TURKISH GRAMMAR OXFORD - NEW YORK, OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.CONTENTS INTRODUCTION Page bipLroGRarHy ANDREVIATIONS 1, ORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY "The alphabet ‘The epostrophe vp hy ok ma ® y 15. "The glottal top 1, Deviled consonanc 17, Consonanecuster and epenthetc vowels 18, Foren diphthongs 19, Alteration of consonants 20, Consonant sarimilaton in sliaes 21, Vowele: general observations wee ae au whe 3convents ant ake 30. Vowel length 432. ceptions tothe rales of vowel harmony 23: Vowel harmony in foreign borrowings 1H Vowel harmony of eines 46, Vowel harmony of aie with Sosign borrowings 26. Akemtion of vowels 37. Accenuation: general observations 38. Word.accent, 4p. Excite nies ‘(THE NOUN 1. Gander 2 Number: the Turkish plural 4 Arbie pra 4 Other plrale The Arabie daa 6. The cae 17 Summary of case-endings Use ofthe cas 9: The absolute form 16. The scustive cae 11 The genitive ease 12, The dative cme 15, The oetve case 14 The ablative cae 25. Personal sfies 16. Personal gfx followed by cae-utes 18, Words indicating mainly "7 2s 3 as * 36 ” 8 Ww. v. 19: The eft sia 30, Placenames consitng in an iafet group 21, Canary tr without iat 48, Thirdsperson suis with substntvzing and defining 25. "The Jans cnstrction 24 Salises with zafe groupe 25: "The voatve ure of the thiedperton suc 16, Persian iat, THE ADJECTIVE 1. General observations 2 Avibutive adjectives 15: The indefinite article 4 Comparion of adjectives 5 Arabic and Person comparaives 1 Intensive adjectives Ne OUN AND ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES 1 Dinsinutves 2. Dininatives of person 5 msl, <)mtrak, 1 aot soll 8 eee) se. it 1 (eet sy -cll b -hane 5. -ane PRONOUNS 1. Perna pronouns 2, Uses of the personal pronoun bok 8 8 s ss s seasaegeer2t eaevin. conrENTS 6, mereogsives 1 Tadd, determinative, and negative 8. baz, kim o-birtakam to. her hep 25.50 1s, butun 16. bagka, ager 2. sor 1 barbie x, ayn 20. Hy a. Mp 24, Kimse NUMERALS. 1. Cardinale 2 Cline 4 Fractions 4 Ondinals § Disevtives 6. Colectives 7. Dice numbers POSTPOSITIONS General observations 2. Primary postposiions with abestue care ‘5: Primary postpoiions with belute or genitive case 4 Primary postpoitions with dative case 5: Primary pstpoitions with ablative ese ” s Be 8s 8s 8 conrENTS 6. Secondary pstposions: 1 1 Secondary postpoiions: Tt 18, Secondary pospoiins: TIE Te, ley ro, The preposition A VIL THE VERB 1. The stern 2 The verbo bet 4 The preset tee oft Be! 4 User of ate {5 Bramples of the presnt ese of to be! 6 For based on te 27. The past tense of 10 be 8. The present conditional of tobe! 1. ‘The pat conor of 0 be 1, The inferential 1 The inferential conn 1a. The negative of bet 15, Intersogntive 4. Nepuve-interrogaive 15. The colar ve 16, Present 1. Uoes ofthe present 28 Paradigms of the present 19, Present TT te. Bote 1 fr Use of the fore 2s, Paradigms ofthe farare 2, Fore 1 2. Aorist, 3s. Us ofthe aos 26. Paradigm ofthe aris a7 ani-past 38, Poperfect 29, Other paradigns of the mly-past ge. Nevestaive geese1x as ¥ a & ss ss 6 Pal 8 CONTENTS ‘Ure of the dept Other paradigms ofthe nate Conon Subjunetive ‘Other paradigms ofthe subjunctive ‘Synopsis of he ve sin ign arsed five verbe Ate with a filing verb Summary ofthe form of oe? var, yore Extended ste “The recproeal or co-operative verb ‘The causative ve Doubly eumative verbs The repetitive verb “The relenve verb ‘The passive verb aes ofthe pasive "The potential ver "The order of extensions Ausiacy verte RTICIPLES Presa Future Forure inis-pst "The person participles eco gel- a 8 9 a 1: 16 tea ta 163 conrENts ces gate ro, -ecegt eat 1, Pesiphesie tenses and moods X, VERBAL NOUNS x ty Iniractony 4 The nine with aubject 5: Common nouns in smele 6m Common nouns in -me GERUNDS. sop 6 -inco 7 sincaye kadar, -inceyedek, -inceye dein ® ° ‘ene kadar, senedek, ene debin so. el, lk ber, -liden ber, lm ei fh oldu olasscya) ty -tikge 15 -digince| ve. ite 1 ten bagka 6s a er 16 169) m0 6 ca 180 186 8 i 18 a8 3 8“ conrENTS 1 inden bagka 20, Geeund-ouitleat 21, Wil maddetge 2. hale 2s. igi takatede 34, dif itn, -aiginden 4s. dit isp 26, igi kadar 2. lit gibt 24 -ecetne, -ecek yerde 22. Bouvalents of a it? Se then 3¢. Compound verbs XIL ADVERBS Genel observa 5 Nouns uted advebilly [5 Comparzon of adverbs 8. sie, mata, does to. Adverbs of pice agin 1a, Advesbs of time v4 Toling the tne 184 18 6 186 186 186 187 18 188 188 04 6 96 8 8 Base ‘coNTENTS 15, art, bundan bisle, gayet >, daha ar, hemen 2, gene, ying 233, The verb “tobe! in temporal expressions 24, derken XIIL CONJUNCTIONS AND PARTICLES de Bme .. me(de) os derek +. gerekise) Sem «tem () 6h 7 Inter «= -i6ter ces olsun «olsun yale cya veya «yas, veyahat aa, flat da, ne VA sana, yalniz {2 mamafih, buneala beraber, bununiabirikte 3s madem(, dei mt) M4. meger(s) 5M 16, meierkt 18 albu, oys(kd) to. snk stra 2a, domek br diger taraftan, te yandan 2 geesi aa oye 24: ant 9) 26, berhatde ay ie 2h te 2 saan BERBERS a 24 25 26 a6 a6 26 = a aei conTENTS se. sank 21 Oslo dursun ba yok 4. yoksa XIV. WORD-FORMATION, 1, Deverbal sobetansives| at ik fa 6. tne aa ks ro. Ben, een wy -¥ 8 ey, -y 29, Denominal verbs ae. 3. Compound nouns and ajetves a8 ae 26 conTENTS 31 Abbreviated nouns 3% Tele groups $i Proper memes cnmiting in it roo 36 Noun noun jit a9, Noun third-person sui adjective 42. Noun} verb 41, Onomaapodie word-bverb 42 Verb ver) 4 Hyphenated compounds 4H Repeiions| 46. medonblets XY. THE ORDER OF ELEMENTS IN THE SENTENCE 1. Nora sentenees and verbal sentences 2 The principle of word-orde 4 The averted sentences devrie eure 4 The sentence-pls XVI. NUMBER, CASE, AND APPOSITION 1. Concordance of subject and ver 2 Singular and plural in ele groupe 4 Knmatc wie ofthe paral 4. Tho accusative wih Bie [5 Two idiomatic uses ofthe dative ome 6. The genitive a lial subject, 1. Appositon XVII, THE NOUN CLAUSE AND THE SUBSTANTIVAL SENTENCE 1. The verbal noun in -me snd the personal participles 2 The eubtatial sentence as adjectival qualiier ae ans Bs = 28 28 250 a6 236‘4 The substntival sentence ax quai in iat XVIII, ADJECTIVAL PHRASES AND PARTICIPIAL QUALIFIERS 2. Teanlaton of English relative clauses 4 Two variant types of parcial quaier XIX, THE SUBJUNCTIVE AND Ki 1. Clauses of purpose 2 The aubunctve alter a negative main verb 5 The subjunctive im noun classes XX. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES ‘Open contin 2 Alermtives tothe conditional veh 5 Renate and nfalilled conditions “6 Apodoia to an unexpreowed prota 5: Alemative proases 6 Conceive clas 2 ‘Whatever, whenever, whocver, wherever per, sayet 2 Coninal ste ofthe Sature personal participle se The conditional base fh -sene, sentze 12, ote elenirsin? 4. ola gerek XXI, ASYNDETIC SUBORDINATION XXII. PUNCTUATION XXIII, SENTENCE-ANALYSIS XXIV. FURTHER EXAMPLES INDEX a8 29 2 2 216 a8 a INTRODUCTION “Tn subject ofthis book isthe oficial and literary language of the Republic of Furkey: Until 1923 the language of Tarkey vas known as Osmanhiea oF Ottoman Turkish, The dowafll of the Oxto- sman dynasty in that yor, after six eentries of sovereignty, made Fenccceary to find a new name to distinguish this language from All the other members of the sume linguistic family, whose dominions extend from the Mediterranean to China, The ‘Turks themselves distinguish ieinformally as TUrkgemiz, ‘our Turkish’, formally as TUrkiye ‘TOrkcesi, “Turkey-Turkish; this latter location is followed by French and German scholars: “Ture de 1) *Tiikei-Turkich’. “The growing practice among Fingish-speaking scholars, which i followed in this book, is to refer tothe language of Turkey simply as “Turkish, while calling ‘the linguste family to which it belongs “Turkic. "Vorksh isa member of the south-western or Oghuz group of the Turkic languages, the other members being: the Turkic Glalects of the Balkans; Azcri or Azerbaijani, spoken in north- twest Persia and Soviet Azerbaijan; the Qashqai of south Persia; the Turkmen or Turcoman of Soviet Turkmenistan "The problem of the elasifcation of the Turke languages and Gileets is a complicated one, ‘The migrations of the ‘Turkic peoples in the course of history, and their consequent inter- Frinaling. with one another and’ with peoples of non-Turkie fpcech, have created Hinguistic situation of vast complexity, Sthich has not yet been investigated sufficiently to permit the last tron to be said, An indiestion of the provisional nature of the Tnrious solutions so far cffered is that the editors of the first olume of Phiolegiae Turcicae Pundamenta (Wiesbaden, 1959) invited two acholare to write independent contributions to the tchapte: on clasifieston. Johannes Denzing’s scheme shows five sain divisions comprising eight groups, while Kar! Menges dis Tinguishes six divisions comprising twelve groups. ‘The map at th end of the volume shows six groups. Ie is still being debated whether or aot the Tuskie family i itwif @ branch of a larger “Altai” family, inchuding Mongol,= evtropucrios angus, and posibly’ Koren, The nneeenth-cntury conept of 2 "UrlAlai fay, embracing Frnih and Hungarian well 4s the “Altai” languages, no longer commands support. Te mas Basel chi on the fae tat hese languages share he eta segutnatio, vowel harmony, ar lack of grammateal gender ‘An introductory word mst be ad sboat agglutination. ot this feature which Englshspestes find mot alien, atfough it doen aca in English to inte exten nach a word sm eare Teor Bot in Turkish the proces of adding at to vic con rest in hoge words whic may be the equalent of « whole English’ hres. claie or sentences sokaltailer, the people in the tect irerken, "while they ave coming; avrupal laguniamsyabilenlerdenmigsnin “Vou son tobe on of tne sho may be incapable of being Furopeanized’. Out Bratch tentences are lite dystone walls with one chunk of mening ‘topped ito place ster another, The Turks lew ated in place ike bricks each comented to the next. Urey though we may fied his massive eaisuelmamalsymrs, we mist remember that he finds causly tied out frosted ae ‘monorlabic they sy that she ought no to be made to work. ‘bret explanation ls nesctsayTor the references tat wl be found through the hook to the language reform move ment! ‘The Turks had ben to convert fo Ila and to adopt the Arsbo-Persian alphabet from the tenth century onwards the course oftheir miration into western Asi. Inthe leventh entry when under the ladership ofthe Seje dynasty they overran Persia Persian Became the hnuage of their adminis tion and iterary culture. Persian had by this time borrowed b feat many words fom Arabic "These, together with «host of Persian word, were now nthe disp of educated Turk, who fet fro o uae any they washed ws art of thet weabulry. The bul of thee Arabic and Pesan borrowings were never asim Inted to Turkish phonic paterns, More, withthe orege words came foreign grammatical conventions, To offer an English analogy, wan if we sid not for abvious tenon? but Tor Tationesobvia or whet the condiio of Sour progenitor ‘everendn instead of hows your father” “This hybrid language became the ofa language ofthe Otto- “Se Ui He aa torn Md Tk re Ose! us 9s ei te a at ane Pe ment ia fvour of sinplifestion and: purteation’of he ier epespite certain excesses and absurdities, the success of the a‘The borrowing of French words bepan inthe nineteenth century, and there seems to be sila preference for the French forms of Words common to French and English; thus ‘detergent’ appears 1s deterjan, and kilosikl is far commoner than kilosaykl, Although this bool is, in principle, concerned with written ‘Turkish, it willbe found to contain a good many references to the colloquial, for two reatons, The fist that the gop betwosn ‘writen and spoken language his been considerably narrowed in recent years, 80 that tis not always possible to draw the line. The “second reason ie reminiscent ofthe problem that vexed the Islamic ‘theologians concerning the utterance of Satan that are quoted in ‘the Karan: a8 Satan’s les are part of Holy Writ, must they not therefore be true? Now if a novel or a newspaper happens to report conversations between speakers of sub-standard "Purkish, it can scarcely be argued tha the aub-standaed is thereby rendered literary; nevertheless the student is entitled to expect some ‘guidance on how to translate it, i he has bought what elim to be 4 Turkish grammar. For a similar reason, some obsolescent and even obsolete features ofthe language are discussed, as they may feceur in quotations or in Ottoman texts tranteribed into the smodern alphabet. ‘The aim in faet has been to present every form sand construction that the reader may mect in print, including fome which certain of my Turkish frends, and’ even T myself, may dist Atthough our familiar Latinchased grammatical terms do not ‘evacty fit the facts of Turkish they have been used as far a2 possible. The Turkish adjective, for example although it does not behave in all respects like the English adjective, resembles it closely enough to be permitted to abare its name. Occasionally Thave used the word ‘Substantive’ to include nouns and adjectives and sometimes pronouns. Any other less familiar terms ane explained at their first occurrence In translating the examples I have made extensive vse of word for-word renderings; for the peculiarity of the resulting English Trust ask the readers indulgence. ‘isa pleasure to record my indebtedness to Professor Fahir ta, Dr. Erciinent Atabay, and Mr. Berent Eng for their patience in answering my questions, A few ofthe grammatical examples I owe to the late Me. Philip Lechmere Stallard, who shared my love for this most fascinating language. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Grammatical sorks and dictionaries, The list below is limited 10 the tools an the one sce which ave een constantly by my side during ‘he sctal writing ofthis brammar To show the fall extent of my ine ‘Ehatdnes would involve ating the complete works of thee authors, Sival'es of Omer Atm Akay, Sandee Cagis, Vesihe Hatbogts (Gud Teg, Aeobst Mansuroi, Zeyep Kovknae, an Tat Tekin “The surnames o nls preceding sore ofthe es of ths Uist are ‘ued ae abbreietins for hem nthe preent Wwrk Banguofla ‘Tain Bangui, Tark Gromer (TDK, 1980. Deny Jean Deny, Granaize de langue trque Pa, 102) |A: Dilger, Tork Dine Goal Bir Baloy (TDK, 196) shun Haydar Esk, Yond Tark Dips (Istanbul, 196) Elive Al UW Elev Prk Dit Gromer (a Turkish ransation of ‘Deny with sme adionl note; Istanbul, £940 Ant Cort Emce, Turk Dill (TDK, 1945 gin Muhatem Ergin, Turk Di Bg (stan, 962) Gabsin —Aanarie von Cabain, Altnkiihe Grammatik (Leipzig, 195. Mundy €.8. Mandy, "Pukish Synene aa System of Quaiaton (arse in BSOAS (1935), xls, pp 279-303) OTD H.C. Hany and Pabir te, & Tare Beglsh Dinar, seco edition (Osler, 195 1S Tage Sts hid eon (TDK, 2959. YIK Yen! Idd Kilacuon (TDK, 19655 revi second impres ‘on, 196). pobrth tawny fe nia teers EOC GN oa 3 Sneha See SEE Esco scoala“ Tha ABBREVIATIONS. seote alti of the Sct of Oriental and Africon Stu, Uni wernt of Londen colo dave lay see Bibliography of Persia on Dr ogoar Tork Dit Arojmatrs Vile Balleten ‘Terk Dit Kuru, Aslare see Bboy see Biigaphy devia fo tecoming rrr # pstltd form neve etal found saute an scented eae represents the wound of ng a in singer,» ound formerly { Name Value French ain avoir be ob ce jin jam ge chin church aed © French @ in dre fe £ ge gin gate or in angular ymugak ge lengthens preceding vowel i ie ke Ie hin have French jin sf French j Tin itor in wt © French o in mote 8 Germans peop se sins ye shin shape u winput & German ye yinyet Yumusak ge (soft g’) cannot begin a word, Note that the. ORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY hs ‘capital form of the dotted i is ako dotted. ‘The letter kc is often called lea instead of ke; less often, fis cali a. 2. The apostrophe. In addition to these twenty-nine letters, £80 orthographic signs are used in the weting of Turkish, "The apostrophe (’), known at Kesme igaret, is used: (a) To mark the glottal stop in Arabie borrowings. () To separate proper nouns, cr words specially emphasized from grammatical endings: Atatirk'ten “from Atstutk'; Ate ‘kara’da ‘in Ankara; vecizemiz, hatka hizmet'tir ‘our slogan is "service tothe people”. Tt is thus regularly used before the ese sufies ofthe third-person pronoun © when this is written with 4 capital letter as a mark of respec, the normal practice when ‘writing of Atairk end other great men (though not usualy of Allah): Osun “His'; O°na ‘to Tim’ (¢) To distinguish between homonyms: karin ‘stomach’, kar’sm “of snow’, kari'n ‘your wife’; halk oyunu ‘olk-dance’, halle foyu'nu ‘referendum’ (ace.). Tt oceues in some surnames com- Pounded of two words: O'kan ‘thst blood’, which might cther- Wise be read as ok}an ‘arrow-intelleet"; Ig'er “work-man’, Which without the apestrophe could be mistaken for the aorit participle of lgemek "to urinate (d) ‘To mark the omission of a Ieter, a8 in n’olagak for ne ‘luca “what wil happen?” 3. The circumflex accent (*), known as diizeltme igareti, primarily to indicate the paltalizing of a preceding g,K, or 1 and ‘secondarily to mark a long vowel in Arabi borrowings, especialy here ambiguity might otherwise arise: nar Persian nar ‘pomegranate’ but nr < Arabic mar hell-fre'; adil ‘ustice’ but Sail ‘just’; tari ‘Tistory' ace) ut tari ‘historical’. This rule is neglected in masculine names ending in the Arabie adjectival suffix, Because the final vowel ie nowedays pronounced short; Bedri, Rahmi, Rubi. ‘The original vowel length and conse- ‘quently the spelling wth the circumflex are retuned in pen-names of classical authors: Nef, Fuzuli 4. Consonants: general observations, Native words do not, as 8 rule, begin with ef, , I, m,n, x, or z, The only notable excep- tions, apart from such dnematopoeie words as ively ‘chick’ an hs ORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY 2 Tololo ‘nonsensical jabber’, are the interogative particle mi, and ne ‘what? See also XIV, 46. j occurs only in foreign words “and is often replaced by ¢ in popular speech. A vowel is often Jnserted before Iu, and m when they occar initially in foreign ‘words: ilimon for limon "lemon’, irahmet or arahmet for Fahmet ‘divine mercy, tin’, inefes for nefes ‘breath’ (specially tose of breathing on someone for magical purposes). Some such pronuniations have become part ofthe written language: oro8pU fart’ < Persian rip, orug ‘fasting’ < Persian rose. “The consonants b, ¢, and donot occur finally in native words, 5. b, "The voiced labial i pronounced asin English, but pis less tneavily aspirated than English p. 6. g: In rapid speech the fist of to adjacent sis often heard 5 8 kag gocuk ‘how many children” pronounced as if written kat gocuk. 17.4, tym. In English these eters are pronounced with the tip of the tongue touching the gums above the top teeth. In ‘Turkish they are true dental, the tongue touching the top teth "Modern m may represent an older 9, eg in yeni ‘new’ and sonra ‘after, ‘The m of the latter word i frequently dropped Speech and sometimes in writing 8.4, v. "The pronunciation i ighter than that of the corresponding hglish consonants, particularly ia the ease of intervocaic ¥, whichis heard a a weak w tavtK "hen is pronounced tawuk and populaly misspelt tauk. ‘Phe personal and local name Mustafa Bey is generally pronounced Mustabey or Mistiey. 