =PH + 2 (m) has commonly been
used.
(2) The surface width of the preloading should be:
(refer to Figs 11.44 and 45). 8 8 1 + 2z with
9:;:::,:9 1 + 20(m) for box-culverts. etc.
and B = 8 1 + H with B :;:::,: 81 + 20(m) for bridge
abutments, etc.
(3) The desirable duration of pre loading is at least 4
to 6 months. although the time is to be estimated
as in the following paragraph.
B!m)
PH Planned height
8 =81
(B~B1+20m)
Fig. 11.44-Preloading for a box culvert
HP•e Hpre=H+2.0 m
B = 81 + H
e;:i,9 1 +20m
Fig. 11.45 - Preloading for a bridge abutment
ARR No. 51
(iii) Design philosophy for the Settlement
Calculations.
Settlement calculations for a preloading design are
lo be performed as follows.
H
Height
of Banking
(ml
Time
Settlement
!c:ml
Settlemen! after c:ormrucdon
s Final Settlement of tht Struc::ture fS l
1
Fig. 11.46 ···Settlement curve in the preload melhud
(1) The final settlement (S 1 ) of the structure-loaded
portion is to be obtained from the S-t curve (the
dotted line in Fig 11.46 ).
(2) The residual settlement after unloading is to be
obtained from the S-t curve, by calculation for
two to three different assumed heights of
preloading (the solid line in Fig. 11.46).
(3) · A preloading design height is to be selected so
that the residual settlement remains less than
300mm.
(iv) Construction Sequence.
The construction sequence and the corresponding
progressive settlement times during construction of a
culvert using the preloading method is shown in Fig.
11.47.
The preloaded embankment is excavated as
delineated by the oblique line down to the level of the
bottom of the foundation for the culvert, when the set-
tlement reaches the planned settlement (point A on
the settlement curve); and the excavated soil
transferred P-lsewhere. After excavation, the culvert
should be constructed on a level raised to compen-
sate for the subsequent settlement. and backfilling
effected.
Culvert
Height of
Embankment
+ 2z
!ml
Time davsl
Settlement
(cm)
Final settlement
s·
Fig. 11.47 -Sequence of preloading work
(c) Slope Toe Loading Method.
Shearing resistance at the toe of a slope is the most
important factor for embankment slope stability.
However, the increase of shearing strength due to
consolidation is smaller in the toe than in the part
beneath the centre line of an embankment. This
method increases the shear strength at the toe of a
slope by means of additional loading on the toe, and
is a very effective countermeasure to increase the
stability of an embankment.
 ARR No. 51 65

The height of the toe loading is to be made ap-

proximately the same as the critical embankmerit
height obtained from the undrained shear strength of
the soil and the width of the loading should be wide
enough to cover the point of intersection of the slip
circle with the natural ground surface. A sidetrack
can be used for loading. Even if the width of the load-
ing is reduced where there is a limitation on the
available area, there is still an effective stability in- \
crease. \
_.....~ I

-~--
The embankment loading shaded with oblique
lines in Fig. 11.48 is removed when it is judged that
stability for the planned height has been obtained due w I \
to the shear strength of the foundation soil having I \
been increased by consolidation and this embank-
ment material is transferred to the upper portion of
the planned embankment.
Planned height

Fig. 11.48 -Slope toe loading method

(5) Vertical Drain Method (Sand Drains· and

Cardboard (Paper) Drains).
(a) Application. The vertical drain method is to be
considered wherever the rate of settlement is slow, Fig. 11.49(b) -Rectangular pattern
or the settlement in a given time exceeds the per-
missible settlement and much residual settlement is
feared.
The drain method is effective for accelerating
completion of the consolidation settlement by shor-
.-Sandpile•
tening the drainage distance in a soft layer, because
the rate of consolidation is inversely proportional to d = 200-500 mm
De = 1.0-3.0 m
the square of the thickness of a soft layer. De De De

