(— > THE ANCHOR BIBLE DICTIONARY David Noel Freedman EDITOR-IN-CHIEF ASSOCIATE EDITORS Gary A. Herion * David F. Graf John David Pleins MANAGING EDITOR Astrid B. Beck ABD DOUBLEDAY NEWYORK + LONDON + TORONTO + SYDNEY + AUCKLANDTue Ancuor Brste Dictionary: Vorume 4 PUBLISHED By DOUBLEDAY a division of Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group, Inc. 666 Fifth Avenue, New York, New York 10103 ‘Tue Ancuor Bin Dictionary, Doustepay, and the portrayal of an anchor with the letters ABD are trademarks of Doubleday, a division of Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group, Inc. DESIGN By Stanley S. Drate/Folio Graphics Company, Inc. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Anchor Bible dictionary / David Noel Freedman, editor-in-chief, associate editors, Gary A. Herion, David F. Graf, John David Pleins; ‘managing editor, Astrid B. Beck. =Isted, Poem. Includes bibliographical references. 1, Bible—Dictionaries. 1. Freedman, David Noel, 1922— . BS440.A54 1992 220.3—de20 91-8385 cIP Vol. 1 ISBN 0-885-19351-3 Vol. 2 ISBN 0-885-19360-2 Vol. 8 ISBN 0-385-19361-0 Vol. 4 ISBN 0-885-19862-9 ‘Vol. 5 ISBN 0-885-19363-7 Vol. 6 ISBN 0-885-26190-X Copyright © 1992 by Doubleday, a division of Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group, Inc Al Rights Reserved Printed in the United States of America iO) 0181721015 4) Bese First EDITION‘LANGUAGES (HITTITE) Dickie indie 1950 Heltches Wortrinck, Int Heidelberg, (Sap. plemeats appeared in 1987, 1961, and 1965) ‘Fiedi, J, and Kaamenhober, A 1975 Hatitchs Wonebuh Sd. Heidelberg. CGuerboc, HG ae Hote, He. 1960. The Hite Dio. ‘nthe Orit tint fe Utes of Cn. Chieage. Pe | 1984 Hie EplglDicnay, New York. “ale, Ae Colne ‘HURRIAN irvian isthe ame ofthe language spoken and watten bythe andent Hurrine, The eattest Furrian text dates to fhe Best half ofthe 20th century nc. (late Akad or Ur Ht period); scribed on a limestone tablet beld by 2 ‘bronze lon, it record temple foundation by Tsh-atal of Unish, Among the thousands of Akkadian (Old Babylo- sian) texts from Mar, dating to the 18th centry, were ako found seven Hurrian texts most ofthese are cule in ature, although one i afrogment ofa royal Iecer. The Ionges Hurrian txts alter of early 500 lines sent by ‘Tura, King of Mita’, to the Egyptian pharaoh ‘Amenophis I in the frst half ofthe 1th century the letter isthe only Hurrian text in the famous archive of ‘cuneiform text found ate-Amarns in Egype (ee further flow) The largest number of Hurrian texts ave been found among the day tablet excaated at Bofazkoy, an. ‘dent Hatuas, the capital ofthe Hite empire the major fry of there texts, which date to the Hth-1Sth centuries od, are rite although there are some omens and a few mythological texts ‘The Syrian seaport of Ugarit ‘where texts in Sumerian, AKkadin, Hitt, Eaypian, and the local Ug ‘bine een tinearthed, ba also yisided a numberof Harlan texts from the Same period as thowe found st Bofsskoy. Some 40 ofthe grit texte ike Hurrian teas from ater sites, are writen inthe same logo-slabic caneiform serie asthe tamian languages Sumerian and Akkadian) and Hits; ofthese, 20 cule texts and one letter are writen ently fava, tee ar ali» hr Hanlin ‘ilngualiterary tet a Sumeran-Hurian bl : ‘ead sel cep Sumerian lls ‘an-Ugarite vocabulary. Besides the syllabic cuneiform texts, However, Ugart has yielded a few Hurian texts veriten in the indigenous alpbabetc cuneiform. Excar Eons during the 1970eat the ste of Eroar on the Euphrates ko produced a few Hurran divination texts wren in ‘Mesopotamian cmeiform and dating to the 1éthe1Sth Centuries. In sdditon to the texts lated here that are Sctually writen in Huvian, the phonology, morphology, ‘prone, nd vocabulary of Huan ae tho present fog dagrect os subarat nfvences i the grammar the Akkadian texts written by scribes in te later haf of the 2d millenium atts suchas Allah, Ear, Hattusss, Nz, and Upar, and in the cl Amara leters of the Mitunnian King Toshraca. Hurian personal names aso abound in texts from ses across N Mesopotamia and Syria {3 wel at Anatolia through much