98,5 In cojuntion wth an ofthe back vowels, 0, and thes ace pronunced ain gates fale respectively arg “chet ga cow Withee vowel and hey ‘nepaltzed ks Engh in angular and ein ere respect: ek tea? pronounced peeiek; Ree "cut pronounced EID keg pace’ pronounced lool. The paletazation of {he tal is eponse forthe nthe Engh form ofthis at sample, fos Thue Arabic and Pesan borrowings however, @ and Kare sia plats conjuction wie and. Tein such eases4 onTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY be that the circumflex is used: gvur ‘infidel’ pronounced grawur (hence the i in the old-etablished English spelling qian’ ef Kiazin, the usual English transcription of the name Kazim) ‘mahkiim ‘condemned’, Kibus ‘aightmare’, pronounced ma lum, krabis The cizcumflex in these words is solely o indiate palatalization and has nothing to do with vowel length Some inconsisteney arises feom the fact that Ke may stand for both the Arabo-Persian and 3 (respectively & and q in English transliteration). The second ofthese leters represents ak atticus Tated atthe uvula, the nearest English counterpart being the sound ‘of ein cough. Further, inital @ may represent Persian g or Arabic ath. In the combinations a = ghd and ka < qi, the crewes ‘cannot be use to show that the vowel i long because i would be taken rather as showing—falsely— that the ot kis palatalzed "To avoid ambiguity in such cases, the length ofthe a i shown by weting it twice: Katil ‘marder* but Kaatit “ourderer, This device is regularly employed only ia Kaatil but may be met with also in gaamuz ‘obscure’, gaasip “wsorper, kaab. astringent” Kaabile ‘midwife’, Kadir ‘mighty, and kaant ‘convinced sl of which are more usvally spel with single a Another complication anises from the fat that itis no more natural for Turks than for English-speakers to pronounce a back ‘consonant with a front vowel; ex. if one tries to pronounce hing ith the inital Consonant of cough the vesting sctnd is a8 much tun-Tutkish as it is un-Englsh, Consequently Arabic qi ie tran- soibed as ka, while gi (written giy in Arabi liters) ought to be anceribed 25 kay. In fact, however, although Arabic gimat= “value! appears as kiymet, in ther Arabic borrowings in which 438 followed by long i, such as haggat.“teuth and tag "cone tempt, the convention isto use doted i: hakikat, talkie. ‘The phonetic spelling hakiykat, occasionally seen in the early years ‘of the new alphabet, i no longer in general use. Tn most Anatoli elects itil I is pronounced as g, media and final K a8 the velar fiative kb, the sound heard in German ‘ach! So Korma ‘do not fear’ may be heard as gorkhis, gok ‘much’ as chokh. In standard ‘Turkish the of aliba ‘pre: sumably" is often pronounced as k, 40. 8 Yumusak ge is a concession to the traditional speling of ‘Turkish inthe Arsbo-Persan alphabet I represents te separate letters of that alphabet, oS” g and gh. The latter — the ‘ee er ee ee es RE wee aged to nounced and sometimes spelled kovmak, ovmak, ovalamak Ce ca ogermek ‘to become blue’, 8BUn ‘portion’, Or ‘accustomed’ Tne spdled Grek, dlvaneky sdvmek, givermek Oran, atte Gers Bia conjncon si on vowes had rye}: Blo doer "worn to common Fein iwi ger "aher"and fer i he wna hard ett nc atea of 9 but weve nee spe Sino pronounced iy oer prio, Mca rolary bros Bak tn oy aya ny 11h In conjunction with any of the narzow vowels 4, u, Oy pitcalarly when it ends ¢sylabl, his sometimes pronounced Inore heavily than otherwise, like the Arabi pharyagal unvoiced Itiative 2 mt “nai, ablamnusTime-tee' hnyar ‘cucumber’, intiyar ‘aged’, ruh ‘soul This is not duc, a8 some Arabists suppose, to a’ memory of the spelling of such words in the Pate One Tari Baoan Qe we Ye SiR ort sted Tas plye ie ow te ramen ok "omnes pol capt hago‘ ORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY yaa, Arabo-Pet ‘The ft in the common masculine name Mehmet is silent in standard Turkish, there Being a compensatory lengthening of the first vowel. The spelling and pronunciation Muhammed are reserved for the name of the Prophet, while the intermediate stage Mehemmed is used in scholarly works for sultans f the ‘ame. In some regional dialects the h is pronounced in Mehmet but i silent in Alimet, with compensitory lengthening of the frst vowel. The of the name Ethem is also lable to be est in ‘pronunciation, ‘The final h of sahih ‘correct is dropped in writing a8 well as specch when iis used as an adverb meaning ‘eally's specch the first his sometimes dropped too, In sipshod speech intervocalc his sometimes dropped together with its preceding ‘vowel, so muhafaza ‘protection’ may be heard as mafaes, Allah ‘agkina “forthe love of God! is pronounced as one word without the ah ‘The expletive Allahum: seversen ‘if you love your God, for Heaven's sak’ is even futher contracted, to slisen, The h of hhanum ‘lady’ regularly disappears, together with the preceding vowel, when following a name ending in e or a: Ulviye hmm Fatma hanim are pronounced ulviyinun, fatminim, So too ia Persian borrowings compouniled with Bhine ‘house's postabane “post ofe’, hastahane ‘hospital’, eczahane ‘chests shop? are nowadays spelt and pronounced postane, hastane, eczane, all with long a in the midale syllable. “English-speaking students must take cate aot to mispronounce the leter-combinations ph, sh, and th: eg. ph in kitiphane “Iibrary" is pronounced as in phil; sh in Ishak ‘Tease’ ay in ‘mishap: th in methetmnek ‘to prise’ asin muhatch n alphabet; itis a popular and not @ leamed prov 12.1, As in English, this letter represents two totally different sounds, the ‘clear P of lit and the “dark I of eval Cleat 1 i formed towards the front of the mouth and is naturally produced in conjunction with the froat vowel, while dark I formed in the hollow of the palate, comes naturally with beck vowels. Thus we find clear 1 in yel ‘wind’ and Kole ‘save’, dak ln yu "yea and yol ‘way’ In foreign boerowings, however, a complication arises, such aa we have met in considering g and I, In Arabi, lis cea ‘except in the name of God, Allg" In French it is always clea, "That why the Arabic ne “AM ‘ave fA pte Abda the czcumile used asa reminder ofthis. "Ths the Hof Ham [pronuntation of fri, but is quite audible; in Turkish spelling, eer ate ceed ae 14. y Following 2 font vowel and prcsing » consonant ¥ is Ivey aie bt lengthen the poeeing vowel: tee maternal rn Oe ho SRO ee Naan ROGER Bay Bes cn” Bann Snr X Tih Di Kame phen iii ha hun te Gach See pre ese nt: ORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY 146 pronunciation between sta and se Ether. Turkish it may be Pinay nding fran og Arte tal tp (hme) te seeondary, sunding fr ‘ayn. The later ts 2 woeed pharyng fuip; to produce i, udnts of Avie ve sometimes tld 80 Sing afar down the sale they cana hen one not ower. Te isasdifclt for Turk for other noneAnibe. The potal sop, ‘both primary and secondary, is preserved in spelings (0) Te avid ambi: alin of he wi’ gn. of te but tel'in “denunciation (Arabic an) Kura lage (Arable pd but kur’a ‘conscription by lot’ (Arabic gur'a). 2 (In high se ot of reps orth wtinal aie spelingpariculaly of religous terms: ger't “pertaining tothe sacred law’ (shar't), Kur*an ‘the Koran’ (Qur'an). 7 1 is preserved in pronunciation but not in writing when intervoelic ain midafan “defence” (mudif') eoss reget” (tern) Otherwise the moder practices tot the sponrephe in writing and to neler the pot stop in speating: gana ar (ont) rnermu ofl na mir) mesee-prblen (mala) Ifthe glotal stop is ard fi Beene the peer fo clery, pedand, or speaking lowly and deiertly. 16. Doubled consonants. Th nts. These are not pronounced separately, but their enunciation is spread over a longer time that thet af a single consonant: bata ‘west’ but batt it sank eli ‘his hand” but ell ‘itty’; iti mit did he go?" but gittim mi ‘did T go?” ‘The final consonant of the accented syllable of interjections is sometimes doubled: yazik or yazzak ‘a pity? bravo or bravvo ‘well done!” Similarly 0 sant ‘straight sway", the 0 being ac. ented, is regularly pronounced with a doubled s, though not s0 spel Doubled final consonants ia Arahic borrowings are simplified inco single consonant, exespt when the addon of 8 ule hig sig oto hte eames reps the Ane 1 maria ste ie pronounced at tw Frou i but et The Nee es Sonat, As some Attic See eo er en Sera 1 fy mms of into sf meaning by te rete se Hereeon set, te rat a ltd eco me har ORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY . consisting of or beginning with a vowel makes the doubled con Stinantpronounceable: hagg ‘right’ > hak, ace. hakkt; badd uit” had, ace, hadi; full “cotlity" > Kl, ace, Kb “afio“pardon’ ~ af, acc. aff, with the orignal assimilated to the f'Phe doubled is Tost in tamizs ‘contact’ > temas, ae. ‘wsualy temnast, pedantiealy temasi 17 Consonant-clasters and epenthetie vowels. ‘Two consonants never oocur together at the beginning of native words, if we {xcept the colloquial Brakmak for birakmak ‘to leave", Within Sivord, tis rare to Gnd more than two consonants adjoining When comonant-lusters occur in foreign borrowings they a implied by the addition of a vowel (a) before or (@) within an nial cluster, or (¢) within final cluster (a) French station ~ istasyon; statistique > istatistk; snlendide, = ispikindit (name of an apartment-building ia Taal). Telian seala ~ iskele ‘quay’; sgombro > uskumrt ‘mackerel; spirito ~ ispirto“sleobol. English sew > uskurs teams > Hstimn or istim, (@) Gerinan Schleyp ~ silep “eargo-boat’s Groschen > kuru ‘plane. English train ~ tren, French sport > sapor: lub > Kultip; claseur “- kildsBr “file’. "The tendency among the ‘educated is towards dispensing with such epenthetic vowels in. initial clusters. The time-honoured kurug and silep have no iemative fms, but tren is used side by side-with tiren, kIGp ‘sith Kulp, KIaSBe with kilisOr, (@) Numerous borrowed nouns end in txo consonants, which ‘rurks have difficulty in pronouncing unless the frst is Lor F or linens a vowel is sufficed: Arabic dam ‘name’ > isim, ace. ism; “td justice” > ad, sce. al; gim ‘part’ > kisim, ae Rist; “tglSntlligence’ ~ aki ace. akin; matn ‘tex’ > metin, meta; tr life’ ~ Smiir, sce. Gmail; fkr ‘thought’ > f ce fikrl, Persian shaky ‘city’ > gehir, acc. seb Some borrowings ofthis shape, however, retain the epentheti vowel even swhen vowel i sufficed: Arabic rif ‘class’ > 8 TeUSamuts yr ine’ sate, ace, sates; shir ‘poetry’ > gil, i Persian cahr “poison” > zehir, acc. zehiri; tuk {ohum, sce. tohumu, Presumably the retention of the ey"ORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY a8 ‘ove was viginaly a ulatsm, Therese sgn tha the numer ‘of such words stom the Increuc; pauls requent fn nome ‘apes gee ised of genre forthe date of geht Conversely, some native Words ending in consonant owel consonant deep the origi! vowel whens vowel is ble ofa om ceo, bepin bran’ ac. beya 18, Frcgn dphchngs. The Ania iphthon, writen is sei Ts a eoag of ovens ay topent ay or ey; In her event an cpr vowel appre before «following eononant unless that consonant followel by 2 vowel Mayr food? = hayirse hays Hoan (mete tame) = Hlsejin, ace Mlseyats my tendon: Ome = mest Fscepton’ the Arse dl cing "ym > sym repent vonel “The Arable a phthong, wen aw snl appears as a © the former general taking an pete Novy gs ‘people’ Ravina! ond” = havll"apecment aoe ‘bow’ > kavis; haw ‘pool’ > havuz; the accusatives being avi, kil ka, bk havura Te Engl apt one feat an oon, appt ef and vat th we ees ‘ove thew bing prone opt mine The cossbonog ch era yest ve mt fevts vy ‘ivi sevks yee = ger a tet” nav, Excepting jac tyainy 2 evi nes cee jes ‘want eat, nos Coe nator Smet Ce bevy ace nv healt gl pee bt suing ps Tt rere ‘foot’, ace. aya; ekmek ‘bread’, acc. ekmei{i; sokak ‘street’ (iat ee uae Seat ca, “a ee cee) ou; Bik ‘shy’, ace. QUAL as well as QOKlL Most, however, follow the pattern of kk ‘root’, ace. KOKI, and dok ‘dock, ware house (Engin through Tren ac. dak, " ecm err ter Se a ear naa oo us ORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY " ahengi. In borrowings from western languages the g is usually etained in writing but pronounced as i except by the Ieamed: Keliring ‘clearing’ (a financial tern), miting ‘political meeting” ‘ff. Final postwocaie , vulgarly pronounced ky changes to & before an added vowel: Katalog ‘catalogue’, ace. Katalog; jeolog ‘geologie’, ace. jeologu or jeolog"u, epending on the fetent to which the user of the word regards it as a naturalized part of his voeabulay. Inthe latter example, a in the nex, the Epostrophe dees aot marc «glottal stop but preserves the original f from the usual intervocalc change to lig Yootball league’ ce Tigi or lig; the colloquial form, however, 6 Hk, ace. Mk ‘bp €lG, Jit. An origina b, ¢ (.e, Arabic or Persian j), oF d becomes pg) oF Tat the end of most polysylabic borrowings and some monosyllabic, but seappeare before a vowel: Arabie hitdb “hook? > kitap, ace, Kltabi; ihtyaj ‘need? > ity intiyact; Persian taj cxown" ~ tag, acc. tact; fay? = damat, ace, damadt; French serdnade > serena, acc serenade Tinal p, §, and & are voiced before vowels into b, ¢, and d, regularly. in polysyllables, ceasionally in. monosylables: dip ‘bottom’ ace, dbl; gag ‘tree’ ace, aca; Arabic shart ‘tape’ > gerit, ace. geridi; French groupe > grup, ace. grubu; principe ‘principle’ — prensip, ace. prensibl (the sccusstives grupo, prensipi are pedantic), Care’ mut be taken not to confuse at Morse’ ace ath, with ad ‘name’ acc, ads, of ot ‘grass, ace. ott ‘with the archaic od ‘fire’, ace od. 'A few verb-stems change final to d when a vowel is added, cg, eto dot, aorst eden; git- ‘to go, aorist gider; t= "to posture’, aorst Ber. ‘Fina p and t may arise from a doubled final 6 and din Arabic borrowings, When a vowel is added, the orginal voiced double consonant reappears: mufibb‘irend” > mubip, ace. mubibbi add ‘ejection’ > Tet, ace. £e0dl, There is no current example ff the change from jj 10 ¢: hai ‘pilcimage’ becomes hae, acc hhaces, thus avoiding confusion with hag ‘crucifix’, acc. bgt (© Armenian Whack) The original voiced consonant is similaely preserved in had “limit” (§10, last paragraph), which is hus Biotnguished from hat Tine’, ace. hatts (= Arabic Kia). The hormal unvoiing occurs, however ia serhat ‘irontier’ (< Persian Sar “head, chief-+ Arabi fadd limi’), 2c. Serta® ORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY fae In foreign words which have become part of popular speech the original voiced consonant docs not reeppear before 2 vowel Arabic hab’ “pill” > hap, acc. hapt; French fnbe ~ tip, tc, ‘tipi. set “parapet” (= Arabic sadd) has alternative learned ta lar forms: see. seddl and sett respectively. ‘here was a short-lived fashion in the ninetoen-fities for con= sistntly spelling (though not pronouncing) with, €, al d the absolute forms of all nouns subject to the alternations by, e)¢, 1: Kitab, muhib, ihtiyac, tac, gerid, red, ete. This fashion is reflected in the second edition of OTD (1957) and the thied edition of 7S (1950), but notin the filth edition ot Fld Kelacusse (1959) or VK (1063), which print kitap, muhip, thtivag, tap, gerit, ret, ete. Survivals of the practice may be regarded. ay Idiogyneratc 20. Consonant assimilation in suffixes. When a suffix beginning With ¢, dy or gis added to a word ending in one of the unvoiced ‘consonants ¢,f, hy kB, , $f the ini consonant ofthe sli is unvoiced to ¢, {, ork. The suffix -el denotes occupation: esi ‘old’ eskiet ‘ld-clothes dealer’, but elektrik-gi ‘electrician’! ‘The’ sufi of the locatve cate is =de: lamir'de ‘in emit? but Paris'te ‘in Paris’. The loeative ease of ig ‘work’ is sometimes spelled igde to avoid confusion with Agte “behold”; similarly the locatve of ts “base” (naval, ete) is spelt de to avoid confusion with the dative case Uste of tst “top, The adjectival suffix Ban. atulsgan ‘recleat but umut-Kan “forget Those writers who follow the fashion mentioned at the end of §19, Le, who do not, in writing, eeognize the unvoicing of final b, c, and d, do not unvoice the inital voiced consonant oF suffixes either; eg kltapgt ‘bookller’ they write s kitaber and ‘Sevingte ‘in joy” a8 sevincde 21, Vowels: general ebservations. Turkish vowels are normally short but may be login three situations; se §3o.'The difenence betmeen short and fong vowels is of quantity not quality: the Positions of the speceh organs ie the sme; the change is tn the length of time during which the breath flows. That is why long ‘9 may be writen aa see § 9 thied paragraph and, § 30 (e), Laz ORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY » Vowels ae casted cording to three eriteria 4 “back ng to whether it i the front or () ‘Front’ or "back, according Ins ofthe tongue which interrupts the flow of breath, (0) “Open” of ‘clse’, acording to the amount of space let inctween tongue and palate alternative terns ate ‘high’ and ‘Tow’ {G) Rounded? or ‘anrounded’, according tothe position of the lips. ‘The cight vowels of standard Turkish a tabulated thus: ch enir 2. a. A back open, nrounded vowel ke the a of Fre 2 over Eageh man, Short, aba the ong the mounts teh a front sound of verging om tht of whieh cat be hearin ere speaker? promaon af sme Bebe ‘Strong an inthe Ioanbal werd ame he” (Caewbere ta) Shor kat stenting, call gorse to the 23.1. A back, close, unrounded vowel. It is very close sound fin tn bot a hes approximation can be chesed by spreading the lips as if to say easy but saying cushion instead the result will be the Turkish agin ‘in winter. Short, dig ‘extern’; long, yaptigim ‘which T did’. ‘The corresponding capital leter is, whereas the capital form of fis ‘in mote: sok 24. 0, A back, open, rounded vowel, like French ‘0h ‘much’, yok ‘non-existent, Long, as in dod ‘he was born, it ig much like the vowel of English daw without the final u-glide. [A word of warning is necessary here. Some English-speakers, wate that Turkish ois not the same 25 English on fot, goto the inher extreme and pronounce goK and yok exactly lke choke and Soke, thus providing thee ‘Turkish friends with 2 good deal of muscment, Turkish 0 isin fact closer tothe vowel of hot than to that of choke25, u. A back, close, rounded vowel, between the vowels of English gut and poo. Short, burua ‘nose’; long, wife ‘luck’. 26, €. A front, open, unrounded vowel, like French ¢ in dre, Short, sever ‘he loves long, teske ‘effect’. It also has closer Pronunciation, verging on the sound of i, which is sometimes Iheard especially in the ist slabes of vermek ‘to give’ and gece ‘night’. ‘These two sounds of e are not separate phonemes in standatd Turkish, In dalet, however, el ‘hand’ and el ‘people’ ‘homophones in the standard langusge, ae pronounced diferent, ‘with open and close e respectively, 27.4. A front, close, unrounded vowel, asin French si closer than. Jn English pin. Shot, dig "tooth long, fine “needle” 28.0. A front, open, rounded vowel, as in German; the French eu in peur Short, gOrmek ‘to see’; long, 8renimek ‘to learn", 29. 