Fig. 11.49(c)-The sand drain method

Soils to which the vertical drain method is ap-
plied have mostly a low ·shear strength, and it is D : Diameter of the effectively
difficult to bank safely up to the predetermined drained circle ·
height. The vertical drain method is effective in ob- De: Centre to centre spacing of the
taining good embankment stability, because of the sand drain::
rapid increase in shear strength.
d: D:ameter of a sand pile
The drain method is divided into sand drains and
cardboard drains according to the drainage material
used in the vertical direction; however, the design Nevertheless. in a very small swamp sand drains
method is essentially the same for both. Cardboard can be made with a soil auger of diameter 100 to 150
drains have not yet been much used in the Meishin mm, and this is a relatively effective method.
and Tomei Expressways.
(ii) Infill sand for a sand pile. Sand filling for a
(b) The Sand Drain Method: sand drain is generally to have the following grading:
(1) Method of Procedure. Passing the 74 micron (No. 200) sieve, less than 3
Lay a sand-blanket per cent.
Drive the sand piles Das 1-5 mm,
Bank on the site of the driven sand piles
The diameter of a sand drain is usually to 200 to D 15 0.1-0.75mm,
500 mm; however, sand piles formed in the ground
may have a tendency to get thinner at depth even if
the driving is performed carefully. Therefore a drain Das and D15 mean the grain sizes corresponding to
diameter of at least 400 mm should be adopted if the 85 per cent and 15 per cent of the total weight finer
· driven length is more than 5 m. than that size respectively.
66 ARR No. 51

(iii) Disposition of the sand piles, and the set- The relation of U. Uh and Uv is as follows.
tlement design philosophy. The centre to centre U ~ 1 ·- (1 Uhl (1 - u.) (11.49)
spacing of sand piles is 1.0 to 3.0 m, but it should be where U the resultant degree of consolidation.
estimated by the following settlement calculation.
Uh is obtained !rum Fii,r 11.50.
The effect of a sand drain in accelerating con-
solidation is considered to be as ·shown in eqn. u. is the degree of consolidation based on
(11.48). double-sided drainage and is obtained from Table
11. 7 in Section 11.4. For the estimation of Uh and u•.
Th 0 2 the same value of T must not be used. Th and T. for
(11.48)
t "'
the same time, t, must be used. (And Uh and u. are
then obtained from the Th' and T. values respec-
where tively)".
the time of consolidation re-
quired to reach the assumed The calculation of u. can be omitted when the
degree of consolidation, Uh, soft layer is thick.
D diameter of an assumed effective Cvh = consolidation coefficient in the horizontal
circle dralued by the sand drain, direction.
and is obtained as follows, ac-
cording to the disposition pat-
c.11 can be considered equal to c.. the con-
solidation coefficient in the vertical direction. (c.
tern of the sand drains:
Cofresponds to Po + .lp/2.)
D LOS De Triangular pattern (De
means the centre to centre spac- When driving sand piles, the instant settlement
ing of the sand drains). can be considered to be 1 /3 S;
D 1 .13 De Rectangular pattern For the values of S;, refer to Section 11 .4.5. t
(De means the centre to centre
spacing).
Th time factor for the assumed
degree of consolidation, Uh This is inserted for clarity but is not part of the original texl.

. The relationship between Th and Uh is obtained t

from Fig. 11.SOaccording to the ratio of the effective
circle diameter to the diameter of the sand drain (Bar-
ron's factor, n = Did). d signifies the diameter of the
sand pile.
S; = A"f1EHE
where He = embankment height (ems). 'Y tE = embankment
material density (g/cm3) and Si = initial settlement (cm), A
initial settlement index for the site soil (cm>/g).