of the 24 milenniim ‘Despite the relatively large numberof txts found, Hr 216 -1V rian vocabulary and grammar, and therefore Hurrian teats, have remained imperfecly understood. This circum stance has been the result of two factors. One difficulty i that Hurian has as its ony certain linguistic relative Ura tian, the anguage of Urartu around Lake Van (E Take), atested in the Sth-Sth centuries ca. (There have bbeen attempt dasfy Hurrian and Urartian as a branch ofthe Caucasian languages; the connection, if vali, i very remote) While comparison with Urartian can help 10 arify some Hurvian features, Urartian is not a direct ‘descendant of Hurrian and is itself not fully understood. ‘The linguistic isolation of Hurvian and Urardan means that researchers cannot look to similar related languages to explicate features of grammar. In such cate, 2 suff dently long bilingual text is usually needed to serve a8 2 ‘key tothe language. Unt recently much of the reeonstrac- tion of the grammar of Hurrian was accomplished on the basis of the very long Hurrian lester of Tushratta found at Amara in Egypt (se above). Because that text deals with many ofthe same diplomatic issues that concern the ‘Akkadian texts in the elAmarna corpus, a dose reading Of frequently occurring parallel Akladian and Hurrian ‘phrases has enabled scholars to ascertain many of the features of Hurian morphology and syntax, though many uncertainties have persisted. In the 1983 and 1985 exce vations at Bofazkby/Hatmses, however, a mulitablet bli ‘gual Hurrian-Hittte literary text dating to about 1400 13.c. was discovered (Otten and Raster 1991); comparison, of the Hurrian text with its well-understood Hittite trans Jasion promises to darify many points of Hurrian gram- ‘mar and to add considerably to our knowledge of the Hurrzn lexicon. Bibi ‘le Ao 5. DsAMaich dsKni ia oe Ma “ORT 01 eee ad Nee Pe ad 10h 4 rn of ern Logg Ds, eas ic tat, 1 1985. wee. Er, Doon M17 fread ra Mncer Suten sn acu Minh Dion sand SrA 986, Hae hon on Ease Cmnin Lng ih i, Yc, 00 fr fet Herth Xia Roane A= Tussce Voroage tad enchungen 2, Konstan Ale txcolice Specs 2. Constance Heer 1508 Th don fC, Harard Sene Sah tart 50. Cad Lge hei Psi Orginal "ae tose 9-35, FT Sit Decne ies eos, 2p. 8-6 in Mr “adm Don dr oa Beh, BB, Med, 6 A171 ewer Spa Sada RA, NEE 1088, thi Be lint Spd one Aten dr Wien vd dr rans handiogen det sae end Soraenchafics ‘ihe Alsen de Wceschaten wd de Lica Sat an ‘One, Hand Roster, C. 1991, Keliher ous Bophak. Vo ‘32. Bein, Savin M1978, Hourrte et uraréen Pp. 157-72 in Let Henri+37 ets del i Rant Asysia ntti, Pais 1977. | Pais ( Ree Hie tna 38). Speier, A. 1941. sadn Fein, AASOR 20, New Haves. Wilhelm, G. 1970: Cntrachengn sim Horetbiadcben von i "AOAT 8 Kevlar. 1982. Grage der Gach a Kiar der Heir Damme 1087. easlaion of eter 24) Pp, 138-51 inert dt. “Anarsa’ Comapondancs diplomat du pharm, e. W. ‘Moran with Haas and G, Wile. Par ‘oR Hursoencano LANGUAGES OF ANCIENT IRAN ‘The ancient empires of the Iranian-speaking Medes and ‘Achaemenid (659-580 8.c. and, folowing the interreg- ‘pum of Alesander and the Seleucids, the empires of the Parthians (247 n.ca. 227), and Sassanians (227-651 ‘a... all of which spanned che entire Near East atone time ‘or another, played a major roe in the politcal, intellectual, and religious hiswory of the ANE, and thus in Judaism, ‘Christianity, and the gnostic religions of the Mandaeans and Manichaeism. This role was continued to 2 lesser ‘degree by Iranian dynasties aftr Islamization inthe mid dle of the 7th century ap. Jewish, Christian, and Man- acan communities have remained in these aress since antiquity. “The Iranian languages belong tothe Indo-Iranian (Ar- yan) branch of Indo-European languages (see Schmit T9807, Oniginating in central Asi spesiers of Iranian ‘began to spread from about 1000 s.c. throughout the southern parts of Eurasia from China to Europe, and eventually entered the Tranian plateau and Afghanistan (Grantovsij 1970; Ghirshenan 1877; Burrow 1973; Mayr hhofer 1974), Today, Iranian languages are concentrated in Tran and Afghanistan, but