0. A front, close, rounded vowel, as in German; the French ‘win mur, Short, Gzim ‘grapes’; long, dajime "button 30. Vowel length. ‘The three situations in which long vowels (q) In foreign borrowings: ghasi(A) ‘warrior forthe Faith? > azi(pronounced giz!); bordbar(P) ‘together’ > beraber (long 8). Many originally Long vowele, however, are shortened: habab(A) ‘roast’ > kebap; baggdl ‘greengrocer’ > bakkal ‘grocer’. This ‘tendency i sil in progress, as may be scen in so recent a borrowing as jeep > cp, with shore ‘A long vovtl ia Arabic borrowings may represent an original short vowel-}hamsa or short vowel-}ayn: la'thir‘efect’ > tesit (e long); ma'tim “known ~ mal (both vowels long). A large number of Arabic borrowings retain an original long ‘vowel in the last syllable when a vowel is added, but shorten it otherwise; tesir is one such, ace, tesiel pronounced tir, Others jn common use inclode hayat ‘life, ace. hayati, zaman ‘time’, ace. zamant; mal ‘propery’, sce. mali; cevap ‘answer, ace, ccevab, all the accusatives with a long. AIL such words are indicated in the OTD. sv ORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY ss Mazel neva nye weft to dete og at vice? pete petate apeling iyman for imam “ait. Yakop Fee ecneol Taney geet writer, abitual ete asst barged no et oe eg forth aie 9+ va etamate parageph), ‘The speling lymet for Arabic lina Neth, mere eso hay tweedy Bfeonnant (sip when Be ee ne its ce 40), any font vowel followed by rhage ak ewe followed by & pronpnced Foe ae sept “rts eyve Hl da “oun wean a rer Oe aed emphasize «wor, one vowel may ena eects tng aye wn ad on. me ier olen oan cen tha would ein ype pt aleve tlana "ever? Ok a ea ees muy outa or Tog tne’ vue gomnk uel ages kat‘, fakanaaaat "a goktna yy ie a moth an expen of io, 7 se tpcied vay ona Donel vot orginally epantedin Arby hams "oy at er a ag om eanpronding wort oo re yates A) karan Peace emuenueritatied 1. Vowel barony, The prnsipe of vel arms, wish ae uth wort formato snd station ed the vermin taney iowa conomy of msc el Capreed inthe ales i the disvwel of words ack wwe, an subsequent seen fact vowels ittbe Ra fore owe sey ee wet olan rst sve Wig) At the fist vowel is unrounded, so too are subsequent vowels i he fist vovel ssn, absequent vowel are ter ronan ss or tvaunda 2nd ope “The Si rl ss on the phenomenon of palatine sir pre tongue Wisk nero the breath ve6 ORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY sr the plate in the production ofthe frst vowel of a word remsis jn use for the production of the subsequent vowels of the word, ‘The second and third rules are based on labial assimilation: if the lips are rounded for the frst vowel they may stay rounded for subsequent vowels, whereas if they are unraunded for the frst vowel the speaker doesnot make the effort to round them subse quently. There ia a partial exception to the seeoad rule: the special ease of words whose frst vowel isa followed by By m, p, OF ¥, a8 the lip-position for the production of these labial con sonants isnot far removed from the rounded postion necessary for the production of ‘The practical effect ofthese eules may be set out thus 1 may be followed by a oF 1 It may algo be fllowed by u, iB, mp, oF V intervenes 1 may be followed by a ot 4 Con a Bon Nena BL lave OT late If the vowel of the frst syllable is, say, e, that of the second will be e orf s, for example, gelen and gelin are posible! words bout gelan'and geldn are aoe. To find the possible third vowels of a word beginning gelin, we look at iin the first column and see that it can be followed by ¢ or 1; thus geline and elint are possible but gelind and gin: are not. It will he observed that, asa rule, o and 8 oceur only in fis syllables, ‘owe! harmony isa process of progressive assimilation, the frst vowel affecting the second, and so on. There are some insances of regressive assimilation; for example, in © bie "the other the @ is fronted to 8 by regressive assimilation o the i which i in twen rounds 10 giving the form Obie, Sec aso bu gin > biigiin in § 32(8) and imparator, menecer, madalya, apotet, and fev in $33 1 pple ia meine pombe wa sanded ‘unde vowel: tn Tor’ naw ifn; Yazup having write now aD iss ORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY ” imi abel hardy her 1) Rater he shel: man sgh" = bun Exceptions to the rules of vowel harmony. These are of four ions noted 34, Vowel harmony of suffixes. Apart fom the excep in § 3 (6) ll suffixes ate subject to the cules of vowel harmony, the quality of the lg syllable of the word determining the quality Gf he vowel ofthe suffix, Some sufixes are twofold, their vowel Sppenng at € after front-rowel words, a8 a after back-vowe! Sond. Other ate fourfl, thir vowel bing i or after une Monded and sounded front vowels respectively, 1 or walter TMnrounded and rounded back vowels cespectively, ‘The suffix of the dative ease, for example, is twofold: -e with front-vowslORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY tae words, gark, ace. sarki; fee the penultimate paragraph of this section (0) Arabi words ending in ¢ oF -at-(p. 8, footnote): dikkat ‘attention’, ace. dikkati; saat ‘hour, clock’, ace, saati. But ‘Arabic feminine plural in at take back-vowe sulfixes:rlyaaiyat athematis’, ace, riyaziyati; ruhiyat ‘psychology’, acc rruhivats, So foo do words ending in t derived from the unvoicing, Ur Arabic final d: igtisid "economy" > iktisat, ace, iktisadi smagsad ‘purpose’ > maksat, cc. maksadt. {@) Arabie monospllables with an a followed by two consonants, ‘the second of which isa front consonant: far “war? > harp, fee. hari: harf “letter of the alphabet’ > harf, acc. harfl; hard “west! garp, ace. arbi. When the two consonants in ich words represent a sound-combination unpronounceable by ‘Turks, the epenthetic vowel isa foe vowel, because of the final front consonant; cf Kavil, kavim, and kavis in § x8, and note flbo: twogl “time’ > vakit, gaér “tomb! > kabir, buhth “is: ‘Guin, topic! = babi; accusntives vakti, kabri, bah, (@) The Persian yar ‘Trend, beloved! (confined to poetry) has frontvowel suffixes: ace, ydri, gen. yarin, dat. yfire, and Yyarim ‘my friend’. ‘The explanation that this isto avoid, eon Jhsion with the mative words yara ‘wound’, yarn, yarum ‘all and yarin ‘tomorrow ie too facil; it could never have happened if yar had not ended in front consonant.ORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY he ‘Some such foreign words, how have be i eer, have become complete raturalze, because they conform to Turkah phonetic pate, fd they therore tke Back-vnel uff: Samat “ake ap) Could precy wll es mative word lke Kant ings wie Stat, id i double a, eld not. Sir aml (Free Cana 'oks is Tsksh 6 kara ‘gl’ and i sean nat So ve asin (ec se. aay by analogy with this word, partly through its frequent use as a ‘mus tem, f(A) icon > fst, ee. fal sought ina f mau i noncTerkth. Likes rab ‘ee crore ‘though marked as non-Turkish by its initial r, belongs to the buckevowel cls Beease of ts everyday ure 7 ‘Arabic words ning ng, eve i they havea rome vowel in the le ae bce! sl hy“ gv 6 vk re nvky ce se J top = ek There 4 tendency t eine more and more of thes exceptional vel mons. Some ler eo slg ana or rather san’at, font-vowel sues; fora your person tod oul be roid onc, ind a irk pe Sion hat ro, hra,havby ands on ilo ay gat to rolu, idraki, harbr, first in vulgar speech, then in educated ‘speech, and finally in writing. : 36, Alteration of vowels Ifa sfx beginning with is added to a esse ending ine or they navtons he eos inte Tas ‘Specie es) te vo arty or whe he bath eel pre aa th el as they rounded, when th ora becomes dor Thm bee -yecck bekliyecek: ania yacak = anfiyacak: (Ure yor adyor kolla-yor > kolluyor, Some writers disregard these changes, rng bekteyecehyanlyacak, tiveyor, Koller Pest Imlé Kilecuzw recommends disregarding ‘them except. before 37. Accentuation: general observations, ‘There is little unanimity aout acentaton among writers on Trish grammar Ax one listens to ‘Turkish being spoken one notices that some syllables fare more marked than others. ‘The problem isto identify the way t4a8 ORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY * thwy are marked; is it by stess or a change in musical piteh?* Inthe present work ‘accent means arise in the pitch ofthe voies. That apert from the nature of the aceent, there is some disagree tent, even among tative authorities, about which syllable in v"eiven word is accented. ‘The reason why such disagreement is Jwasibl iy frst, that word-aecent in Turkish isnot so powerful Win English, where the accented syllable often swamps the Tinaccented (Ext'6rd'a'ry"), or as in Russian, grammars of which have to give rules for the pronunciation of unaccented Sytbles, Secondly group aocent aad sentence-accent (je. intoma- tion) both override word-recent so completely that some euthori- tice have denied the existence of word-accent altogether. An EBnglish parallel will make this clearer. If one were asked to mark where the word-aecent comes in machine, one would naturally put Woon the sccond syllable: machine. Buti the word is used as the Second clement of a compound noun its accent is Tost and the Soupraccent, prevails; swing-mackine. If 2 manufacturer of Novingemachines tlls his wife that he has bought one for her, ther reply may well be an inctedulous “You've baught a sewing- frachine?” with both words and. group-accent lost and the Tentence-eccent on “bought prevailing. 438. Word-accent, With the exceptions stated below, Turkish ronda are oxytone, ie. accented on the last syllable; when an Uytone word is extended by sufixes the accent is on the last lplable of the: word thus formed: gocake ‘chil!,* gocuklar Children’, cocuklarimiz ‘our children, gocuklarunyzin of out hildren’; 0d soon’, odad ‘in the room’, odadakl "that which {ela the room, odadakilée ‘those who are in the room’, odada Kilerdén ‘From those who ate in the room’. Non-oxytones keep the accent on the orginal syllable: téyze ‘aunt, teyzeniz. ‘your fun téyzenize ‘to your sunt’; Amkara’da ‘in Ankara’ 39, Exceptions (9) Place-namesare not oxytene: Anidolu ‘Anatolia’ fstnbul Most are avecnted on their ret syllable: Paris, Zonguldak. ‘Thin rule is particularly to be noted with regard to place-names nT Ba tee einen pie ete cn ero inate mci sible eve en” ORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY tap Which are spelt the same as common nouns: misit ‘maize’ Misur gypt';sitkecl “vinegracller’ Sirkect, « dist of Istanbul; ebék ‘ll, baby’, Beek, vilge on the Borphorur aramdin “ited shep', Karaman, 1 cy of southern Anatolia; ord ‘army’, Orda cty on the Black Ses, Polyylabic plae-names of non-Turkish origin generally retain their orginal acentution:ngitére'Fnglnd’, spay Spain’, “Antalya, Malatya. "There x, however, «tendency forthe seat to go back to the begining of the place-name; residents of Malaya, for example, generally accent the mame of thelr cy on the Gat lle (0) Forcign nouns ussllysctsin their orginal accenuaton: Jokiinta sestarant (Maia Laan) ta ishing’ (Greek idea) rhdyo ‘rao, wiees eked "tan; KOktey “cocks octal partys gazéte“acspaper (Tali gosztt) (6) A numberof nouns denting relatives and living creature: inne ‘mother, abla ‘elder site, rime “husband's iter, yénge ‘brother's wife, hla “psteral aunt, tayze ‘maternal unt, mea “pstsrnal uncle’, gekirge “geass hopper’, karinea “ane, Koka pole-et" (@) Adverbs are usualy accented on the fist yale: gimat ‘now’, sonra after veld ety’, Ansiz or Ansan snl’, Aincak ‘nly. Thi applies alo to adverbs formed from nouns With the addition of a cates: legen from the truth’ But Bérgekten ‘truly In several saver the fic ofthe old instru Teenal ease appesrs: ign ‘in winter, yin in summer” (he fentves, “of winter, of surimer, are spel ientclly Dut are ected’ on the last sllable, "The now of place (XU, 12) are accented on the fst sllbl: bia "this place’, Ora ‘tha plac’, brada ‘here’, Graya ‘thither. So are nouns used adverbilly without sufixes: mibayét “end! but mibayet “inlly' goKIGK “multad’ but g6ktuk ‘fen’ arti “esidue’ but tak "hence fon¥’ So too ae some, but nt al, adjectives used ae adverb: Yel ‘alone Bue yle “nl; sai "corset bt shelly” {G'. On the other hand, Tygon fena “ba and abu “auick” remain oxytone even when used to mean “wel, badly, * Rangole (p. 18) giver fourteen exe f res a ng ertirer ihcare a one, enpcng ht hy muy ae beer seen Wve meer af the sven the wordnet tat O1D sere es ony ne ofthe four and 13 ony they th done ORTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY 2 ‘The third-person singular of the aorist of olmak ‘to ‘Become’, ofr, means not only “becomes But ale all right, O.K." In thie sense it may be accented the fist syllable as an adverb {@) In compound words the accent uevally falls on the end of the feet element: aplik ‘naked’, exilenplak ‘stark naked; bag. thead’-bakiin ‘minister? > bigbakan “prime minister'y bir ‘a-takim ‘set > birtakim ‘several’ (f) Diminutives in clk are accented on the first syllable ‘ifacak tiny’, éveik Tite house’ (2) Polysylabicsufixes, except -leyin and -cesine (§ 40) are accented on the first syllable: gd-Ince ‘having gone’; yap-irak “by doing’. ‘So too are interjection and vocatives: ay ‘come on!” Aferin ‘bravo!’ garsén ‘waiter’ but garson “waiter!” 40, Encltie suffixes, The following sufixes are enclitc; ie. they ‘themselves ate never accented but throw the accent on to the precoding syllable: (@) -Ie ‘with’: momnuniyéte ‘with pleasure’; onda “with him’ (6) -ken ‘while’: yazirkem ‘while writing’ (6), The adverbial suite ~co and its extension -cesine: iylee ‘yell’, hayvineasina ‘bestially (4) ‘The adverbial sufi -leyin (compounded withthe instru ‘mental -in): geeéleyin ‘by night’, akgamleyin ‘at evening’ () The negative efx -me: gel ‘come’, gélme ‘do not come’ anladi ‘he understood’, animads "he did not understand (J) The suffix yor of the present tense: geliyor ‘he is coming” (@) The sufixed forms ofthe verb ‘to bes se § 41 (2). (8) The vowel ofthe Persian iafet; see T, 26. Part ofthe controversy about Turkish aocentution is over the question whether these sufixes are propery described as eneitic for stonal, ie, without accent. ‘The former seems correc, a6 we see if we take snon-oxytone auch as bagbakan (§ 39 (@)) and add “les bagbakanla, with the accent before Ia at least ab noticeable ‘as that on bag. Those who take the opposing view adduce, eg. side ‘simply’ from sadé ‘simple’ and éyrica separately" from ayri ‘separate, in which the syllables immediately before the bili are not aecented; these words, however, simply have the socentuation normal in adverbs.on oNTHOGRAPHY AND PHONOLOGY Lae AL. Encltic words. The following words are enclite: (Those parts ofthe verb ‘to be’ which are nt formed from ‘the stem ol-; they are encltic both when independent words snd when suffixed: arkadagim id or arkadagimdt "he wes my friend’; evil Ise or evllyse “if she is marred’; kimse "person" (V, 24): memninum ‘I am gla’ (6) The interrogatve particle mi. ‘The rise in pitch before this particle is most noticeable, predominating over the word-accent anfimadi ‘he did not understand” but anfamadi mi? id he not understand?" When the present tense, howeves, is followed hy this particle i retain the accent on the penultimate: geliyor “he is coming’; gellyor mu? “is he coming? gl) IE Pospositons: slain gIbI “ike you’; Benim. igin (d) The conjunction ki: diyorlie ki Ginmyacak they are ‘ying that it ill not happen" (note also the accent before the negative suf in the last word). (6) "The adverb de: bide ‘we too If more than one ofthese words come together, the accent is on the worl preceding them: blz de mi gidelim? ‘salle go too?” 42. Group-accent. The two most obvious features of this are () That in iafet- groups (UT, x7) the accent is normally on the fiat element, on the syllable which earres the accent when the word is spoken in isclation: Tirkiye Cumhuriyet! ‘Republic of Turkey"; yemék edast“dining-roon’ (b) Demonstratives are accented when they qualify nouns: bit ‘gocuk this child’ but ocak bu “t's only a child (Vs), 43, Intonation. Sentence-accent or intonation is partly emotional, depending on the feelings and emphasis which the speaker wishes to convey, and partly syntactical and automatic, The general rule is that arse in pitch denotes that the thought isnot yet complete, ‘whereas a fall in piteh marks its end, Thus the subject is uttered with arising intonation, the predate with a falling. "The protsis of a conditional centesce likewise ls a rising intonation, the pods «falling. Questions and exclamations have arising ine n THE NOUN 1. Genes. Turkish s devoid of grata ender, no does the AE pslne et the forms of ord, The third-person pronsn SSEPy ta hese’ andy elir ana he se it exes’ “Pane tually distinc umes forthe male and female of mst donee imal, aygin salon, Kneak "e's bo “tu, at Ten The gender of ober ara thine i esesry Ip the use of dg "ferae” oe erkek "male: dist kedi "female nt ere ay ale bear ‘ius chy eos penne of er ye aii snay be shown by singe ora woman in apposition. Lay fatebe pt student’ kadin.garsom "waives kadin Karaman ‘levine kare "brother or site’, Kakardey ten as one word) ae” rsSge ts se keno the Fastin posted by French and ct or showing gener: acess akin female dance is akkase (A) or dane; female cle skate (4) "he rm Cine sl gyn the netsing Kivalige ee’, imparatrige“empres garige ‘Ruin’ (2 brabic, inertia, cara). Modeled on theses the nealgins tamriga "golden from the same of the old ‘Tamh ey-god Ta "Phe ocd mum dy, orginally if of Kn han) i eld by same to emtsin an ate Turn feinine ending. {he scr Turceh ein ‘ou’ orginally “wae of 4 Beg Spey tngh te evdence sigh "The ening more prob Stuy ch poses suf of the fseperon singular 2, Number: the Turkish plural, "The plural is formed by adding er to the singular; talebeler ‘students’, kizlar ‘girl’. The + Sade Copan in erate "Tage “Kaa” fin Kellan Ser Dav Site np ssp, tages tne hana uy deve om Devan ‘ioc i sD eth ae* tue Nous ns ‘singular? form. of the noun, however, is numerically nextal (hence ts we ater numbers), denoting category or an india Inember of that category: polls "the police’ or “the polceman’, bir polis ‘a policeman’, plier te policemen’ git agar he tes pocuy, Dir gitryurar he write poem’ lleler yarar “he wits poem's easuaulcspionage’, bi cas ' ase of espionage!) ahramankk “heroism Kaliramanliklar “dco of heroism’; ilk “goodnes ylikler "beneactions "Thus ‘adigahn bi iene of aut, means ‘ne of the category “sltan’, certain sultan” and rnay well Bogin a faye Bu Padigahlarin birt means ne ot fall the historical Iie ‘ho have held the it, one of the Salta A singular verb i commonly used with an inanimate plrat sujet the plural verb being sed for individuals: The tse of 2 plural verb with a singular subject, second or third peron, is 2 atk ofrexpet. Se further XVI, 1 and 9), ‘Personal names may be usd inthe pl ie our ‘the Joneses" to refer toa family in Turkish the plural may be of» given name 2% well as ofa surname: Mehimetler “Mehmet and fis smi GF.$ 35, end ad IN to cls Bal ord eenir ws we a om of aes among lervishes, even when speaking toa singe person Popularly supe owed t0'be the plural ofthe present pariple of ermek 40 ain ii in fat the plural of eren, ill an ancient regula Piel fe man ‘Numralar sully flowed hy singular noun:kark harem “forty thieves Ug slahgor hice mosketers,on ikl ada “telve ‘and, Th use of a plural non ater a numeral shows that the ‘etsons or things in question frm a partly wellknown and linet ety: kare haramiler “The Foy Thos oy ele gorlar "The Thuce Musketers' on ik daar ‘he Dodecanese”! ‘The plural uf may beaded Url othe mera Tourten? json d6rt and the fourteen ofier dropped from the Commitee of Nationa Unity in November 960 were refered to in the press din conversation as ondoruer "The Fourteen So karKlat "The Fory Saint) 3. Arabic plurals, Arabic as two typeof purl (@) The exer or sound plore mascline i made by ad forthe nominative, infor the acute and genitive skis "Now tthe Dadecancates tin te ery a Ad re + One acon exeptin rain the Righty Guided!” (ai being are pmitgas 6 tiplted aw nore ral eter dos 0 Sahm Chigte! ieee pguoh of $2. A modern pale ‘urdan Osmani) took their Arabic feminine forms in the official name of the Empire: Devlet-t aliyesi Osmaniye "The High Ottoman State The Turkish words for ‘tome’ and ‘same’, bazs and aymt, are espectivly the Arabieba'd “pare and ‘ayn ‘counterpart’ with the Persian iafet, and mean literally ‘part of and ‘the counterpart of Purists condemned the use of native ‘Turkish words in Persian inafe, ut many Turkish words were in fat so used in Ottoman phrsology, eg. ord ‘army’ and sancak ‘banner’ in ordu-yu hiimayun nd. saneajie serif, “Imperial Army" and ‘Noble Banner, Le. the standard of the Prophet. Such phrases were hssed 36 alat-1 meghur ‘widely disseminated mistake’, ie Solecism legitimized by usage. Te plural of tis term, incidental ‘was galatat-1 meghure, the adjetive being made feminine to hares withthe feminine plural noun. An oft-quoted saying rans: Balat-r meshur lOgatei fasihten yedir ‘the generally used Solecism is better thin the chaste locution’ "Nowadays, Persian izafet compounds which have become part of the standard vocabulary are usually speed as one word: akst- Seda ‘echo’ (reflection of voice’); hikmetivucit ‘raion dtr Akliselim ‘common sense’. These present no difculty because " Oriilly sues ger cI 0 a en» ‘THE NOUN M6 they will be found in the dictonaey. In less well-acclimatized compounds the rue isto separate the elements, with a hyphen between the fist and the vowel of the Persian izafet: ceridest {gamur ‘organ ofthe gutter-press newspaper of mud’); wuzuh-u Devan “clarity of exposition’; muhtae-t himmet ‘needful of help’; Gful-l nabehengim ‘untimely demise’; mefhum-w smuuhalif ‘contrary concept, converse ‘Some writes, however, make compounds of either type into ‘wo separate words, the frst ineneporating the vowel ofthe iafet; hhikmeti viieut, vuzuhu beyan, et. Further, some may limit the vowel harmony, rejecting W and Wand wating, eg. vuzuhet beyan, iful-i nabehengim, s* being closer 10 the original Persian pronunciation. ul THE ADJECTIVE 1. General observations. ‘The dividing line between noun and adjective is thin one, buts still worth drawing. I we take asthe Criterion ofa noun the permissbility of using the plural, ext, and personal sulfixes after it, or the indefinite article Dir before i ‘ery few of the words classed 2 adjectives inthe dictionary will bbe excluded, biyk ‘big, old’ Dlytklerim “my elders; hasta wang’; Avrupalt ‘European’, Avrupaliva ‘to the European’ The only large clase of exceptions, i. of adjectives which are not ‘used a8 nouns, ae those formed with the Tuskish suffixes ~sh, “ms, -()mtrak, and -(s)el, the Arabic I, and the Persian ane and -varf, 10 which may be added recent borrowings like ‘demokratik and kiltirel ‘On the other hand, if We take asthe criterion ofan adjective the permissiblty of putting it in the comparative and superlative ‘degrees, vast numbers of nouns willbe excluded, In other words, although most adjectives can be nouns, the converse does not hod good. 2. Awtributive adjectives. These precede their nouns: eesur ‘adamalar ‘brave men’; uzun yol ‘te long road’. Two exceptions: {) kare and Kip, ‘square’ and ‘eubie,fllow names of units ‘of length, asin French from which they are borrowed: Kabra ‘iz Glgiimt 3.572 mil kare (9.251 kilometre kare) di ‘the area of Cyprus is 3,572 square mile (9st aquare klometce) ‘bir metre kip or bir metrektip “one cubic metre’ (®) merhum ‘the late is sometimes used after the name of the deceased instead of before, in imitation of Arabic usage. 