TABLE11.7
U AND T RELATIONSHIP (DOUBLE-SIDED DRAINAGE)

.u0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 95 100

T 0.008 0.031 0.071 0.126 0.196 0.287 0:403 0.567 0.848 1.13 00

c 0
.!!
:;;
:!1
~0
10
u
0 20
!I
0
ii'
30

40
Uh
{%1 50

60

70

80

90

Q 0 0 0 0 ...,\
" " 0
bbb N A A Oi.i::o 0
ggg
"""
Fig. 11.50-The Uh - Th relationship
 ARR No. 51 67

(iv) The design philosophy for stability. The To obtain the drain spacing required to reach the .
shear strength of a sand pile itself is not to be con- desired degree of consolidation U at time t, first ob-
sidered in the calculation for stability against slip tain from Fig. 11.51 a value for the coefficient 'g · ac-
failure. · cording to t and U. Second, obtain the coefficient 'm'
The ratio of load apportioned to the sand piles from the g value, using the coefficient of consolida-
and to the ground surrounding them (1r s /1r c) is to be tion c •• as follows:
taken as unity, and stress concentration not con-
sidered.
(11 .50)
(c) The Cardboard Drain Method
(i) Disposition and the settlement design
philosophy. The required driving interval D is obtained from
the value of musing Fig. 11.52.
Cardboard drains have a 100 mm width and about 3
mm thickness comprised of porous pulp fibre, and are (ii) The design philosophy for stability. Only the in-
used for the same purpose as sand drains. Io obtain crease of strength from ground consolidation is to be
the relationship between time of consolidation and considered in the estimation of stability with sand
degree of consolidation the cardboard drain is taken drains. ·
to have the same effect as a sand drain of 50 mm
diameter. and calculation is perfnrmP.d in the same (6) The Sand Compaction Pile Method.
way as for sand drains. Because the sand drain (i) Application. This method aims to form a com-
diagram is not clear above n = 1 2. for cardboard pacted sand column in soft ground, using a shock or
drains Figs .. 11.51 and 11.52 are to be used. vibration load to pack the sand fill into the ground. By

I I I v /"' v ....
26

24
I I II j
/
I/ / ..,v
v
I ! I / / ./
22
~I I I I / v v /

.
>
20
I M
/ J,
O'j
v v /
v
v /
v
./
v
~
18
j , /· ~/ ~\o
v v vv /
v
.,
E
16

I I I/ J
I/

vv v IQ
~\·
/ ./
v .........
I I I v I/ . ,, "\i'~ v
i= 14

12
I/ JvI I / v v •./
v
./
v
_,... v i---- -- l----
~

/, J I// / v vv . / v
/ / 11,(i
10

8
I II // v/ v v v
-N>i

J....--
.-- 1.----
v--

- -- .......- ,.- - i--

.......-
6

2
I '/I // / / v
J~ ~ './".: / ./ .- l----
....
/

./
v
~
./

-- --
.--
.......-
...
~
~

_! ~
U-=1 %
---
~ ~ :::::----
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9· 10 x10 7
glsecl

Fig 11.51 Cardboard Drain Calculation Diagram (H

4.0

3.0 v ~
v ...

v
Driving
rt'riangula
~ \
~
1
A rrav,r--. Rei angu ar
Interval / " .,.
2.0
d
~
~
(m) ~
-
i--::
1.0
~

-
0
3 4 5 7 10 3 2 3 4 5 7 1 04 2 3 4 5 7
'm(cm 2 1

Fig. 11.52 -Cardboard drain calculation diagram (2)

 68 ARR No. 51

this method, a loose sand or sandy soil layer is com-

pacted, and its bearing capacity is increased, so that
thP. compacted ground itself can be used as the foun-
dation for a structure. For a cohesive soil layer. a
certain degree of consolidation is lo be expected
from thP. forr.P.c1 packing of the sand. as well as an
effect due to the replacement of soft soil by sand;
furthermore, a sand pile by this method is considered
as a bearing pile, so that this is an effective counter-
measure against slip failure.
It is ,not advisable to use this method only as a
countermeasure against settlement of an embank-
ment, because it is a relatively expensive method; but
it is effective in preventing sliding where no increase
of strength from consolidation is expected, or to pre-
vent differential settlement around the perimeter of a
Fig. 11.54 -Load distribution
structure supported by a pile foundation by providing
thP.sP. compaction piles on all sides in complete
progression.