are also found inthe Caucasus, central Asia, W China, on the Arab side of the Persian Gulf, and in Iraq, Syria, and Tarkey (Geiger and Kuhn 1895-1904; Schmitt 1989; Spuler, 1958; Rastorgueva 1975; Abaev et al. 1979-82; Oranskij 1977). The most ‘numerous non-Tranian languages are Turki, and these hhave permeated central Asia and large areas of Afghani stan and Tran (some 90 percent of the Iranian population). ld Iranian Middle Tranian Languages New Iranian Languages Diachrony Religious Minorities ‘Language Contact| ‘Aramaic HE Writing Systems ‘A, Old Iranian "The court language (often called Old Persian) of che Achaemenid dynasty is represented by 2 rather limited. Corpus of inscriptions and is based on the local of the SW Iranian province of Parsa (Greek pers, “Persia,” modem Fars; Kent 1953; Brandensrin and Mayrhofer 1964). Avestan (probably a clgue on Greek spine, “e- ‘ceived knowledge”), the sacred language ofthe Zoroastri- ‘ans was originally spoken perhaps in NE Iran or central LANGUAGES (IRAN) ‘Asa and is represented by @ much more extensive corpus | oftexs, ranging from the Gacha of Zarathustra (of uncer- tain date bur pony 1000 nc) to text compond by lrg leche and poise me ved sedate from the 13 century a. (assoe 188; Rock 190, Berks 1888, Medan spo: ken in central Iran and the language ofthe predecessors of the Achaemenid Ge Mayrhofer 136), and other Od {rani fanguages suchas Span in Konia and Old Parthian in ran, are now only bya stall numberof words and names saered throughs the writings of cher languages B. Middle Iranian Languages ‘Middle Iranian languages show 2 clear dialectal division into West Iranian, viz. Parthian and Middle Persian, and East Iranian, represented by the remainder. Parthian was the offical language of the Parthians and was spoken in NE snd probably also NW Iran. There are also extensive texts in Manichaean Parthian found in Chinese Turkistan ‘which evidence the continuation of Parthian as one of the languages of the Manichacan Church in Iran and central Asia until about the 10th century a.p. (Ghilain 1989; ‘ston 1976; Brunner 1977) Middle Pern, the ofl language ofthe Sassanians (297-651 a.p,) and thus also of their sate religion, Zorastianism, is also attested in vari fous forms, the mest extensive texts being written in so Called (Book.) Pahlavi. Mose of these date from the 9th ‘century 4.b. but represent an earlier stage ofthe language. ‘This language was also wed by Christians, Middle Persian was one of the church languages of the Manichacans in E Iran and central Asia, Mani (. 277 ao.) himself having ‘ompoted a book in this language for Shapur {The ‘anguage continued to be used unl the 11th cennusy AD. in both churches, as evidenced, for example, by the signa- ‘ures of witnesses on 2 copperplate grant to the Syrian ‘Church in §Tndia (possbly th century a.b) and by some local dynasties (Nyberg 1964, 1974; Heston 1976; Brunner 1977; MacKenzie 1971), a ‘The eastern Middle Tranian languages, viz.Alanian, Khwarezmian (Henning 1955; Heston 1976), Sogdian (Gersheviteh 1954), Saka (Emmerick 1968), and Skytho- Sarmatian and Bactrian (Humbach 1966), ‘were spoken from § Russia to central Asia (including N Afghanistan), and in western China. . New Iranian Languages (New) Persian emerged after Isamizaton as the domi- ‘ant language of Persia. It was, and largely stills, the Tingua franca in most of these areas, and it also was the adopted court language of the Mogul sultanate of Delhi in India (1526-1857 a). iis spoken in a number of varie ‘ies, the three most important of which are Iranian Persian (Windfabr 1979; Lazard 1968), Dari in Afghanistan, and ‘TaIKi in Soviet Tajikistan. “Together with other Perse linkers, these constitute the sovalled “Southwest” Iranian Gislecs. The other West Iranian dalecs include Kurdish in the W and NW, from the Soviet Caucasus, E Turkey, E Syria, and N Iraq to NW Iran, and scattered through ‘much of Iran (MacKenzie 1961), and Baluchi in the eas, Stretching from the Gy of Mery in Soviet Turkmenistan to the Gultinto'S Afghanistan and Pakistan (Elfenbein 1966).