3. The indefinite article. ble ‘oe" may’ beso termed although the ume is not entirely appropriate. One reazon is that the noun introduced by bir may be inthe defined accusative; see XVI, 4.a ‘THE ADJECTIVE Hh Another difference from what we understand in English by the indefinite article is that bie may introduce a noun in the paral, the effect being vaguer than with singular noun: bir sey smiruldands "he mumbled something’, but bir geyler muriidand) ‘he mumbled something or other", bir zamantar hen de {goculktum ‘once Ttoo was 2 chil, where bir zaman would be {oo precise: ‘at one time’ In this Itter example it should leo be noted that bir isnot used before gocuk, although the English Ina ‘a child’; its omission is customary with the complement of sch verbs a8 “to he and “to become’ When it serves as an indefinite article, bir usualy comes be- toveen adjective and noun: Biytik bir tarta ‘a lage fel, gzel ‘bir bahge ‘a beautiful garden’, When it means ‘one’, i must precede the adjective, just like any other numeral: Iki kgOk farla satts, bir biyiie tarla aldt ‘he sold two small els, he bought one large fil. "This must aot be taken to imply that bie when it precedes an adjetive and noni is slays to be tanslated by ‘one’; English idiom may sometimes call for ‘a or ‘any (ef XVI, 4): The Key to understanding this point lies in the basic Principle of ‘Turkish syntax: whatever precedes, qualiis, ‘The essential difference between giizel bir balge and bir gUzel Dahge, both of which may translate ‘a beautiful garde’, is that the fest means a beautiful member of the class garden’, the second a member of the class ‘beautiful garden’, lize! bie bahge is a beautiful garden a6 dstiner from a lee beautiful or even frankly ugly garden; Dir zel bahe is beautiful garden as Aistinet from a beautiful meadow or an ugly forest. 44. Compasison of adjectives, The comparative degre is expressed by putting the second member af the comparison (introduced in ‘English by ‘than’ in the ablative case: afr ‘heavy’, kurgun-dan tir “heavier than lad’ “Less... than” is translated by putting faz lilo" betsveen the second member in the ablative ease and the aujective: kurgundan az ajar ‘less heavy than lead’. daha ‘more’ ‘nay be inserted for emphasis: Kurgundan daba air, kurgun- dan daha az agin, It is not csental, however, except in the absence oft second member, eg. in this hammer is cheaper, that fone is stronger’ bu gekig daha ueuz, Bteki daha salam, or ia such “Boating comparative’ as ‘For Whiter Washing’ daha beyaz camagurigin ms ‘THE ADJECTIVE “ ‘The ancient comparative sufi -rek, which appears in a few diminutive (IV, 1 ()}, retains its orginal force in yeftrek ‘better, best’, rom ye ‘good vet and yeirek, also spelled yey, yeyrek, survive oly in proverbs. “The superative degree is expressed by en ‘mos’: Istanbul en ‘iyi gehrimizdie ‘stenbol is our greatest ciy"; bu toprak fen az verimlidir ‘thie cols least fertile. 5. Arabic and Persian comparative, ‘The Persian beter ‘worse ‘seurs mostly in proverbs. ‘The Arabic elative, which serves as both comparstive and superlative, ie familiar tous from the slogan Allah akbar “God is most grea. In Turkish it is currently repre- sented by elzem ‘essential’, the Arabic alzam, eltive of im ‘necessary’: enfes. “most delightful” (enfar = nef); akdera “prior (apdam < qadim ‘ancient’); ender ‘most rare" (andar < nadir); hiven “eases, very cheaply” (alan = ayn). Often these swords are reinforeed in Turkish, a daha beter ‘worse’, en enfes. “most delight 6. Intensive adjetives, The only reqular* use of prefiation isto intensify the meaning of adjectives and, less commonly, of saverbe. The prefix, which is accented, is modelled on the fst syllable of the simple adjective or adverb but with the substitution fof m, pyr, or # for the last consonant ofthat sable, Te is hard to dacran aay principle’ governing the choice of contonant, except that p is commoner with back vowels than with front ‘vowels, The following list includes the commonest of such forma- tons; the meaning of the intensive is not given when itis obvious from the meaning of the simple word, as apagik ‘wide open, manifest’ from aguk ‘open’, or yepyent ‘brand new’ from yeni agile open apagike bbagka other bbambaska totally diferent belli evident besbelli beyaz white bembeyaz, bok ordure bombok utterly useless bos emonty bombos bata whole Dusbiitin altogether, entirely "be eacading ach cron he een coinage Gn firmek to forsee6 THE ADJECTIVE m6 ‘gabuk quick sgargabuk cavlak — naked, bald eascavlak ‘auziak 7 dumdiziak dora straight dosdogru dolu full dopdolu gk blue gomgok Kara black apkara kate hard askatt Jarmua red kipharmeas kat, kapkazit kuru dy kupkurw Kitik drunk iskiitik mavi blue masmavi mor violet mosmor sari yellow sapsart sikt tight ssumsikt siyah black simsiyah tala inate taping) tartar gute empty tamam complete tastamam tazefeesh raptaze temiz clean tertemiz toparlak round tostoparlak wun long upuzun yasst fit yamyasst yeni new yepyent yesll green yemyesil Irsegular ar: 4plak ‘naked, cuseyplak as well a gieeaplak: sagiam ‘helt, sapasaBlam; yalnr aloe’, yapayanz Well as yapyalnez; gevre ‘eeumfcrenee’ gepogevre as well sgepgevre ‘all round’; ind in) daylight, eupegdndd ‘in Ire dayigh's dz “Ane, didi “absolutly At and dpe dla “downigh, openly"; parga ‘pics’, paramparga “broken tw bite. The itenivestruklam or sizusklam ‘sopping wee is current, although the simple stklam "we sno Tonge We From ey, an eater form of Ash “good comes epey “eather a lof Other such formations are sometimes ereted in speech without svtainng general eurency, eg Bepegeng fom Heng young” Iv NOUN AND ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES "Tait chapter deals with the suffixes whereby nouns and adjectives ae derived ftom other nouns and adjectives. 1, Diminutives, ‘Phe diminutive sufixes are -rek, -eek, -celiz, ik, and ce, of which the fist two are no longer productive, Before these suffixes, adjectives invariably and nouns usually drop final (@) -rek, the ancient comparative sufi (IT, 4), survives with diminutive force in aewrak ‘rather biter (act ‘bitter, bozrak “ght grey’ (bot. ‘grey’, KOgirek ‘rather small (ktigOK ‘small, tufarak ‘rather tiny” (wfak ‘tng’, algarak ‘loses’ (algak Tow’) (6) eek survives in oyuneak toy’ (oyun game’); in yaverueak (alto yavrucuk), the diminutive of yavru "the young of an animal’; in bibyicek “bigish’(biyik "big’) and Kiigticek ‘very Small’, orayacak ‘all that way" (oraya ‘thither’) is provincia (6) ~ceilz, an extended form of -cok, is particularly common «with nouns denoting living beings and conveys sense of affection, sometimes anixed with pity: adameagiz "the poor wee man", Kizcagiz ‘the dear liwle gi’, ayvancagz “the poor livle ‘creature’ (hayvan ‘animal’, KOyeeBa ‘the dea litle village’ (G) -eik, the most widely used diminutive sufi, throws the accent on tothe first syllable: Aygecil ‘litle Ayesha’; Mehmet~ sik “litle Mehmet, the affectionate term for the private soldier evelk ‘litle house's algaetk ‘very low, humble’ (algak). From ‘bebek ‘baby’ and Kopel ‘dog’ come bebecike and képecile, les commonly Debekgik, Kopek tk, ‘A few monosylables vary slightly feom the regular pattern: az “tle, few" makes azacile and azicike ag well 28 azedk; dar ‘narrow makes daraeik; bie “one? makes bieicik “unique (¢)-ce has a modifying effect om adjectives: giizelce ‘quite good (but not so good as the simple glizel), seyrekge ‘rather infte- ‘quent’,uzunea'rather long’ denggequite young It makes a few ‘Bouns from verbal nouns in -me (X, 7): fom bilme ‘guessing’Fy NOUN AND ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES IN, bilmece ‘viddle’; from bulma ‘finding’, bulmaca ‘puzzle’, especialy ‘crossword-puzle’; from kapmia ‘catching’, kapmaca ‘the game of pusein-the-corer'; from gekme ‘drawing’, cek- sece ‘drawer’. This sux, which is accented, must not be con- fused with the enclitic -ce which makes adverbs; see XI, 2. It may be followed by elk as in genigpectk ‘pretty wide’, yakan- ceacik ‘quite nea’. 2. Diminutives of personal names. Apart from those formed with elk, these do not seem reducible to a rule; there is no ebvious zeason why people nmed Mustafa chould be addressed Mistik, Commonly the fist sllable only ofthe name i retained and to it ie added 4,0, ora syllable ending in g: Ereliment > Erci; Neriman > Neri; Mehmet > Memig or Memo; Metin > Metig; Fatma > Fatog (also, alfectedly, Fats or Fatt; Hasan ~ Hasso; All and Aliye > Alig; ‘Cemal > Cemo: Ibrahim > Ibo, ‘The forme in -o are accented on the fist syllable. They are more familiar and socially less acceptable than ‘those in +5 ef. the difference ia English between Bert and Bertie 28 diminutives of Albert 3. -i)msi, -@mtrak, si, These three sufixes in some contexts hhave diminutive effect but basicaly they mean ‘resembling’, like English ~ih in soomantsh, The initial 1 of the fist two is lost after vowels, (2) -{i)mtrak, the a of which is invariable in the best author, {used with adjectives of colour and tate; beyazumtrak whitish’; egilimtrak "greenish'; ekgimtrak ‘sourish’ (ekg "sour: Acimtrak ‘rther bitter, ‘This suffix is sometimes spel with What secms to be an epenthetic vowele.g. beyazimuirak—but may be a survival ofan older form. (@) -()mst is added to nouns and adjectives: maifara ‘cave’, ‘maaramst ‘cavernous'; duvar ‘wall, duvarimst ‘wall-like'; rapor ‘report’, raporumsu bir yaa ‘a report-like writing’ ‘a feeble atempe ata report (6) sl is attached only to nouns and adjectives ending in a con- sonant, #0 cannot be confused with the post-vocalc form of the ‘third-person possessive sfx: erkek ‘mal’, erkekst ‘mannish's {gocuk “child, gocuksu ‘childish’. But ‘foolish’, from budala “Yoo! ¢ budatams, while budalasr mean ‘his foo WW44 NOUN AND ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES » 4. ci. This sls padded to the singular of nouns and occasionally to adjectives and adverbs to denote persons who are professionally or habitually eoncerned with, or devoted to, the object, person, oF ‘quality denoted by the basie word: work gg workman, smile sted silkman tooth diggh dentist, forman forest formant forester ‘Atatirk ‘Atatirkgh Ataurkist halk people Ihalkgt populist or adherent of the People’s Party gta noise Sirlticd noisy (of people) millliyet nationality nationalist yol rood teaveller nat obstinacy nats abstinae alan falachood vyalancs Tir, deciver kagak contraband Kkagakgt — smogele sikiyet complaint sikayetst complainant Roentgen (dicaverer of X-rays) rémtgencl radiographer or Peeping Tom, voyeur stato status quo statikocu conservative sifir zero sifirer schoolteacher ‘who is lavish with zeros aka jake sakacr joker ‘merhum ‘the lst." ‘merhumen devotee ofthe Tate Prime Minister Menderes eski old feskici ——old-clothes man. toptan wholesale toptanet wholesaler Dele (clang) fre, gratis beleygl scrounge, arsaite ne what? eel of what profession?fo NOUN AND ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES ——W%,5 [eanay be atached toa phrase: havat ‘ready’ elise ‘lothing’, hhazir elbisect ‘dealer in ready-made clothing’; evet efendimm ‘yes, sir’, evet efendimei ‘yes-man’ Tn popular speech itis used cedundantly with nouns denoting occupation such a8 gofbr “driver, kasap (A) “butcher, arson ‘waiter’ gofbred, kasapst, garsoneu, Cf vie, XIV, > 5. -li, This is added to the singular of nouns to make nouns or adjectives which denote: {@) Possessing the objector quality indicated by the basie word: yeker sugar yekerli sweet Gikkat attention, care Gikkatlt attentive, careful at horse ath Forseman esim picture resimll illustrated mit hope Gmitli hopeful akil intelligence kill jntellgent Dulue cloud Dulutly cloudy girdled noise BUFUITOA noisy (of Hinge) rahmet divine mercy rahimetli deceased (©) Possessing the object or quality ina high degree: gene jaw geneli—tallative aha price ahalh expensive Iz speed hut pid sevst affection sevgili beloved yap ae yas aged (6 Belonging toa place o institution oy silage oy villager, peasant gehir city gehirlt —cityedweller Istanbul Tseanbutta citizen of Istanbul Gin China Ginll Chinese Nicerya Nigeria Niceryalt Nigerian lise Iyoee liseli Iyece student Osman (funder of the Osmants Ottoman (member Ottoman or subject ofthe ‘dynart) dynasty) 16 NOUN AND ADJECTIVE SUF: [Added to the name of a colour, it makes ‘meaning dressed in that colour: 1 adjective or noun siyah black ssiyahls dressed in black armies red armuzilt dressed in red It may be added to phrase: uumun boy long stature uzun boyly tll eng omuz broad shoulder genig omuztabroad- ‘shouldered forta yas. middle age forta yaglt middle-aged Kemet yanak red check kermizr yanakla ted checked ‘bir mart tarih-i the dste bir mart tarihit dated 1 March March samur mud amurla maddy gamurlu yz muddy fice Gamurlu yUzi0 muddy. faced eutlans use (S, 11) ullansgit serviceable yaygin kullanss' wide use yaygin Kullanisht widely sed “The aufic appears tobe used redundantly in bombell ‘convex? < French bombe ‘convex’. In ganjanls ‘shot (of silk; other forms ‘being Janfamtt and cancanlt) itis not redundant, a8 the French ‘hangean is sed as a noun in Turkish i the sense ofthe quality possessed by shot silk: ganjan kumaglarct ‘shot fabrics. 6. esol «ll. Pais of words of opposite meanings, each with a ‘sulixed li, are used adverbially and adjectivally: gece-Ii ‘lindiz-10 galigmak ‘to work night and day"; kuz-lt erkek-li ‘Sgrenct gruplars "groups of pupile including both girls and boys’. The basic words may be adjectives: uzak-h yalan-tt Kkahkahalar “hurts of laughter both far and near’ The -i in thin oe ie historically ditinet from that discussed i the preceding «The roti thee ied for inet inn the ance aguasNOUN AND ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES ——1V,7 7. la, This suffix means ‘without’: Umitstz ‘hopeless’ sonsuz niles’ gapkastz ‘hates’, girUltUstiz ‘noiseless’, dikkatsiz “earslece’, tarihsiz “undsted’ It may be added to pronouns as vel 26 nouns: onsua ‘without him’, sensiz ‘without you’. See also XI, 12, 8. lik (a) Added to nouns or adjectives, it makes abstract nouns: gizel beautiful aizellik beauty Kolay easy Kolaylik ease, facility yi good ‘yi goodness, ‘good action asker soldier askerlik military sgocuk child gocukluk childhood, childish chilishness iki 80 sit duality igs ‘workman {slik ‘workmanship Kagak-g1 smuggler Kagakgilke smuggling Atatirk-ci Ataturkist Atatlekeilok Atturkism ikkat-li careful ddikkadilik —carefulness ikat-sie careless ddikkatsialik —carclesness Vulgarly it is added to Arabic abetract nouns: insaniyet “umenity’ > insaniyettik; cf. ofOred, ete, §4, end ‘When “lik is added 9 nouns of rank the esuling word is not invariably abstract but exhibit the same ambiguity ae “the Pre dent’ ice” (the effce he holds or the office in which he works) kaymakamhk may be the rank of lieutenant governor oF his oficial residence or the district he administers; karallle may be kingship or kingdom or reg. (}) Audded to nouns it makes nouns and adjectives meaning ‘intended for or stable for én front ‘nldk pinafore tz cal sulk fatecellar kira hire ial for bir, to It 802 eye ‘gézlk ceverslasses, spectacles 1,8 NOUN AND ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES o amagr linen Baba father sehit martyr Ihastane hospital mahkeme law-coust gelin bride ‘gamagirhik babaltk seit hhastanelik mahkemelik ‘elinlik laundry adoptive father, paternity military (person) ‘brought Delors a court smarriageable ie, mubile, rial, state of being 2 bride (9 Added to numerical expressions it makes nouns and adjec- seksen yilz hundred yl year bir saat one hour fon iki twelve cars ‘araba sseksenlik onluk yilz Halk valk ya yale bie saatik bir yer fon ik ‘arababk bir konvoy ‘octogenarian tenner; coin for note of yearling hundred yearold place one. hour's Journey away acwelve: car convoy,6 NOUN AND ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES 9 ‘Phe numerical expression may be a noun in the loative ease yiiz-de —inaundsed —yilzdellk percentage onda inten ‘ondalik tthe, ten per CE @linde in the day iindetik daily wage (4) Adied to adverbs of time: simdi now for the present bugiin today for today Although these may be translated as adverbs, atin bugnlGk bu kadar yeter ‘that’s enough for today’, they really belong in (2) above; bugimllik means ‘the today-amount 9, dag "This suffix is not affected by vowel harmony but it does appear as -tag after unvoiced consonants, Added only to nouns, it denotes common attachment to the concept expressed by the basie noun, lke English prefixed or sufficed ‘fellow vatan —home-nd vatanday compatriot fellow citizen kul school okuldag schoolmate mestek profession meslektag collexgue din religion dindagco-teligionist, atime, epoch ‘sadag contemporary (jor now) “Two exceptions: kardes not -dag is the standard Turkish for “brother” or ‘sister’ (= karin-dag “womb-fllow’), and ‘name- sake’ i adag with a single although ‘name’ ie ad. ‘The possible explanation forthe latter anomaly is that its second element is not ag but e9 ‘mate’ and this word adag is the most ikelyerymon ofthe eufie dag, "The language reformers have chosen to make thie sul con form to vowel harmony in the neologism ig-teg-Ilk ‘co-operation’ (ig ‘work) and in the resurrected gimtil-des ‘sympathizer’ (originally gBnildag fom gOnil ‘soul, apparently through ‘misunderstanding of the phonetic spelling sed by Redhouse.