!Plan)
Spacing
~500-700 mm
1.6-2.5 m
Fig. 11. 55 -Shear strength of the sand column
Triangular
Pattern Disposition

lunitl :mm) (iii) The design philosophy for stability.

Fig. 11.53-A practical example of sand compaction piles
(ii) The design philosophy for settlement. The
following effects are to be considered.
Load is .concentrated on the sand column, and
·this decreases the stress on the layer tq be consoli-
dated, so that the total settlement decreases.
The induced stress •re on the clayey soil sur-
rounding the sand column is expressed as shown in
eQn(11.51), where 'n' (= 1r 5 /1rc-) is the ratio of the
load distribution after driving the sand compaction
pile, and the unit pressure is ir I A
(} (11.51)
The effectiveness of sand drains can also be
expected from sand compaction piles. Furthermore,
depending on the selected pile spacing an instant
settlement cannot be expected because the replace-
ment of soft soil by sand compaction piles is an im-
provement factor and driving these piles causes a
large change in the ground deformation coefficient.
The following effects are to be considered in the
estimation of stability.
(1) Shear strength of the sand column.
s 1r s .tan 1/> where 1/> 25• is to be used.
(2) The load apportionment ratio between a sand
column and the surrounding soil is to be taken as:
n(=11·sl•rc) 3. .
(7) The Banking Rate Control Method:
This method is a stage construction method for em-
bankments, controlling the rate of banking so as to
get an adequate soil strength increase in the soft
ground whenever there is any question on stability of
the natural soil, and is a very economical method if
there is enough time for construction of the embank-
ment. The relationship between embankment height
and the corresponding safety factor at each stage of
banking is shown in Fig. 11.56. The first banking is to
be placed quickly, up to a height corresponding to
the critical height for the in situ soft ground, a!1d be
kept at that height until suflicient strength increase is
obtained. After achieving a strength increase, the
next banking stage is placed, and so on. As regards
stability, this method is much better than the method
of progressive banking.
In such a method. where banking proceeds ac-
cording to the strength increase in the soft ground,
the shearing deformation on and after the second
stage can be reduced.
 ARR No. 51 69

Embankment
Height Embankment
Height
He

Safety F 1.25(Minimum permissible safety factor)

Factor 1.25 - -......--- -- --- ----- s
'4-Safetv factor when banked directly up to
' height H
.... ,_,,, ___. ,,,, ...
Time

Settlement
-- .......
... ,
Time

by $hear ' ... ,

Deformation
'',..._ __ -- -- -- - - Banking Rate Control Method
Ordinary Banking

Fig. 11.56- Banking rate control method

(8) The Method of decreasing the load imposed on (a) Wellpoint Method.
the Embankment by installing Structures. (b) Electroosmotic Method.
(c) Electrohardening by Aluminium Electrodes.
This method Is also a countermeasure against slip (d) Electroosmotic Grouting Method Using Sodium
failure. Excessive settlement is decreased by install- Silicate.
ing box-culverts or other structures on soft ground or
(e) Heat Treatment Method (Thermal Soil Stabilisa-
in embankments on soft ground, as shown in Fig.
tion).
11.57.
(f) Freezing Method (Temporary Use. Excavations).
(9) Other Electrical, Chemical and Physical (g) Raft Method.
Methods. (h) Lightweight Structures.
There are other countermeasures for soft ground than (i) Sheet Piling Method.
those described previously, as follows. Currently, (j) Synthetic Fibre, Fabric, Net. or Mesh Methods
they are not thought to be economical as deep (spreading 'them on the ground).
stabilisation construction methods for the improve- (k) Quicklime and Sand Mixture Compaction Piles.
ment of embankment foundations extending over a
wide area. It is desirable to consider these methods ' (1 O) Practical examples of countermeasures for
---only-for very small-sites ··where they·-can-be ·con~ -~-sotrgrounc:fperformed-durin·gconstruction of Mei shin
sidered to be particularly effective. and Tomei Expressways are shown in Table 11.10.

Yoshiwara District Yaizu District

Soft Soil
Continuous Culverts

Fig. 11.57 -Actual examples