+ {4 Tinh and Baie Lexicon (Constantinople, 292) 1508: &. TS, ", NOUN AND ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES 6 10. -Ril. This invariable sufic isa provincial. Added to titles ‘or personal names it denotes ‘the house or family of. 2: Kay makamgil, Mehmetgit, aso in the plural Kaymakamgilier, Mehmetgiller. Ie may be sufixed, after a personal suffix, 00 nouns denoting relatives: teyzemgil ‘my aunt's family’, ‘the standard ‘Turkish for this being teyzemaler (IT, 15, end). Tt has been used by the reformers to cain names of plant and animal families: {01 ‘rose’, gUlgiller “Rosaceae; Kedi ‘ca’, edigiller ‘Felidae’ AL, -(G)el. Arabie words ending in the adjectival sufi -F have greatly entiched the Turkish vocabulary; witness auch words as tari ‘historical, dint ‘religous’. Arabic nouns ending ia -at drop it before adding the 1, hence siyast ‘politcal’ (siyaset ‘polities) radi ‘voluntary (irade ‘wil, milf ‘national (mmilet ‘nation. "The language zeformers, in their desire to purge Turkish of foreign elements, advocated the replacement of this useful sfx by -s0l or, when added to words ending in 8 or 7, el. This they employed with foreign boreowings and with Turkish words, Doth existing and manufactured: tarih (A) history tarihsel historic siyaset (A) politics siyasal political ceebir (A) algebra ceebirsel Algebraic Kimya (A) chemistry Kimyasal chemical fizike physics fizksel physical oe self Szel private Dilim science Dilimsel —cientfc anayasa constitution anayasal constitutional In this last example the suffix has been reduced to -to avoid the cxcophonous -sasal "To justify this innovation the reformers cited such time- hhonoured word 26 uysal ‘compliant’ (uymak ‘to conform), Ieumsal ‘candy’ or ‘a sandy tract (kum ‘sand’) and yoksul ‘destitute’ (YOK ‘non-existent’). The real inspiation of it, hov= ‘ever, was in such French words as cullurel and social® 1 1 mucho a French boring the noun KU, but not heave sie ping tr tere feo te re“6 NOUN AND ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES —IVy12 12, -varl, ‘This Persian sufi, meaning ‘like’ sill productive in Turkish to a limited extent: Sekspirvart ‘Shakespearian’ GBrsilvari “Churchillian'; James Bondvari bir casusluk “a James Bond-ish eave of espionage 13, ll, This occur in afew words and has the sense of ‘tending towards, accustomed to, addicted to's ak white kil faded Kir grey Jeurgil)——gezsled adam man adameil fame or ready t0 ‘attack man Dalik fish alike heron tavgan hare taygancil eagle ‘lim death ‘Slémedl sorbund Some ncologiams have been made with this suffix: ben encll selfish ana mother fanacit — mother-bound ev houte fevell domesticated kkitap book: Kkitapgil bookish 14, -hane, The Persian Khe ‘hous’ isnot quite dead as a sufix in Turkish; pastahane ‘cake-shop i of more recent origin than hhastahane, eczahane, and postahane and unlike them it keeps its h more often than not (I, 11). It is added to few Turkish words, eg stithane ‘dair", buzhane ‘ice-house’, dikimhane “tailoring workshop’, aghane ‘cook-shop’. Probably ephemeral is kazakhane ‘clip.joint ' from kazak ‘swindle’ 36, -ane. This Persian sufi, in which the a is long, serves (a) to make adjectives or nouns into adverbs: mest ‘drunk’, mestanie ‘drunkenly’; (6) to turn nouns and adjectives indicating persons into adjectives describing things: gah ‘king’, gahane "regal; alr ‘poet’, sairane ‘poetic; dost ‘frend’, dostane ‘ftiendly" (as in ‘a friendly word’); midebbir bir paga ‘a prudent Pasha’, paganin mildebbirane harcketi ‘the Pasha's prudent action’ {eis mentioned here because it has recently shown ite productive of at leat one word: from bilgig "know-all, bilgigane “in a Jnow-all fashion’ * Nowe § excepto following eed conten v PRONOUNS Personal pronouns: Singular First Second ‘Third hi, ben sen face. beni seni gen. benim senin ont da, bana sana ona oc, ende sende onda ab, benden Senden ondan Plural ah, biz siz. onlar fac. bial sia onary gem bizim sizin—onlarin fla. ize size onlaea ic, lade Sizde —onlarda abi bizden sizden onlardan In pre-ninetoenth-century texts the usual forms of the third ern eng) 1, ant, ans, anda, andan; (pant, Te will be noticed thatthe table exhibits sore anomalies the sm in the genitive ofthe first-person singular and plural; the change froin e to @ inthe dative ofthe frt- and second-perton singular in the third person the m before the case-sulixes of the singular and before the -lar of the plural. The most plausible explanations ‘of these anomalies are: the original beniq and bizin. became benim and bizim under th ifluence ofthe pronominal suffixes im and simiz, helped perhaps by the labial b. ‘The original suffix of the dative was not ~e but ~Be; henge, senge became hhene, see and the influence of this nasal brought about the change to bana, sana, a change poeibly helped by analogy with the old third-person dative anja > ana; this very form aa may Ihave been due tothe influence ofthe in an earlier Sona. Theno PRONOUNS Ws appears in the third persoa also when 0 takes the sufixes -siz (LY, 9) and -ee (X11, 2): onsuz “without him’, onea ‘according ‘to him’ ‘The usta explanation of this mis that itis the ‘pro- ‘nominal n? which appears after the third-person sufi and in the ‘eclession of -ki and Kenai (3, 4)." ‘ois 4 demonstritive ax wll a4 4 personal pronoun; see § 5. siz isthe regular polite form for ‘you’, singular or plial, and Diz is used colloquially for (XVI, 3 (0); they may therefore take the plural sufi in the colloquial —bizler, sizler—when referring to moce than one person, Tn courtly speech, whichis steadily becoming rarer, ben-may be replaced by bendeniz. ‘your slave” (< Persian banda; the resemblance to bem is coincidental), the full meaning of which has Ihecome somevshat abraded, so that a following verb nowadays i usually in the fist and not the third person, and, for example, “mmy humble opinion’ ie bendenizin fikrim “your slave's my “opinion”. Similarly, siz may be replaced by 2at-t alin or zat alifert (Persian izfet), erally “your high person, their high ‘person’, which are followed by a vetbin the second-perso plural 2. Uses of the personal pronouns. Aa they are definite by nature, ‘we may call ben, sen, 0, ete, the nominative instead of the absolute ease; there is'no question of their being used as an Indefinite accusative, “The persons of verbs are shown by eaines but a pronoun in the nominative may be used for emphasis: o git, ben gitmedim “he went; 1 did not go "The pronoun abject of a verb is generally omitted if it can be understood for the context: kitaba din aldim, daha okuma- ddim “I bought the book yesteeday; Thave not read (it) yet "The use of sent “the” with terms of abuse is conventionally ‘explained bythe ellipsis ofa verb such as“ dsike/deplorejwarn'= ‘seni gidi! “you scoundrel!; sent afacan sent! ‘you chee little urchin you!" More preciscly, the reason there it no verb is ‘thatthe speaker does not have in mind any specif verb but only an inarticulate emocion of displeasure of which sent isthe object, Tn the genitive the pronouns can be used predicatively; ef IT, 11: bu memleket nigin bizim? ‘why is this land ours?"; bu para benim ‘this money is mine'; senin olsun “keep it (it "Tie puted ot ie snc, by lie, p97 ae va PRONOUNS o “Levit of-you'); mesuliyet sizin dedi ‘the responsibilty is They may reinforce the personal sulfixes: ev-imix or bizim_ fev-imiz ‘our house’; sokage-imz or sizin sokajjantz “your sroet";ad-4 or onun ad ‘his name’ ‘The genitive of the third-person pronouns can revolve ambi= fuites which might arise from the various posible senses of, for example, gvcuklart (ef, 11 15) fonun gocuklart his children onlarin gocugu their child fonlarin gocuklart thee children Pronouns of the fist and second persons in the genitive are also sed informally as attributve adjectives. replacing the personal suifies; ‘our house” can be bizim ev; "your set” sizin sokak. ‘The genitive of the thied-person pronouns eannot, however, replace the personal sufises in stindard Turkish: onun ad instead of adi or onun adi is 2 provincialism (cf. Abedin Mustafa, p. 43, penultimate paragraph) 3. -Ki. The pronominal or mixed” suffix -ki is exceptional in the ‘matter of vowel harmony, not changing except after gin “day” and dln "yesterday, when it becomes KU, Added tothe genitive ‘ase of a noun or pronoun, it makes a poatesive pronoun: ‘metsi-nin-ki ‘the one belonging to the servant; Gocug-un-k ‘the one belonging tothe child"; benim ‘mine; seninki thine’ fonunki ‘his, hers, the one belonging to it; bizimki “ours; sizinki ‘yous’; onlarink ‘their’. bu kalem benim degil and bu kalem benim degil may both be trnalated “this pen is not mine’. The former isa simple denial of ownership, the later implies "have a pen but tie i not i. "The aaun in the genitive to which -ki is sufixed say be in the plural and may have a personal sul, the one belonging to your frend the one belonging to your frends Added to an expression of time or place, which may be an adverb or a noun in the locative cate “Ki makes « pronoun or adjective: yazin “in summer, KOylUnlin yazsnki kazaner “the immer earnings’; buglin ‘today’, buginkt gazete» PRONOUNS wa “today's newspsper', bugiinkller ‘those who are today, people nowadays"; yarn “tomorrow', yarinki toplants “tomorrow's ‘ceting", simai now’, gimdtki durum ‘the present station ‘kcal gag-t ‘school-age’, okul gaandaki goctklar ‘children of school-age’ (who are in school-age’). lzmir'deki biromuz KUghk, Adana'daki daha biyuktir ‘our clfiee which-iine Tamir is eval, the-one-in-Adana is bigge Pronouns in -KI may be destined, In the singular the ease- ‘endings are preceded by the pronominal m but thie doesnot sp- pear in the plural, ‘Thus the declension of benim sa follows: Singular Pleral ls, benimnki benimkiler mine fac, benimiini ——benimkileri sine ge. benimkinin —benimkilerin of mine ‘det, benimkine —_benimbilere to mine Ic. enimkinde _benimbilerde in mine abl, benimkinden —benimkilerden feom mine secuifun boyw babasininkini gest ‘the child's stature has pasted hie father's; resimlerimiz kardeslerinizinkilerden Jaymetidir “our pictures are more valuable than your brothers" 4A kendi, Asan adjective i means ‘owas end oda-m ‘my own oom’, Kendl kaz-t her own daughter, Kendi memleket-iniz rout own county. ‘With the personal suffixes it makes the emphatic or reflexive pronouns ‘mysclt, ce-: Kendi-m , kendi-n, Kendi or kendi-s, Kendi-miz, kendioniz, Kendi-leri. For “himnel? with reflexive rmeaning, Kendi is far more usual than kendisi; indeed, purists maintain that Kendist should never be used teflexivel Both forms take the pronominal n before all cxso-endings: abs. Kendi——kendisi fac. kendini —kendisini gen endinia —kendisinia ‘det. Kendine —Kendisine Toc. Kendinde kendisinde ‘bi, Kendinden kendisinden As a reflexive pronoun Kendi is usvally repeated, the frst, time in the absolute with no sufi, the second time with the appropriate personal and eat sfx: kendi kendi-m-i miidafaa fettim "T defended myrel; ist kendi Kendi-m-e yapamadim “Leould not do the job for (or by”) myself; kendi kendi-net twakit ediyor ‘he is ertcizing himsel’; Kendi kendi-miz-den korkmiyalim ‘let us not be aad of ourselves: endisi and its plural Kendileri are commoaly employed as simple third-person pronouns with no reflexive or emphatic Sende: Kendlist evde “he is at home’; Kendilerint gird md “have you scen them ?” ‘As Kendli-siIitrally means hia sl it ay stand in iafet with a preceding noun in the genitive: AtatUrk'Un kendisi “Atak himsel"; Meclis'in kendisl "the Assembly isl. 8. Demonstatives: ‘bu this (lose tothe speaker) {30 this or that (a litle further away) © that (also “he she, it) ‘When used as adjectives these words ate invariable, For their declension when used a8 pronouns see o in §1: sing. bu, Bun, tte, $u, Suma, et; pl. bunlar, ete, gumlar, ete, ‘gu means “the following’: $4 tekllf “the following proposal, this proposal which Iam about to mention’; bu teklif "the pro- posal which has just been mentioned’. ‘Where we say ‘this or that’, Turkish prefers ‘that or this": um yap, bunu yap ‘do that, do this. Tn archaizing legal language, igbu may be found for the adjectival bu. Until the last century gol war sometimes uscd for gu "The personal sufixes are not used with the demonstratives except in such stereotyped expressions as gu-nun bu-nun. $u-s bbu-su ile aldkadar olmayan ‘not interested in other people's busines" (the that and thie of tht one and this one’), @-mum ‘guest bus “his private concerns’ (his that and this), ‘Demonstratives precede attributive adjectives: bu urun yot this long road”; gu Genis omuzl greg that broad-shouldered wrestler; 0 meghur aktéir ‘that famous actor’. They may come Within a definite aft; ef. 1, 17, en. An idiomatic use of bu i to place it after a noun: sanatkar bu, literally ‘artist eis’, meaning “the fllow's an artis; what do you” PRONOUNS we expect?" So hayat bu ‘that's life for you’; gocuk bu ‘he's only a child; don't ak too much of hisn ‘From bu, gu, and 0 are formed bbyle, sByle, and dyle, used booth as adverbs ‘thus’, and adjectives, sich, thilthat hind of: Diyle adamlar such men (a this) syle evler auch houses (as those over there) Sylefikirler ich ideas (as those) "The addition of the third-person sufi to these words makes ‘them into pronouns (ef. Th 23): biylesi “this sort of person’ s8ylesi or Oylesh “that sort of person"; plural: béyleler, y~ Ieleri, Oyleleri. The singular forms are also vaed adjctivally-— Daylest adamlar ‘sich men’—but thie use has not achieved ‘general currency. Deriki, Gteki, mean respectively the neater and the further of ‘two. They may be adjectives or pronouns; being compounded ‘vith -Ki, when used 26 pronount they take the pronominal m before all cases of the singular: bu gazeteyi istemiyorum, ‘Beki-n-i ver ‘I don't want this newspaper, give me the other fone over there’. teki bertkl means “this one and chat one, any- body and everybody’ 6. Tncercogatives: kim who? ‘hangi which? ne what? kag how many? ‘kim declines like @ noun, in singular and plural: bu ganta Kkim-in? “whose is this bag; kim-i grdGin? ‘whom did you se0?"; Kimler-e? to what people?” ‘ne exhibits certain ieregulartes Singular Plural bs, ne neler fae. neorneyt neler or neleri gen. neyin or menin —neleria, dat, neye or niye—nelere loc, nede nelerde ‘bl, neden nelerden "There ate also alternative forms with the personal suites, ‘meaning ‘what of mine? ‘what of yours? et. v6 PRONOUNS n Singer Pha 1 nem or neyim emis or neyimiz 2 nen nesin —nenizneyinie 4 nest next neler “The snl acustve singe sme: ne yaptin? what have you done? evi i eds (@) Tor what speci thing's ef you hea tha someone is ung tothe oper and ask goreosksin? hat ne you going th ace? you may eis he fstion epi “am ope, of etre! “There no danger of thsi you ask ney greceksin? what speci ter of the repertoire) are yo ging to ace?" defined {caste lr neler i siarly ened for wha pei hing {@) When another interogtve follows, specly one com pounded with ne: nepi ve me zaman vaptin? ‘whit have yo Ene and when’; Kim ney! Kime ator? who sling what towhom? “The regular spalling of the dative singuse is neyes neve yaar? fo-what i it autable?, while niye is genoraly used in thesense of what for, why? ais the ablative eden, “Tne pra i wie Yn exchmstons: ler grdimt “what things Fae” ne of the commonest uses of ne with personal sie i exemple in nen var? whats the matter wth you? what Sfjons exists what do you have? ce gratu? Note aso meme asa? “what asi tod with me? i. toorhstokemine He necomnry bu oltl-un ne-si-in? ‘you sre this schol what? {hats your positon inthis chon! ?kaptctesteyim Tam ie may be the ualiying clement of an indefinite inet, ne dereri var? “ht kon i thre? on the timetable) Inge, boone the snewer wil soonest ina indefie inf: Geometr ders Theresa sory of a ran who tes 0 tells tend that hen acon ghost, hora, tt inhi eer fe can only stammer ho-ho-ho, Hi rend aks me hoe? ht hohe ho belonging to what ‘ne aye an adjeesive a wel ks pronoun ne ace? “what need? me inat! "what osinacy?, me gael cigeler! “wht Invely ower? Tt may aio render “ow in me zal! “hoe” PRONOUNS wr beautifull oF me malim? “hose do you know? (lit. “how is it known?) or why" a in me karigivorsun? ‘what are you inter= fering fot)? Te forms pact of many compound interrogatves: ne zaman, ne vvakit when?"; ne kadar ‘how much?"; nigin (— ne fin “what for?) ‘why?'; nasil (= ne asit ‘what basa?) *how?", "what sort of - . 2; mecl ‘of whit profession?” With the adverbial suffix -ce (XI, 2), it makes (a) nece “in what language?” and (@) mice, meaning originally ‘how many? then "how many! and nowadays mostly "many" "The elision of thee of ne, a seen in nlgin and nas, efrequent onvertation ne olacak? ‘what willhppen = nolaeak? 2; ne yapalim.? ‘what are we to do?” > napalim? Inangl and kag are adjectives, the latter always construed wth a singular noun angi viliyet? “which province?"; hang iliyetler? “which provinces?; kag villyet? ‘how many pro- vinees?” With the addition of personal sufixes they become pronouns: hangi-miz? ‘which of us2"; kag-inz? “how many of| you"; hangl-si? ‘which ane of them 2"; hangi-ler-i? ‘which (pl) of them?” 7. Indefinite, determinative, and negative, Most of the pronouns fn this eategory are formed from adjectives by the addition of the thied-person suffix, on the pattern of biyle-si (§5). Thus bir ‘a, one isan adjective: bir adam gitti ‘one man went bir-i js'a pronoun: adamlardan biri giti, birt kalds “one of the ‘men went, one remained’. ‘The sufx may be doubled: bir-l-sh biri and birisi may also mean ‘someone’; in thie use the ante= cxdent of the third-person aufix ie people at lange, 8 “they” as ‘vague a in ‘they say": birt or birisl bana seslendi ‘someone called out to me’ Tn those words below the word-accent which biti the clement it caries 8. baz, kimi ‘some’ (adjective). "The final vowel of baz is the mark ofthe Persian ieaet, ois unacceated. kimt in this adjectival sense isa neologsm. Both qualify singular or plural nouns: bat for kimi adam ‘some man’; bazi or kim adamlar ‘some men’. Pronouns: bazsst, bazilars, kimi, kimisi ‘some. people’; ‘bazimuz, kimimiz ‘come of us; baziniz, kiminiz “some of you’ 9. birtakum ‘2 number of (it. ‘a set’ slays qualifies plural nouns: bietakim kéylOler “ number of vilagers'. Like the indefinite artile, i may come betwen adjective and noun: Kiigik birtakim devletler “a numberof small states’. Note the distinction between birtakim kitaplar "a number of books’ and bir takm kitap ‘est of hooks (for the construction of the latter see XVI, 7). Pronoun: birtakms ‘a number of them’ 10. her (P) ‘cach, every’, with noun in singular: her gin ‘every ay’; her iki-si “both of thems her Gime “all three of ws hher biti, herkes(P) everyone"; her bir-imiz ‘each one of us’ hher kim ‘whoever’; her ne ‘whatever; her ne kadar ‘however ‘her hangi ‘whichever’; her hangi bir ‘any", Compounds ‘of her are sometimes sriten a8 one word: herbirimiz, herne- kadar, ee 11, hep is an adverb meaning ‘altogether, entirely, aways’. With the personal sufies it becomes a pronoun: hep-imiz ‘all of us’ hepriniz ‘all of you’. ‘The thied person is hepsi (= hep-i-si, swith the sfx doubled) all of i, al of them, everyone’ 12. ok as sn adverb means ‘much, very": gok konugtuk ‘we tallied lot gok faydalt "very wef. With a noun, singular or plural, it means “mich, many": gok Hp “much work's gok igh ‘many persons’, gok yerler ‘many pacts ‘With possessive suffices it is» pronoun, meaning ‘most rather ‘than ‘many: goetimua ‘most of ue; goji-unuz “most of you" ‘oR nox of, most of them’. "The last is used as an adjective se well sa pronosn, like bbylesi and kimi: goju insanlar ‘most people’; goftu zaman ‘most times, ost often’. ‘iegok ‘a good deal of is followed by # noun in singular or plurals pedants say singular only. Pronouns: birgoBu ‘a good deal of it, a birgoklart's gond many people or things good many of them's 13. az as an adverb means ‘litle : az igor ‘he drinks litle’. As an sajective, with «singular noua, "fw, litle’: az kigt few persons’; fan garap iger ‘he drinks little wine’. See alo IU, 4. baz ‘elite’: biraz yiradUk ‘we walked a lite’; birwz ‘ekrmek yedinn I tea litle bread’; Birazct ‘a litle of i.* PRONOUNS va 4, birkag “2 few, several with singular noun: birkag gin kealds “he stayed several dys ‘Pronoun: birkagt ‘several of them’, et. 15. bitin asa noun or as an adjetive qualifying a singular noun means ‘whole millet-in biltin-0 “the vwhole of the nation’s Datu millet ‘the whole nation’. As an adjective with a plural rovin i means ‘all: BOtiin milter “ll the nation 16. bagka, diger (P) other’. Pronouns: bagkast, bir baskast, bagka biri, diger birt ‘another of them, someone or something else's kaldir bunu, Dagkasim getir “ake this avay, bring another. benden baska ‘other than me"; benden bagkast ‘someone other than me’ 17. Bbur (<0 bir; I 32, end) ‘the other, the next’: Shir gin “the day after tomortoi; Obi dUnya ‘the next work” Pronoon: bir "the other one" 18, birbir oc bitibir, vith the appropriate possessive sui ‘means ‘each other: 1 birbirimis or biribirimiz 2 irbiriniz or Bieibiriniz 4 iebiet, bieibiri, or bieibirtert birbirimiz-e yardim ediyoruz “we are helping each athe biribiriniz-i seviniz ‘love one another"; biribirinden gizel farlar ‘girls each more beautiful than the other’. The Persian yekdiger isan inereasingly rarer alternative. 19, ayns ‘same’. In view of ite origin (Ul, 26, thied paragraph) this ought tobe immediately followed by snoun, asinaymizaman “the same time. Teis, however, regularly used nowadays with an intervening adjetive and even predicatively: aya uzun yol ‘the same long road’; Redeflerimlz aynt “our aims are the same’ "This ayn, which is froquently misepelt ayn, is accented on the first syllable "There is another word aynt, accented on the last syllable, ia ‘which the'r isthe Turkish third-person suffix: ad-1 bemim-ki- rnin aynetedir ‘his name is the same as mine’ lit ‘hisname v0 PRONOUNS 7 of-mine ieits-counterpan’, ‘The stifix is sometimes doubled: Dunn ayn-isient alalum ‘let's buy one just like this’ (of-this its-counterpart). This, however, is vulgarism, against which schoolchildren are warned. Oddly, what they ae told to put in its place is tpkist “its replica’, which also contains a doubled third-person suffix. ‘The bare form *tapnk (Arabic fly) is never used, though tupk (the Gna being tut of the Persian iafet) is commonly put before a noun or pronoun to reinforce the post= positon bi “ike'> tipke abast bb ‘ost like his father ‘upkt onlar gibi jut lke them 20. sey, as well as meaning ‘thing’, is an all-purpose pronoun, used like Freneh chose to take the place of a word or name the speaker cannot for the moment reil For its syntactic function sce XV, 3. When it takes the third-person suf this is usually oubled, ey-i-st (sometimes spelled geyst; cf. hepsi, §11 probably because in ordinary speech gey-is barely distinguishable from sey: gey-in gey-insi ne oldu-—mektub-un zarf-1? ‘what fas become ofthe what-d'yecall-it of the whatd'ye-call envelope ofthe leer? 21. falan, falanca, fin, flinea ‘eo and so, such and such’ are adjectives and pronouns. falan tarihte, falanca geldi ‘on fuich and sich a date, so and so came’ alan snd filén also mean “and so on sfter nouns, ‘or there- abouts after expressions of time or quantity: camiler-i falan fezdi ‘he toured the mosques and so on"; temmuzda fin elecekler ‘they will eame in July or thereabouts on lira falan Istiyor ‘he wants ten lis of ao". They may be sed together Bedri, Orhan, Himit falan filan geliyorlar ‘Bedi, Orhan, amit and so on and so forth are coming’, falan festeki2 and falan fegmekin are similarly used and convey even less en- ‘usin atthe prospect 22. insan ‘human being’ ie used for the indefinite ‘one; bu Sicakhikta insan gabuk yorulur “in this heat one gets vied ‘ick’, See also the use of the impersonal passive in VI, 4. 223. hig, in origin the Persian for ‘nothing’ has the same sense in ksh: ne yaptin?—hig ‘what have you done?”—'acthing’ Tealto functions as an adverb reinforcing negatives: hig konugmaz "he doesn’ tlle al’. With bir tis writen 2 one word: highir| hhaber yok ‘there is no news at ll Tn ponitive questions it translates “ever, ia negative questions “Snover hig Byte gey olue mu? ‘does such x thing ever happen?”: ‘hig Antalya'da bulunmadinz mi? ‘have you never been in Antalya?” 24, kimse, originally ‘whoever it a? (im }i8e, XX, 7), now means ‘petson, somebody not clearly specid’: bir kimse sizi ‘ariyordu ‘someone was looking for you’, In conjunction with 2 nagative it means ‘no one’, lke French pesome: kimse airs fetmiyor ‘no one is paying attention’; Kimse-siz gocuklar “ehildeen who are alone in the world” (IV, 7) Its diminutive is tise in the negative sense only: kimsecik Sok ‘there's no one kkimsecikler kalmamig ‘there are no people left a al’ vi NUMERALS ark ~ allt se ‘ltmig te vyetmig p seksen fe doksan 9 yz 160 bin 1,000 yirmi 20 bir milyon 1,000,000 yirmi bir 21 bir milyar 1,000,000,000 om 30 sir er Numbers are compounded by simple justapostion: yiiz bir “a hundred and one’; ig milyon dére viz yirmi bin sekiz yiiz doksan alt "hice million four hundied and twenty thousand tight hundred and ninety-si’ Tn the numbers from 11 t0 19 inclusive (which may be found written a one word), the accent ison the 08, Ta higher numbers the last syllable of the unit x accented ‘Whereas ‘one hundred’ and “one thousand’ are yilz and bin respectively, “one million’ and ‘one millird? (je. an American billion) require bi. In writing figures, a full stop (nokta) is used to separate the thousands; thus bes bin altt yéz otuz iki is written $.632. (On the other hand, a comma (Virgil) is used where English uses 4 decimal point, so 75 (seven point fir’) appears as 7.5 (yedi ‘irgll bes). Los commonly, the thousands are separated by 4 comma, and 4 fll stop may be used for the decimal point 5682; 7°5. Tn vague ascesaments of mumber such as ‘two or three’, ‘ve or six) the ‘or not expressed: HAI Og, bes alts. For ‘three oF four, idiom mysteriously prefers Ug bep to Ug dlrt. CE. the» NUMERALS va expressions lig agaga bog yukars ‘alittle more oF Tes telly “three down five up’ and lige bese bakmamak ‘net to hagle about the price’, literally ‘not to Took at three (or five" Care must be taken not to confuse on beg “fifteen with beg on lve o te Care is also necessary with viz, which besides “hundred? may sean feause” or ‘face's Ik yt “wo hundred"; ki yal ‘two- faced’ ikiyiz1010K “hypocrisy; yl let ‘surfacrate’; DU yiizden ‘fr this reason’ ark is used for an indefinitely high nurnber: kurkayal ‘centi- pede’ (fory-fee’); kirk yulda bir ‘once in a blue moon’ (in forty years). ‘When caseendings or other suffixes are written after figure, the rules of consonant-assinlation and vowel-harmony mast be ‘observed: from 2t0 9 ikiden dokuza, 2 den 9 a;"fom 3 t 7, ligten yediye, 3 ten 7 ye; "Irom 6 to 11 altidan on bire, 6dan apostrophe may precede the sufix: 2'den 9a, ex. ‘ase of the singular form of the noun afer numerals, 2. Classifiers. A numeral is rarely used aloncy eg. in answer to 4 question; either the noun i repeated orf the things enumerated are separate entities and not units of measurement, the word tame (sed, grain’) is added after the numeral. kag saat bekliyor= sunuz?—iki saat ‘how many hours have you been wating?” ‘wo hour’. kag kitap aldiniz?—dort tane “how many Books have you bought? ‘four’. tane is often inserted beoween numeral and noun (unless the latter is 4 unit of measurement) beg tane anahtar “ive keys; sekiz tane mendil ‘ight handker- chil. Te is also added ater kag, especially withowt a following noun: kag tane istiyorsunuz? “how many do you want?” If people are being enumerated, kigh ‘person’ ie similarly uae: kag igi geliyor kokteylinize?—kark alt igh "how many are ‘coming to your evektail-party? forty-six’. When enumerating cattle, oF vegetables euch a8 onions and cabbage, bag “head!” is interposed after the numerals elli bag str “fty oxen’; yiiz bag Koyumn ‘a hundred sheep iki bay hana ‘two eabbages'. CE: the English “ity head of etl’ but note that Turkish uses simple apposition, with no “oP sc ee rk 8G, ease Bute oat tng vhs NUMERALS cl “hand? is similar'y used when enumerating shots ofa firearm or deals of cards: bir el tabanca att “he fired one pistol-shor': bir el poker oymiyalim ‘le’s play a hand of poker’. Other such classifiers were used in Ottoman: aded ‘number as alternative to tane; kita "piec’, of books, document, ships, ad fields; pare “piece, of artillery, ships, and villages.* 3. Fractions, The denominator, in the loeative case, precedes the ‘numerator: gte bi (it “n-three one’) “one-third Yedide drt “four-acvenths'; ybade yirml beg "owenty-ive per cent’; yzde yiiz ‘one hundred per cen,” The percentage sign consequently precedes the number: , 25; 9 100. The namerator is put in Aefinite izafet with the whole, of which the fraction is. pat: Sgocuklarin beste ig "three-fifths of the children’ (ofthe Ehildren, in-five theiethres'; gelie-im-in ylzde yieml begt “ewenty-ive per een. of my income’, This lst example would ap- pear in gures as gelirimin % 25 i. yekOn yi Slgdm-d-ntin 18,7 si (ylzde on sekiz virgil yedisi) ormanlarla kapi- dir ofits total suface-area, 17 % is covered with forests ‘buguk means and a hl and is used only after whole numbers and, joculasy, after az ‘litle’ and yar “halt on buguk kilo- _metre “ten and a half kilometres; az buguk kigi ‘a handful of people; yart buguk ustalik “inadequate craftsmanship ‘yarim isanadjectivemeaning'sall-"-yarum saat'a half-hour’; yarim kilo domates ‘haf «kilo of tomatoes’ (note the eppos: tion). For no clear reason, yarumda means ‘at half past telve vyart is used (0) Asa noun: talebeler-in yart-stkiz ‘haf of the pupils are sirls'; gece-nin yart-eiont konugarak gegirdik "we spent half ff the night in talking’; gece yart-st “midnight; gece-nin ‘yari-sten-da ‘in the middle of the nigh’ () At an adjective meaning ‘mid, at the half-way mark’: yart ‘dece ‘midnight; yart yol-da burakmak ‘to leave in the lurch’ (Gt “at mid-way’), (As an sdverb: yart anlamak ‘to half-understand’; yart ‘Tiirkse, yari Fransizca Konustuk ‘we spoke half Turkish half French’. sive ite thie" Mr es The Stop of Langage (London Alen & Uni gah& NUMERALS vs ‘seyrek (P) ‘quarts’ is now litle used except when telling the times see XU, 14 4, Oninals. ‘The suffix is -Inei after consonants, -net after ‘vowels Dirinel or Ik ast yirminei oth Ikinel and yirmi birinel et Uetined 3rd otuzuncu eth ddrddned jth Jrknet joth sth ellinct goth fh altmiginet oth zh ‘yetmiginel att bn Sekseninet oth oth doksansnes eth fonuneu oth yzined secoth on birinel rth Dininct soceth milyonuneu millionth milyariner —thousand- rllonth ‘el be sen om sand “ot the orn ic sash ely th i mene cmpond nabs "he usable ure: ach 2h 2 Unt Some inna hb "hea an ape: Enie hw ange Sonuncu ‘ta (con day lint nye onan amen ae sed inf cnt nd wth anes fase and oma event suchan ogre and abso Sac Be orn sate ne enn bel ope fis the minerals XX or EE ast the eta ane) Sear XXVI or NAVIIL. bmi Rnterngyonal Fos Peek ie ein) Tent Fa of Imi “The Roa nl may pred ofl seri some “Sein the may be wees Sli tH Selim, 1D, Sli, al se Bing ra snl Seti "hein Abi oda somes wed ith ame of scvrogin Parn iit They rl at abi Sint dna tamis St Sts a sue oh vhs NUMERALS % All the as are long. Mehemmed-i sani = ikinel Mehmet, Muhanad II; Selim-i salis = fgiinct Selim, Selim IT 5. Diatributives, These answer the question kagar? ‘how many fxch?” and are formed hy adding t0 the cardinal the sufi er ater a consonant, birer one each ight each ikiger to each nine each figer three each ten each dirder four each leven exch Deger five each yiemiger twenty eich altigar six each fotuzar thirty each yediger seven each Jarkar forty exch ‘As with the ordinals, the sux is attached only to the last clement of compounds: yirmi Oger '23 cach’; iki yiiz elli ‘dokuzar “239 cach’. With whole hundreds and thousands, how fever, itis more usual nowadays to attach the distributive sux to the number preceding the yx or bin: kiger yz rather than iki yitzer for ‘200 each’; heger bin rather than bes Diner for ‘s,oae each’, ‘The two forcign borrowings milyon and milyar nver take the distributive suc: birer milyon lira“ million Tira each’; altigar mllyar ‘sic thousand million coch’ “The distributive of yarum is regular, taking the post-vocalic sar despite its final consonant: yarumgar “half each’. The sfc is not attached to buguk but tthe preceding whole number yirmi yediger buguk “trenty-seven snd a hall each’. iki kigi bbirer yal altigar ay hapis cezasma mahkim edilmislerdir “tao penple have ech been sentenced to one Year and six months! imprisonment” (one-cach year, six-each month’); ia figure, Ter yil 6 gar ay. 1A frequent idiomatic use of birer is soen in: askerlerimiz, birer asian gibi dismana saldirds ‘our elders attacked the enemy Tike $0 many lions (li like one-eah lion, each one like Alion), Like bir, birer may come between adjective and noun: muharritin mUgahedeleri bu hususta cant birer misal tegkil etmektedit “the authors observations constitute so many vivid examples in thi connexion” (it, ‘vivid one-each example, cach one a vivid example)% NUMERALS vs -kagar how many each?" when repeated means ‘in lots of how many?’ Thus kagar kiraz yiyorsunuz? how many cherries exch ae you cating?’ but kirazlari kagar kagar yiyorsunuz? “how ‘many at a time, at a mouthful, are yon eating the cherries?” Cr XI, 6. Collectves. ‘The sufix sie after consonants, 2 after vowels, makes numerals denoting twins, wiplets, ete: ikl-z, Ug-O2, dird-iz, beyiz, While aluz, yediz, ete. are theoretically postibl, they seem never to be used, for reasons biolagiea rather than grammatical. The collectives are mostly sed ax Nouns but they ean qualify @ noun, asually in the plural ikizler or ikiz sgocuklar (rarely ikiz gocuk) ‘twins’ igtzler ‘triplets; Welz lazlar (rarely giz krz) ‘itl tiplets' déedialer ‘quadruplets dirduz kardesler ‘quadruplet brothers “The suf Il may be added, eg. besizli gamdan ive-branched candlestick’ 7. Dice numbers. Two dice are employed in the game of tavla, ‘Backgammon’ and the various possible throws are named in ‘curious mixtute of Turkish and Persian: 1 hepyek 3-3 diise 2 ikibie or yekald 14 garise or ctharise 13 seyek § penctise “4 gariyek or cihariyek 3-6 geslise 1g penclyek {4 dirtgar or dértcibar 16 gegyek 4-5 besdire 2-2 dubara 45 gesicar or gescthar 3-3 sehaydi dubes 2-4 gariidii or cihardd 5-8 gesbey 2-5 pencadi 6 diges 2-8 gesida Not all these terms are recorded in the dictionaries and some other variant spellings may be found Playing-eard numbers ae formed with isthe ae is deuce ikili and so on up tothe ten, ont, vil POSTPOSITIONS 1. General observations, ‘The functions of some English pre- positions ae performed in Turkish by the case-sufises. Those of the rest are performed by postpsitons, which follow the word they govern. A few of them can appear as suifixes, but the majority fare independent. words, Those listed. s¢ primary are variously ceonstrucd with the absolute, genitive, dative, and ablative eases, ‘The only more-or-less eurrent postpostion governing the accuss- tive isthe obsoleseent miitaakap (A) ‘following, after’: zivafet-i siitaaksp ‘after the banque’. ‘Those listed a8 secondary post- positions (postpositional expressions” is another possible term) fare nouns in the dative, loeative, or ablative case, linked by izafet to the word they govern, An English analogy would be to call “in’ and “before” primary and ‘on the inside of and ‘in front of secondary prepositions. 2. Primary postpostios with absolute case: igre in Uzere is mostly used wih the infinitive in -mek (X, 2(@)) but may occasionally he found with other substantives: yol tzere “on the oad’; det Uzere ‘in accordance with his custom. igre is obsolete except in archaizing poetry: elhan igre “in the world 13, Primary postpostions with absolute or genitive cas’ bi ike kadar (A)_ as much 2s He with gin for "These take the genitive of the personal pronouns ben, sen, 6, biz, and siz, the demonstrative pronouns bu, gu, and 0 and the interrogtive kim, All other substantives, incfuding proaouns pluraized by ler, appear before these postpsitons in the Absolute case. Colloguially, however, even the pronouns listed8 Post Positions vis above ate wsed in the absolute case before these postpositions ‘This is particularly frequent with kim; instead of kiminle, kkimin igin, and Kimia gibi “with whom? ‘for whom? ‘ike ‘one hears kimle, kim igin, and kim gibi, the last, Deing a more respectable solecism than the fist two. (i: benim gibt bir adam ‘a man tke me"s senin gt “tke you’ i or bizler gibi ‘like us'; onlar gibi ‘ike them? Babs gibi ‘likes nightingale’. The word may also serve fas.a noun: bu gibiler ‘people like thes’ (lit "hse likes); i ean flo stand in definite aft with a pronoun—bu-nun gbl-st ‘the fof thor in indefinite iafet with » nown—bu adam bist ‘the like of this man’. A common lotion is Byte ibiem-e felivor Ki ‘it seems to me as if...” (it 30 comes to-my-lke that.) gibl-ler-den, in apposition to a preceding word or clans, means ‘om the lines of, of the order af kyl, mem- leketin efendisigic, gibilerden bir nuruk ‘a speech on the lines of “the peasant is the master ofthe country” (@) kadar isin origin an Arabic word for ‘amount’, which helps ‘ecplain its Turkish use: bir saat kadar galigtim ‘T worked for bout an hour, ae sauch av an howe” (an hour amount); Yleml, ‘ylrml bes kadar Kigt ‘some twenty or twenty-five people’; tag kadar sert ‘hard a stone’ (stone amount hard’); adam kadar ‘zengin as rich as that mas? IU kadar fri “huge as an elephant With the genitive of pronouns: onun kadar zengin ‘as rich a hae slzin kadar bir gocuk “a child as big (or "old") a you When it follows the absolute case of bu, $u, of ©, these function not as pronouns but as demonstrative adjectives nd the raulting bu, $4, or 0 kadar may be adverbial = well ¢ adjectival: 0 kadar gildike'we laughed so much’; bu kadar para ‘this moch money" (© ile has not only the comitative sense of English ‘with but also denotes the instrament; kim-in He gittini2? ‘with whom Sid you go”, vapur le gitinkz "you went by boat’; bunu zamk He yaprstedim "T stuck this with glue’, Note also: kilo ile ssatmak "to cll by the kilogramme’; para ile satmat ‘to sell for money’. Sometimes ie must be translated “beenste of It may be sufixed; the i is dropped after « consonant and becomes y after a vowel, the resulting -e or ~yle heing subject to vowel harmony: kiminle ‘with whom?; vapurla ‘by boa’ vis PostPostTions e ‘alimraketiyte ‘wich the customs-ofcer; karryla ‘with the ‘After the thd-person sux it appears as an invariable -yle: art-st hie wife earisiyle with hie wife sgekig-i his hammer gekigigle with hie hammer Bie his eve ozilyle with his eye shoulder fomuzuyle with bis shoulder Although this rule reflets the normal educsted pronunciation, ‘many people neglect, writing karssiyla, omuzuyla, Less often, the vowel of the third-person sufi is combined withthe post. position to make an invariable -(sjivle: kanssiyle, g6ziyle, omuziyle Colloqial alternatives to ile are lon and inen. Instead of Denimle, onumla ‘with me, with him’, one hears eae or ‘Dennen, onla or onnan, in the informal speech even of educated people, (2) igin (for which the older pronunciation igtin is not une common) tansates most senses of English ‘for’: bunw yurd-un_ iyili- icin yapei “he did thie forthe good ofthe country’; bum sizin igin aldim "I bought this for you"; yoleuluk igin hazar~ Iuklar ‘preparation for the journey"; bayle bir ev igin bu kadar para yerilir mi? ‘does one pay 20 much money for such a house? ealgo renders ‘about’ 25 in what do you think about this pro- posal? bu teklif igin ne diginiyorsun? With the infinitive, rarely with the third-person imperative, i expresses purpose; with the personal participle, eause (XT, 24) “AS an arehaism it may be Found stfixed, as gin or gli after consonants, -ygin or -yglin afer vowels, the forms in appearing When the vowel of the preceding syllable is rounded: senin-gin “for you's omun-ciin “or him’; muhabbeti-ygin ‘for love of him’; Komguygiin ‘for the neighbour. 4. Primary postpostions with dative cae: Gre, mazaran(A) according to dogru towards arg againet kadar (A), -dek, dein 35 far as dair (A) ceancering8 PosTPosITIONS vine rajgmen (A) in pite of. inat (A) in despite of snispeten (A) in proportion to “The equivalents ofthese words are italicized in the tana ofthe examples which follow. radyo'ya gre, hava gz olaeak ‘according to the radio, the weuther is going to be fine’; Bu vaziyetegUre “x view of this situation; Yenl ev, tam onlar-a gre "the new house i jt right for ther’, athe fist two examples, Bre. could be replaced by nazaran. Sce slo the let paragraph on this age, and note bulunduuna sore on p. 165. Kisve dogru yUrGdGk “we walked. tooarde the village sabah-a dogw uyandim tvard moraiyg T wok" hang takim-a kargt oymsyaeaksuni2? ‘gute which team are you oing wo ply?" busuclama-ya kar ne soyleyebildt? ‘erat could he sayin reply to this acusation? denane kag coturduk "we sat facing the ves"; sababea Kargt uyandim “tacards morning Vawoke’ y-e kadar yUrddai ‘we wale a for at the village’ agama kadar Komugeuk ‘we talked wt vering’s OBle=ye kadar gelecek “he wil come by noon", bir saat-e kadar gelecek he will ome nan howe’; Bir hag an-e kadar aelecek he wil come ina few day’ The provincalam -dek or deBin in fivoured by modernists as & native equivalent of kadar as 2 postpesition with the dative (bt not with the absolute or genitive a in (3). ~dek is unallysufixed but never changes fs towel: Kéyedek, akgamadek.* ‘The rarer dein is usually ‘writen sepurately:Kige dea, akgama defn ‘atom bombastsna dar bir Konferans ‘siete about the stom-bomi Modcrists prefer zeae (56) to dar Bengli-ton-e ramen buyke bir sanatkirdie “ie spite of her youth she isa restate neologiam karin hs heen proposed ae an alteative bit has not von general acceptance. Dabacstena inat okula Bitmlyor jut fo ite his father he docen’t goto acho. ‘enimkfen-e nispeten stzinkl gok pahaly “x pogorton o sine, compared eh mine, yours Very expensive’. The modernist, erative gre, nlspeten stan adverb means relatively 1K commend that it wit rte wot vis PosTPosITioNs » ‘A number of adjectives are construed with a dative, eg. alt (A) “belonging (to), mukabil (A) ‘in retuin (or), aykies “contrary (oY. They are mentioned here beesuse in some contexts they mi be parsel as postpositions. 5, Primary postpositions with ablative case: cevvel (A), dee before ‘sonra ater bert nce, this side of bu yana since vyana fon the side of| igert inside dolagt, Stra because of bagka’ besides, apart fom. itibaren (A) with eect from See also §9, end, and XII, 10, ExamPLes: buglin-den evvel or dnce ‘before today’; toplants= dan sonra ‘after the meeting’; Erzurum dan sonra yol nasil? “how is the road Beyond Erzurum? agustos-tan beri or bi xyana ‘since August: gol-den beri hava gavel thi side of the Take the weather is fine’; aydinean iyi-si her zaman halk-tan yana-dar ‘the best type of intellectual (II, 22(a)) is always on ‘he side of the people's para-dan yana durum Koti ‘as regards ‘money the postion is bad’; daktilo-dan yana gok talihliyim T an very lucky as regards secretarial asistance’ Con-the-side-of typist’); bir antikact-dan igert girdik ‘we went vide on, sntique dealers shop)"; bucn-dan dolays gitmedik ‘breouse of this we did not go" (the synonymous Ste is fir rarer); Dit ‘dayr-dan bagka highir akrabast yok ‘he has no relative apart from sn snle? (to. Arabic synonyms are maada and gay, either very frequent); pergembe-den itibaren her gin ‘every day, starting from seedy scondary postpostions: 1. The words in the following lst, are all nouns und may be used in any eave and with any personal soffix: ara-mtz-da “in between us’ (in ne interval); aiken 2= ‘dan ‘from behind you" (from your back’); masa-nin Gst-en- ‘ildi‘she wiped the top of the table’. It is only when they are used° postrostrioNs vs in aafet with another noun and in the ative, loestive, oF ablative cease that they correspond in function to English prepositions and are ealed postpostions alt underside arg opposite side ra interval, space between ort middle arka, art back n front bag immediate vicinity pes (P) apace behind dig, hag (A) exterior ier fevk (A) top cetraf(A),cevre surroundings yan side Ig, dahil (A) interior "To these may be added the adverbs of place listed in XIT, 10 EXAMPLES: topu_masa-min alt-n-a att ‘he threw the ball under the table; eeket-i Kol-u-nun alt--n-da, parkta geri Yordu ‘his jacket under his atm, he as strong in the pack Araba-nin alt-ien-dan giktt ‘he emerged from under the ear Iki ev-in ara-sien-a girdi ‘he entered between the to houses; iki evin arasinda eked ‘he waited beeen the two Ihoases; iki evin arasindan gikt he emerged from between the so hoes Tn such phrases 28 "between A and B’, and? translated by the poseposition ile: Dogu ile (or Doguyla) Bat arasinda ‘be- tween Ease and West; dag ile (dala) irmagin arasinda “between the mountain and the river’. Note that in the first example, where ‘East and “West are broad geaeal terms, the inafet is indefinite, while in the second, where a specific viver js intended, the iafet is definite, with temak ‘aver’ in the renitive ‘kaptcnin arka-st-n-a or ard-t-n-a) saklandt he hid behind the door (ative of end of motion):kapunin arkasiada (ardunda) urdu ‘he stood behind the door (lit, a8 in American English, “iq back of the door’); kaprain arkasidan (ardindan) guktt “he emerged from behind the door. ‘masacsi-nin bag-t-n-a oturduk “we sat dove at (“tosthe- immediate-viciity-of") his table’; stlah agimal “to arms!" vyarife basinda ‘on duty’; mikrofon basinda garkt sbylemek “to sing songs at the microphone’ ‘bag tay be defined by alt es in damn altbaginda ‘im- mediately under (“in-the-underside-vicinity-of") the root. Note ako omuz bag-im-da duruyor ‘he is standing at my shoulder’ vine PosTPOSITIONS fa lit, insmy-shoulder-vicinity’, omuz. bagim being an tafe group ‘wit the first-person sufx replacing the tied; ee T, 24. viliyetsin sinirlar-t diget-n-a (or, less commonly, hark ien-e) gikadh ‘he did not yo outside (“to-the-outsde-of") the boundaries of the provinee'; Surlar-in diginda (harieinde) foturuyorlar ‘they are living outside the city-valls; bina-nin ‘digindan (haricinden) bir ses geld ‘a voice came from outside the building "The next two examples well illustrate the difference between the definite and indefinite fants ‘okul-un diginda bir taksi bulunmaktadsr ‘there is a taxi outside the schoo; bir milyon gocuk okul dysinda bulunmak- {adit ‘a milion children are outside schoo’ (i.e not attending any schoo! traf is far commoner than its modern replacement gevre: ‘gehr-in etrafinda (gevresinde) gok ba var ‘there are many. ‘Orchards round the ci ‘dahil, on the other hand, is fast going out of use. deniz-in «(dabil-isn-) ‘nto theses acaip bie karigiklik iginde (Giahilinde) ‘ina strange confusion’; KUgUK kahvernin igladen (ahilinden) ‘fom insde the smal cafe ‘We have already met kar a a primary postpostion, As noun ix means “opposite side’, ao in izafet a8 secondary postposition it means “ojon/from the opposite side of, according to case. It {is particularly common inthe locaive in the sense of ‘is-d-is, facing, confronted with: insan wztrab-1 Kargt-st-n-da aydin ne divor? ‘confronted with human alfiesion, what does the intellectual say?” Kalabalij-in orta-sien-a ‘to the middle of the crowd’; kkalabaligin ortasinda ‘in the middle ofthe crowd’; Kalabal iam ortasindan ‘from or through the middle of the crowd’ ‘sahne-nin Gn-G-n-e ‘to the front of the stage’; sahnenin ‘ntinde ‘in font of ar at the front of the stage"; sabnenin ‘niinden ‘from or theough the front ofthe stage Teilavuz-un peg-t-n-e dUgtik “we began to follow to-the-rear-of") the guide. “To run afters peginde or pesinden kogmak. ‘The hyphen after Gzer in the lst above is to indicate that this word, alone among nouns, is never found without a personal sufi. diigman-in dst resell* rosrrostrioxs wn ‘marched onto the enemy; yayla-ain dstinden or zerinden Indie ‘they came down frm-on-tp-f the pate zerine and stine ate emmoner than Grsrinde. and Aste fr ‘on’ meaning on the eet of tah Bzerine or iatinearaptarmatar hs reaches on story” Thy ae alo ted foron top of inthe sense un aiton tba Gerine or iste garap ime ‘don't rik Wie on top of Bee’, Sev also skgarmt ee, XII, 13 (0). ev is ise sed’ powadayes ale-nin fevkanda (1, 35, petite paragraph) br buyrak var there fsa fag over de Sade ‘Pencereem-in yan-i-n-a geld ‘he came beside my window"; penceremin yaniida bie alg var hee iy tree beside my Sindow; penceremin yamndan ay he departed fom beside ry window “Jan may be qualed by dst: Kuew-nun Ustyanunde ‘onthe topside ofthe bo’ Iti ln compo with bag: Istasyon- limyanibagnda just beside the ston’ The ist inthis word, Ahowgh ergy the thind-prwon wifi 8 variable: yam= bapa ort beside “et arka, On, pe nd yan with personal ufc but no ease- ending ae compounded ith sa "OW" #0 ake postpostions fhe sir contejng the sense of cow prosinty: ardes-enin dards sten yOrtdi “he waked just-behind his bother’ klik dorster-in Yan sura, maranouk dersert verlir “side by Sac with the casia icsn, carpentry sons are give"; im Sire yr he waled jstinrontoflme’. With Kit "shore ibimade the adver hays along the show ‘The none Gacomed above a ab wed a actives alt aa “o's ara ap smn or ark Datge ‘back arden’; diy tlaret“xtral wads ig tlearet “ternal wade In the ofl terms for Hxteral and Internal ‘Asi, however, dp andi are suns: ser, glee 77, Secondary postpositions: II, The nouns in the first column below (which, nouns, mean respectively ‘tet, ‘se’, Yeause (or face) regard, ‘name are als sed to make postpostions, but fiffer from the previous group in thst in the meanings shown they face used only im the case shown, though they may change for person, ‘That isto aay, whereas, for example, ‘under’ may be PosTPosiTioNs ” tindan according to context, ‘concerning? ‘ean only be hakhinda in the locative, while "concerning me" is Ihakkamda and ‘concerning you" hakkintzda, again in. the Toeative, hhak(A) nakkinda concerning taraf (A) tarafindan by, through the agency of yz yilzinden because of ‘bakim —bakamindan from the point of view of nam (P) namina inthe way of These are used in indefinite izafer only; ie. the noun they follow is never in the genitive. Any exceptions to this rule are apparent only, as the examples will show. Tnkikip haickinda bir nutuk sisledi ‘he gave a speech about the revolution’; kardeg-1 tarafindan waaklagtirildh ‘he was sent away by his brother; 0 adam yériinden kan akacak because of that man, blood will flow’; protokol bakimundan hhaklidie ‘rom the point of view of protocol, he i right"; para. rnamina bir geyim yok I have nothing in the way of money, ‘nothing you could eal money’. IF we now make the irafet definite fn each example, Le. if we put the first noun of each into the fenitive—inklabin, kardesinin, 0 adamin, protokolun, paranin—then hakkinda, tarafindan, yllzinden, bak! ‘ndan, sad namna will revert to their Iiteral meanings: “in the truth of the revolution’; he wat sent away from his brothers side’; “blood will fw from that man's face’; “he is eight from. protoco’s regard’; ‘T have nothing for money's name’ the Rrst and the last fo being’ as meaningless in Turkish as in English ‘bakimindan has almost enticely supplanted nok dan (1, 26), "The fule that these postpositons ate used only in indefinite inafet is not broken by, for example, o-nun hakkinda “con cerning him’ any more than its by benion hakkimda ‘concera- ingg me's the pronoun in the genitive is not in izafet with the following hakk- but merely reinforces its personal sufi hhusus (A) ‘partcular™—bu hususta itirazim yok ‘Thave no cbjection in this particular, in thia regard'—is used as @ post- positional expression especially with the infinitive of the Verb: raya gitmek hususunda itirazim yok 'I have no objection in-thesmatter-of going there’o* PostPositioNs vans '8. Secondary postpottion: TIT. "The nouns in the next list are also used only inthe caze shown (forthe ending of boyunea sce XIl, 2) but difer from those ia the previous section in that they ‘an be used in definite ieafet. In fat, however, they are mostly {ound in indefinite inafe, even sshen they fllow a defined noun. boy length oyunca along, throughout cesna (A) duration fesnasinda in the course of, sia row strasinda in the course of arf (A) container zarfinda ducing saye (P) shadow sayesinde thanks to ugur luck tugruna, for the sake of vugrunda yer place yerine instead of examrtes: Kanal Irmak (Iemagin) boyunea ‘along the Red River; “Tark tarih-i (farih-i-nin) boyunca ‘throughout ‘Tuskish history"; muharebe esnasinda “in the course of the battle’; muharebe zarfinda ‘during. the battle’, Ahmet (meds ‘oldu “thanks co Ahmet, feverything has become all right’; gocuk, akl-t (akl-i-nin} ‘vatan- (vatan-ienin) uguna/ugrunda can verdi ‘he {Eve his life for his country’s sake’; asistan, profesOe-t (pro- {esir-U-nn) yerine derse gitti ‘the asistant went tothe cass instead of his professor’; beni egek yerine alma ‘don't take me for a donkey’. fea is also used in the loestive, defined by 2 demonstrative: bbu esnada ‘during this Hime’. So too bu sayededir ki... i thanks to this that 9. teh, aleyh. The Arabic lah ‘for him’ and ‘alay-t ‘against hi’ make ‘Turkish secondary postpsiins in the locative: Ieh- ienade “for, pro’and aleyh-lenede “agunst, contra’; teklif-in Ichinde/aleyhinde konugtu ‘he spoke for/against the motion’. ‘Although the fnal fis originally the Arubicthird-singular ase taline pronoun, these words can be vaed with the sufixes of any fof the thrce persons: Ieh-imiz-de konugtu ‘he spoke for uss aleyh-iniz-de konugtu ‘he spoke against you’ vit,20 postrostrioxs “They may also be used in the loative without pertonalsufises| a primary postpostions following an ablative: tklif-tem Zehte muisiniz, aleyhte misiniz? ‘are you for or against the motion?” 10. Te preposition HA. This, the Arabic il ‘to, towacd isthe nly preposition used in ‘Turkish as an independent word, as distince fom, for example, the Arabic & in bilhassa "in par- ticular’ or the Taian a in alafranga ‘alla franca, in European ale. It is employed between numbers: on bes HA yirmi ki “iteen to twenty people’, written in figures 15-20. Modemists avoid the word and would read these figures a¢ on begten yi iilye kadar ‘from 15 to 20' or on bes ile yirmi arasinda “between 15 and 221. Because ofthe resemblance between Hand ie, the semiiterate trying t show of produces horid synthesis on bes ild yirmi arasinda. Another example of the correct use: taglor, yarum ilk bir metre kalinhiginda toprakla brelliir “the stones are covered with earth to (lit. “n’) a depth of a balf 1 one metvill THE VERB 4. "The stem, The form ofthe verb which ie cited in the dictionaries fs the infinitive in -mek, eg. bilmek ‘to know’, bulmak ‘to find’, gormek ‘to sec’, anlamak ‘to understand”) When one i describing theconjugation ofthe verb it is more convenient to omit this ending and eite only the stem: bil-, bul, g6r-, anla-, 2. The verb “to be’, We shal first deal with those parts of the snomalous and defective verb to be" which are used as auxiliaries in the conjugation of all vers. In the oldest texts the infinitive ‘to be’ was ermek, but the stem er, abraded in the course of time, now appears a8 i. Some grammarians consequently speak of ‘the verb mek’, but no such form ever existed. 3. "The present tense of ‘to be. "The forms of the present tense of “to be’ exist only at enelitic suffixes, subject to the fourfold harmony. Tn origin they are suflsed personal pronouns, with the exception of the third person ~dle, originally eurur “he stands’ -dit is placed in parentheses in the following table as reminder that in Turkish (as in Arabie and Russian), simple "A ie B equivalences are expressed without a copula. See § + ‘When a sufix beginning with a vowel follows a vowel a ¥ i inzerted to preserve the identity of both Present: ‘Tan, ee Singular um sum sin sun (atiejee) (durjeur) ie oe owe 3 -Wirltinler “(dirjtinjler “(dirjurjlar —(durjturjlar * Ta form wa rely in we copula in the eleventh etary. vit. ‘THe VERB ” 4, Uses of -dir. Tn writing and in formal speech -dir expresses the copula: kizan ads, Fatma’dtr “the gels name is Fatima’, fenerji kaynaklarimiz, bol-dur ‘our sources of power are abundant’. Ie will be noticed that the verb in the later example is singular; this is customary with inanimate plural subjects and possible with animate plural subjects. See further XVI, Tn ordinary speech dir is not used in sch simple “A — BP ‘sentences; one says Krzan ads Fatma; enerji kaynaklarimiz Dol. di ie generally used as a copula in speech as well xs in writing () When the predicate is a noun in such sentence as: en gok ssevditim sair Nedim'dir ‘my favourite poet is Nedim’, where the omision of ~dir might lead to misunderstanding: “my favourite poet, Nedim, (b) When the subject is a pronoun understood from the con test: yaman bir adam-dir ‘he is a remarkable man’, There ia an alternative, inthe colloquial, of using the third-person pronoun instead of -dir: 0, yaman bir adam or yaman bit adam, 0, (0) When the subject is « noun which follows the predicate: yaman bie adamdir, ameantz ‘he is 4 cemackable man, your tunde’ (@) When the subject is 2 phrase containing a postposition and the predicate isa nouneclause introduced by Kl (XTH, 13): onua sayesinde-die ki muvaffak olduk ‘tis thanks to him that we have succeeded’; bundan dolayt-dir ki glemedim ‘itis because ofthis that I did not go’. In term of the equivalent English, one ‘ould include these two examples under (8) above. Tie i the ‘only one ofthe four situations in which the ~ir is never omitted. Otherwise, the use of dir in informal sposch is either for emphasis or, more often, to indicate a supposition, Whereas the ‘written words vesia kasa-dadir mean ‘the document isin the safe’, the same words in informal speech mean ‘the document is surely in the safe, must be in the safe or, less commonly, ‘confident ‘the document i in the sae"; only the tone of voice Shore which of the tvo it intended. Ifthe speaker is stating a simple fact, which he docs not think it necessary to emphasize, he will ay vesika kasada. ‘The following are possible answers to the spoken question ‘gocuklar nerede? “where are the children?”a ‘THE veRD vues bahgede in the garden bahgedeler they are in the garden ‘bahgededirler they ae in the garden (emphatic) or they are ‘surely in the garden (raporitin) Dahgedelerdir they are surely in the garden (~uppsiion) ‘One manifestation of the rapid closing of the gap between the writen and spoken languages is that ~dir is more and more ‘omitted in writing when it merely expresses the copula "For =dirsufixed to finite verbs soe § 42, 5. Examples of the present tense of ‘to be ‘Tam, ete, at home’ Singular Phra 1 evde- evde-y-iz 2 evde-sin fevde-siniz 5 evde(-di) exde(-dir)-ler Tam, ete, Turkish! Singular Phar 2 Tark-ten, Tark-tiz 2 Tiirkestin ‘Tark-siind 3 Tirk¢tir) ——Tirk(tir)-ler! Tam, etc, ready? Singular Plural 1 hagie-im haze 2 hazit-sin hhaair-sinz 3 hazie(dir)——hazir(-dir)-tar “Lam, ete, responsible? Singular Plural 1 sorumiu-y-um —sorumiu-y-uz 2sorumiu-sun sorumlu-sunuz 3 sorumlu(-dur) — sorumlu(-dur)-lar + Another ponitiliy ie Teter, which means no ‘they ace Tasks ‘tte oe he Tr See AVI 90 vit 6 ‘rue VERB ” 6. Forme based on i "The finite forms of ‘to be’ based on fo, ramely the past, the conditional, and the inferential, all exist both as independent words and as suffixes. When suffied, the {ofthe stem is lest after consonants and changes to ¥ after vowels, ‘while the remainder ofthe form is subject both t0 the fourfold vowel harmony and the alternation dt 7. The past tense of ‘to be’. The base, ic, the third singular, is snd the other persons are formed by adding to i -am for the stand -n for the second singular, and -k forthe fst, -nlz for the second, and -let for the third plural. L was’ ete Sufized after cove Singular ridim yim -ydim —-ydim —-ydum 2idin -ydin -ydin “yan “ydun, 3 idl syd yd yh yd Plural sydik-ydiik—-ydik_—-yduke ydiniz, “yuiindz yd “ydunuz Cydiler “ydiler -ydilar -ydular ‘Sufived after consonants Singular x =dim/tiny/dlmia/duen tim /duenjcum, 2 -din/tin din tan din/ten/dun tun 3 -ditidjeo/dytydujeu Plural 1 dik tht t/t 2 diniz|tinle/ dni nia/damz/tanez/dunur|eunue 3 -diler tier diler/tiler/dilarjstar/dulartular EXAMPLES: eve idim or evdeydim ‘T as 2t home’; irk fdi for Tirktd ‘he was Turkish’; hazar iik or hazirdie ‘we were ready’; Sorumiu idiniz or sorumluydunuz ‘you vere respon- Sle’ 8. The present conditional of to be": if Lam’, ete "The ase is Ise and the personal endings are the same as those of the past.10 ‘THE VERB wut, Suffsed ‘Singular after owels After consonants 1 isem -ysem -ysam -sem sam 2 jen Tysan “sen -san 3 ise cya ose os Plerat 1 sek ssek —-sak 2 Isenlz Teenie “sanz: 3 iseler. -yseler seler “salar exantpes: evde isem or evdeysem ‘if Tam at home's Tirk ise or Tiirkse ‘if he is Turkish’; hazir isek or hazarsak Sf fe are ready"; Sorumlu iseniz or sorumluysamtz ‘if you are responsible 9. The past conditional of to be! ‘if Twas, ete, This expresses ‘open past condition asin: “if T was sight, why did you not gree hh ie?” For the remote or unfulfilled condicon, asin “f I had Been right, would you have agreed with me?” se § 34. The various perons of the present conditional are added to the past base Farisem ~ idiysem or, when sufficed, -ydiysem. Alkerma- tively, the sufixed third cingular of the present conditional is {iided to the various persons of the past: kdim--se. The later “ternative is, however, provincial and colloquial so much so that in writing it occurs ony in the sux forms «dimse or -ydimse, ters the theoretically possible independent forms fdimse, et, Seem never to be woed, ‘Comparison with §7 will show that the following paradigm has been simplified to the extent of three-quarters of its fll size by the omission of the sufixed forms (a) beginning with t, as ed after unvoiced consonant, and (8) with the rounded vowels and u, Suffixed Singular After encels After consonants 1 idiysem -ydiysem -ydrysam_~diysem—~diysam 2 idiysen -ydiysen -ydiysan-diysen— ~diysan 3 idiyse “ydiyse— -ydiysa—~diyse.—~drgsa vat.se ‘THE VERB ro Pleral After extele After consonants 1 idiysek -ydiysek —-ydiysak —-diysek_—~diysak 2 liysenis -ydiyseniz. -ydisanrz ~diyseniz, 3 liyseler -ydiyseler -ydiysalar -diyseler Supived Singular After cores After consonants r-ydimse —-ydimsa dims, 3 -ydinse— -ydinsa 3 -vdiyse — -ydiysa Plarat y-ydikse —-ydiksa_—-dikse 2 sainizse 3 “aiysoler EXAMELHS: evde idiysem, evdeydiysom, or evdeydimse ‘if Twas et home; Tirk idiyse or TUrktllyse “if he was ‘Turkish’ haz idiysek, hazardiysak or hazardiksa ‘if we were ready"; sorumlu idiyseniz, sorumluyduysanez or sorumluydunuzsa “if you were responsible’ 10. The inferential, The inferential presentjpast img means he iajwas said to be? or "T infer that he igwas although T had not realized it before’. Though some grammarians have termed it the abitatve, in itself it does not imply doubt or uncertainty; e fr sentence beginning Orhan hasta imig ‘Orhan is suid to be iit" may continue ‘and we ought to visit the poor man" or ‘but T bet he’s malingering’. Similery, a speaker who saya ben gerici imigim ‘Tam sid to be reactionary’ may goon ‘and it's tue and Pia proud of i” ot ‘but this is a wicked slander. Tis formed by adding tothe base imi or the sufised -ymig fo -mip, ic, the present suffixes of the verb “to be’, ith the exception of dir. Singular Sufived after vowels imigim -ymisim -ymiism_—-ymugim -ymusum 2imigsin -ymigsin “ymigstin -ymsin -ymugsun 3imig-ymig symp -ymip yutea ‘THe vERD vit, Plural ‘Sufived after vowels imigiz. -ymisiz. -ymilgz.-ymigiz._-ymuyuz 2imigsiniz -ymigsiniz -ymiigsiiniz-ymagsinyz -ymugsunuz Simigler -ymigler -ymisler -ymiglar -ymuslar Sufised after consonants -migim -migim — -migim — -musum ‘The 98 of the sccond person, uncition, racy in writing, 9 $2 mi exanpuss: evde imisim or evdeymisim ‘I am ssid to be at home’; irk imig or Tirkmig “he is said to be Turkish’; Iazir imigiz or hazarmagtz "we ate suid toe ready’ sorumiu imigsiniz or sorumluymugsunuz "you are suid to be respon- sible’; kimdle? “who is he?; kimmig? ‘who is he supposed to be?"; aUmahumer. ne img? “what is our sin said to be?” ie. ‘ohat are we reported to have done that as offended you?" If told “the new Minister sa good man’, yeni Bakan iyi bir adam, one say seply imig or -ms, meaning ‘so we are told, but I have no fstchand knowledge of hi’. ben miglere muslara pek kulak vyermem ‘I don't pay much heed to gossip’ (it.I do not much sive ear to mises and muses), 41. The inferential conditional: gather that if Tamas’ or if Lamjwas, 28 they aay, ete, The present conditional endings are sufficed to imig or its sufixed forms. ‘Singular Sufised after eowels 1 imigsem -ymigsem -ymiigsem -ymigsam 2imigsen -ymigsen -ymilgsen -ymigsan ~ 3imiyse -ymigse -ymigse -yrmigsn_ -ymuysa, Plaral rimigsek -ymigsek -ymligsek -ymigsak -ymugsake 2 imigseniz -ymigseniz -ymigseniz -ymigsansz -ymaugsaniz 3 imigseler -ymigseler -ymigecler -ymigsalar -ymugsalar Supived after consonants smigsem -mllgsem -migsam _-muysam ete, vinta ‘THe verD wea ‘These forms, which are wsed in reported speech, ate not often met with in witing. If someone says to you hazirsantz yola ‘ikmalisimiz(§ 30) if you are ready you ought to start of, you may seport these words thos: ben hazar imigsem (or hazir- sigsam) yola gikmaliymisim “they are saying that if Tam ready I ought to tart of 12. The negative of ‘to be’. This is made by putting after deiit “not the suffixed forms, ess commonly the independent forms, ven above (0) Present: 1am not’, ete ‘Singular Phra 4 dexitim, degitiz 2 degisin deilsiniz 3 deilais) ——dedil(dirjer (6) Past: "was not et. Singular 1 dofildim or dei idim 2 degildin ‘dept iain 3 degilat Pruyal 1 dog efit idik 2 depildiniz dedi idintz 5 depidiler dei idler (c) Present conditional: if Lam not’, te, ‘Singular 1 deBisem or defi isem defi ison ‘debi ise 1 degitsek oil isek 2 depilseni dei ieniz 3 debilseler defi iseler (egillerse): + Ancoative forms exist forthe shd-perin purl of most tents and ned Ta ae cman sane eve npn4 THE VERB vit (@) Past conditional: 1 was noe’, ee Singular 1 defi idiysem or dofildiysem or degildimse 42 degil idiysen —degildiysen——_deildinse 3 depilidiyse dopildiyse degildiyse Plural 1 defi iiysek —dfildiysek_——_dedildikse 2 defi idlysenlz — doildiyseniz —_defildinizse 3 deBil idiyseler deildiyseler___degildilerse (6) Inferential: anjvas suid not to be, “infer that Ta ‘Singular 1 defi imigim or dejilmisim 2 dogilimigsin ——degilmissin 5 dedi imig degilmiy Plaral 1 defil imistz deiligiz 2 dedi imigsi 43 del imisier_degilmisler (0) Inferential conditional: “I gather that if Tamm not’, “iE Tam rot, a they sy’, te Singular 1 defi imigsem or degilmiysem 2 degilimigsen| degilmigsen 43 degil imigse ddegilmigse Pheral 1 defi imissek —_—_dejtlmigsek 2 degil imisseniz —depilmigseniz, 43 del imigseler _degilmigscler fil slone means ‘not’ as well as ‘snot’, well following the wordt negates: bugiin depit, din geldi “he came yesterday, not today! (this-day not, esterday he-eame’)- When it precedes one of| ‘so parallel words, it indicates that that one i of less importance thar the other: del sen, ben de bilmedim ‘never mind about you, even I did not know"; doit parasim, hayatint kurtara- ‘aut “never mind about his money, he coulda't save his hfe If the positions of del and parasin! were reversed, the mesning ‘would be it wasn't his money, i was his fe that he could act sive’. hizmetgiyi dof, beni Kojldu “it wasn’t the servant, it ‘was me he threw out; deBil hizmetciyi, bent bile Kojdu "over mind about the servant, he even these me ot", The sense of ‘never mind about” is ocesionally expresed by a following 13. Interroative. The interroative particle is mi, which turns the immediately preceding word into a question, Te is writen separately from the preceding word, but takes te vowel harmony from it: dou ‘true, doju mu? ‘erue?; buggin mil "today?" yarn me? tomorrow? Iemay even follow and turn into a ques ‘om a wor which io already inteeogative; thus the reply t ki eldl? “who came? may be kim ‘ml? ‘do you ask “who: (literally "who ?"?). The forms ofthe verh ‘to he" sre appended for efned to it but when ler alone and not -dirler is weed for the tied plural of the present tense the “ler precedes mi (6) Present: ‘am I, et, at home/Turkishready responsible?” Singular { evde miyim Turk mayém hair mayim sorumiu muyum PON nim ye mst monn wenn 5h ale) [) morauey 3) mate rmuidury Paral “tiger” nde par (Nmsiaictee “muaurer —"euaurtar “mutter (@) Pant: wae Tat home, te. evde mi idim or _evde miydim Tiirk mi dim ‘Tork miydiim bavar me faim hhazar maydim sorumiu mu idim —sorumiu muydum16 ‘rie VERB vinx For the remaining persons see the conjugation of idm and its forma when eufixed after vowels, in § 7 (6) ferential: arn aid to be at home, et.” evde mi imisim or evde miymisim TOrk mi imigim —"Tirk méymiistim whazse ms imnigion hhazar mayest sorumlu mu imigim — sorumiu muymugum FFor the remaining persons see § 10, ‘Some grammarians complete the paradigm by setting out the inerrogative of the conditional; present, part, and inferential ‘sem mai, idiysem mi, imigsem mi, This is unnccessary i t be borne in mind that ai functions simply ae a question-mark. "The intereogative of the conditional” of the verb "to be" occurs only in such contexts a2 when someone is asked a question like “what shall we do if he is not at home?" evde degilse ne yapa- lum? and repli “if he is not at home?’ evde degilse mi? See aso §34 (0) 14, Negative-interrogative. mi and the appropriate part of the verb ‘to be are placed after dejil: cede dojil miyim ‘am I not at home?” evde degil mi idim or evde degil miydim ‘was 1 not at Thome?” evde dejil mi imisim or evde degit ‘said to e/a Tid not to be at home? iymigim ‘am T not 15, The regular ver. Tis category includes all vers other than the verb ‘tobe’ If we look back ever the preceding pages we see that the conjugation of the verb ‘to be’ may be summarized a= follows: there are to distinct sets of personal endings, which we ‘may call Types T and IL Type Type tt Singular ne vitt,rs rae veRn ser Type Type It Pleral tek 2 sinks oni 3 Winer “ler ‘ype I isthe present tens, ‘I am’, ete; Type IT is added to the base of the past tense id and of the conditional ise. ‘The ‘Type T ‘endings are suffixed to img to make the inferential: img-im, Imig-si, etc. The conditional, i. ise plus the Type II endings, is added to the past hase idl to make the past conditional: i {yse-m, idi-ysesn, ct. Added tothe inferential base it makes the inferential conditenal: imig-se-m, Imig-se-n, etc. ‘The same principle applis tothe conjugstion ofthe regular verb, but two ‘ther sets of personal endinge are used in addition to Types I and IL, Type II1 is confined to the subjunctive and ‘Type IV to the imperative, which has no first person Type IM Type lV Singular 1 -eyim 2 fein 3 Ue sin Plat 3 By the addition of ‘characteristics’ tothe verb-stem the follow- ing tense- and mood-bases ean be formed: 1. prosent ——_g, necensiative 2, future 6 dlepast 3 aorist, 1. conditional f mig-pat —& subjunctive "The imperative is sot included in this list because it has no ‘characteristic. The term ‘tense- and mood-bass is used in pre~ fecence to “tensen and moods’ because from each base a varity ‘of compound tenses and moods can be formed. Fach base is alsose ‘THE VERB vat, 36 the thied-person singular of its tense or mood. Only the di-past, conditional, subjunctive, and imperative have endings of their fown;all the other bases are subsantval in origin and are verbalized by meana of the ver ‘to be’. For this reason the device of sa pended afixation i regulary used in the verb: just a, in English, there is no need to repeat the pattof the verb ‘to be’ in "T wae sitting in my room [and I was] reading the paper’, so in Tutkish ‘odamda oturuyor|-dum ve] gazeteyl okuyor-dum. TThe regularity of the verbal system wll soon impress itself on the student. Where it has been thought unnecessary t0 tout conjugation in fall, the first and second persons of the singular find the third person ofthe plural have been given, a, inthis st, alternative forms can occur, with the plural suffix preceding of following the personal suffix. The less common forms ofthe plural are shown in brackets. When alternative form exist for a whole conjugation, the most usual is given frst. A synopsis of the finite verb will be found on page 136 "The occasional change of t to before vowels must be borne in smind; thus the present base of et- ‘to do” is edivor, of git- to {g0°Bidiyor, of tat- to taste" tadsyor. Most stems int, however, dl not undergo this change: at- to throw’, atiyor; tutto hold”, ‘uruyor; yat- ‘to lie down’, yatiyor. 16, Present T. The characteristic of the base is an invariable yor, originally an independent verb yoru, the acrist of the ancient yorimak ‘to go, walk. It is sufixed drcely to vowel- erk- to mek, exiyor Day to grow, buytiyor tant- to recognize, tamyor —_Koru- to protect, Koruyor Final e/a ofthe stem changes before this suffix in accordance with the rule given in T, 36 Dekle- to wait, bekliyor gales to observe, gUzlByor anla-tounderstand, anhiyor —topla- to collet, topluyor "The orignal final vowel of the ates lle- ‘to sharpen? and yska- “co wash is sometimes preserved in writing—bileyor, yikayor— in order to avoid confusion with the present of Bil- ‘to know" and yik- ‘to demolish billyor, yikiyor. With contonant-stems, the appropriate clase vowel is inserted before -yor: el- to com fal to take, altyor geliyor Air tose, aériyor kog- to run, koguyor ‘The accent is on the vowel preceding the -yor. 17, Uses ofthe present. This tense is used for actions either in progeess or envisaged: Antalya’da galiiyor ‘he is working in ‘Anvalya'; Kendisini haftada iki defa gortyorum "I see him ‘sige a week’; yarin gidiyoruz ‘we are going to morrow", As it ‘ean denote actions begun ia the past and stil going on, i e used fn such sentences a8 Iki sene-dir bu evde oturuyor lit “i i theo years he is living in this house’ and burada haziran avindan beri onuruyor lit. he is fving here since the month of June’, ‘where English has the perfect “he has been living’. See also § 25. 18, Paradigms of the present: To the base in -yor ate added the suffixes of the verb ‘to be" except sir; both inthe writen and in the epeken language the addition of ~dir to the present tense indiates a supposition; se § 42 (@) Preen simple: alyorum Tam ‘taking alyoruz we are taking aliyorsun you ste taking abyorsunuz yo are taking alyor he staking lyorlar they are taking () Preset pact alyordum Twastiking aliyorduk we vere taking aliyordua you were taking alyyordunuz youweretaking faliyordu he was taking alvorlardt they were (ahyordular) taking ‘Theoretically the separate forms altyor idim, etc, might be ‘expected but their une is in fact an Armenians, (0) Preset conditional: ahyorsam if Tam taking alyorsak if weare taking alyorsan ifyowaretaking alyorsamiz ifyouaretaking ahyorsa if eis taking abyorlarsa if they are (alyorsalar) taking‘THE VERB vin, (@ Past conditional 8 U was taking’ Singular 1 aliyor idiysem or alyorduysam or alyyordumsa 2 aliyor idiysen alyorduysan — aliyordunsa Plural 3 ahyor idiyseler ——altyorduysalar —_alyorfardiysa {aliyorlar idiyse) For the fall conjugation of. § 9 (©) Inferential: I amas said to be taking’ oF "gather that 1 anyjorss taking” Singular 1 alyormusum 2 alyormugsun Plural 3 allyorlarmis (aliyormusiar) See § 0, (1) Inferential conditional: 6 Lara, a they say, taking’ ot SL gather that if Tawa taking” Singular 1 alyor imigsem or alryormussam 2 aliyor imissen alyormugsan Pheral 43 aliyor imigseler ——-ayormugsalar (aliyoriar imigse) iyorlarmssa) See§ t1 (g) Negatce. The nopatve sufi is -me, added tothe verb-ster before the characteristic; its vowel is subject to the rules given in I, 36. Deke ;-me--yor > beklemiyor he is not waiting ir -me-tyor > gOrmiyor he is not seeing at} masyor > almiyor he is not taking kos-ma-+yor > kogmuyor he is not running vias ‘THE VERB a cgatve base thus formed, the suffixes of ‘to be” are uded, just as withthe positive base; for example, the negative ‘conjugation of al- is exactly as shown in paragraphs (a) t0 (J), vith the substitution of almayor for alxyor throughout. (i) Interogatve. The appropriate interrogative form of ‘to be? is plced after the present base, postive or negative, As the inter= royative particle tume the preceding word into a question the Iiteral meaning of, for example, almayor muydumuz is ‘is it nottaking that you were?” “am T taking?” “am T not taking?” ‘Singular 1 ahyor muyum almiyor muyum, 3 alyor musun almsyor musun 3 alyor mu falmsyor mu Plural 1 ahyor muyuz almiyor muyuz 2 aliyor musunuz ‘lmiyor musunuz 3 alyyorlar mi ‘lmiyorlar mi ‘ras I taking?” “was I not taking?” ‘Singular 1 alyor muydum ‘almiyor muydum 2 alyor muydun almsyor muydun Plural 3 aliyorlar miydt almsyorlar miydt (aliyor muydular) ——_(almiyor muydular) ‘amfwas Tesid to be ‘arjwas Isai not to be “aking?” ‘aking? Singular 1 akyor muymusum ——almiyor muymusum 2 alyor muymugsun ——almryor muymugsun Plural 3 alyorlar maymig ——_almiyorlar miymig (aliyor muymuslar) —_(almiyor muymusiar) 19, Present Il. The base ofthis tense isthe locatve ease of the infinitive in -mek, to which are added the endings of the verbaa ‘THE VERB vitt,a6 “to be’: gelmekte-y-im ‘Tam (in the act of) coming’ almakta~ sin you are in the act of aking’; gelmekte-yilim “I was (inthe ‘ct of) coming’; gizlemekte-ymigsiniz you arjswere said to be {Gn the act of observing’; Kogmakta-larsa ‘if they ae (inthe act of) running’ ee "The negative is formed with the negative of ‘to be’ (§ 12): almakta degilim ‘I am not taking’; almakta degilsek “if we are not taking’, ete, For the interogative and negativesinterroga- tive se §§ 15-14 “This present in -mekte, originally a literary formation, is rapidly invading the spoken language. Tt difee from the present in -yor in being used only of setions in progsess and never of actions envisaged. Very rately the locative ofthe verbal noun in -me is similarly ‘used: alma-da-y-im ‘Tam in the act of taking’. Subsequent references to ‘the present tense are tobe taken a8 applying tothe present 1 20. Future I. ‘The characteristic ie -ecok, added directly 10 onsonantsstems: gel-ecek ‘he will come e-ecek he wil se aleacak ‘he wil take; bul-aeak ‘he will ind’ ‘After vowel-steme a y is inserted: eri-y-ecek ‘it will melt’; tamt-y-ncak ‘he will recognize’ If the final vowel ofthe ster is €or, it is narrowed by the fliowing y into fot eke -y-ecek > bekliyecek he will wait anla-+y-;acak > anhyacak he will understand 21. Uses of the foture. This tense is used, like the English fa ‘to exprestnot only what is going to happen but what the speaker wants to happen sigara igmekten vazgegeceksin “you are to give up smoking cigarette’; ister istemez bu is Yapacaksin ‘like i o¢ not, you are going to do this job’. Also asin English, the third person expresses a confident assumption: Simdi merdivenden gukan Ahmet olacak litelly “the one row coming upstairs will be Ahmet, ie. ‘that will be Ahmet ‘coming upstairs now". The future past, besides expressing past intention—zaten bunu yapacaktum "I was going t0 do i any ‘vay'--is employed in the apodosis of conditional seatence, both for ‘T would do ivf..." and "I would have done iif vat 33 ‘THE VERS a, 22, Paradigms of the future. Ta the future base are added the to be’ endings, a With the present base, except thatthe written language roglarly uses -dir in the third person of the future to ‘expres a simple future statement and not 3 supposition “The change of intervocalie K to & must be borne in mind, (o) Fatere simple: "1 shall come’ sll take" Singular — lecetim alacajim, 2 Beleceksin alacaksin 3 Belecek(tir) ‘lacakitir) Plural 1 geleeegi alacajiz 2 gelecoksiniz alacaksiniz 3 elecekler(dir) ——_alneakar(dur) (6) Fatare pasts ‘Las about to come, "was about to take, ‘would come” ‘would take" Singular 1 gelecektim slacaktim, 2 elecektin slacaktin 3 Belecektt alacakte Plural 1 gelecektike alacaktuk 2 elocektiniz alacaktiniz 3 elecekterdt ‘lacaklardt (6) Future conditional: Tam shout to“ Lam about t» come take’ ‘Singular 1 geleceksem flacaksam 2 feleceksen ‘laeaksanPlural 3 feleceklerse aacaklarsa (gelecekseler) _(alacaksalar) cr 5 18, (4) Future past conditional: ‘i€ Twas about to come’ Singular 1 golecek idiysom or gelecektiysem or gelecektimse 2 felecek idiysen _gelecekti Pleral 3 fllecek idiyseler gelecekt (Gelecekler idiyse) So, with the changes due to vowel harmony, alaeak idiysem or alacaktiysam or alacaktimsa, cte. CF. §9. wen felecektinse ler geleceklerdiyse (6) Patare inferential: "aoa sai to be about to come’ ihm or etecekemisim 2 felecek mijn Gslceknigain Phat 3 geleceler mig gelceklermis (Getecek msi) (gelecokmisier) (1) Pater ifretil condonal 6 hey mye, Vaan about to come”: dan Singular elecl iim or gelacekigsem 2 sleek imigeen” gelecekmigsen Phat 4 felecek imigssler__elecekmipselor Golecekiertmigue)_(geleceKieciges) (9) Fare negate, Compare the present negative in §18 gel ime -y-Hecek > gelmiyecek he will nt come al;mayyracak >almiyaeak he will ct take vat, ‘rue VERB as "The same endings are attached as tothe postive base: gel yecegjim, gelmiyecektiniz, gelmiyecek imigseler, (qotmisier bringer aims bulmuslar iis) “The one-word forms gelmistiysem, ete, ate nat literary. (6 Inferential: "am si 9 have come’, ee, "The base in -mig is followed by the inferential of "to be"; seo §10. In this tense, for reisons of euphong, the independent imnlgim, et, sy mach more often than the sufixed forms. It must ized thatthe inferential clement here comes from the imig, fot from the base, which in this tense, asin the pluperfect and ‘conditional, functions simply a3 2 past participle. Thus gelmiy mig or gelmigmig means literlly *he-ie-mid-to-be having ‘come’ just a8 gelmigti means ‘he-was having-come’ and sel- Imigse“if-he-is having-come’ Singular 5 gelmiggrmdjatms/bulmus imigion 2 wy Plural 3 >, imigler (gelmisier/géemislerjaimislar bulmuslar imis) Singular 1 gelmig-— grmug- alas. bulma migim mis magi musum 2 elmis- girls almss- ‘butmug- ‘missin miigstin— mgean mugsun vit, 32 THE VERB Bs Plarat 3 elmig-—gormulg- alms bulmus- lermig termi arms arms (gelmis(girmilg-—(alemsg- (bulmus- ‘migler) mister) muglar) ‘muslar) (@ Inferential conditional: “it 1 am said to have come’, ete, Here again the separate imigsem, ct, are commoner than the sulixed forms Singular 1 gelmis/demisjatms/bulmus imigsem 2 re imigsen Plural 1 imigselor > (getmisierg6rmtislerjaimuglar/bulmuslar imigse) "The rare sufixed forms are like the malg-past conditional (eee (@) ofthis section) but with -migmis, et, rep (0) Negative. -me is added alte the stem: gelmemis, memig, almamis, bulmanms. To this negative bate the endings are attached as to the positive base, except that as the negative -me is subject oly tothe twofold harmony the safxes following it appear ony in vo forms: gelmemisim, bulm: snigim I gather that I have not come found’; gelmemislerdir, Dulmamislarder “they have aot come/found’; gelmemistik, Dulmamistie “we had not comejfound’; gelmemig imigim, Dulmants5 imigim ‘T am said not to have come/found! () Interopatice. ‘This and the interrogativenegative are as usu with ma preceding the personal endings except Her, which ie follows: gelmig miydik ‘had we eome?"; gelmemig mivdik “had we not come?"; Ormllg imigler mi ‘are they said to have seen?"; almannis imigler mi ‘are they aid not to have taken’ 130, Necestative. The characteristic ie “meli, which may be used impersonaly: gelmeli ‘one ought to come’; almatt ‘one ought to take’. It may also be conjugated with the preseat, past, and inferential of "to be’, but aot with the conditional: see (f) below Tin origin its the verbal noun sux -me with -It (LV, 3)6 ‘THE VERB vit, 30 (c) Present: "Lought to come’, ‘Tough to take’ Singular 1 gelmeliyim alah 2 fjelmel almahsin 3 elmeli(dir) almab(dir) Pharal 1 gelmeliyiz almaly 2 gelmelisini —almalisinsz 3 Selmeli(diryler — almal(dirjiar (6) Post “Thad to come, “Thad to take, should have come’ should hae taken’ ‘Singular x gelmeliidim ——almaltidim 2 gelmeli din alma idin Pla 43 Selmeli idiler —almal idler ‘Singular gelmeliydim ——almaliydim 2 gelmeliydin ——almaliy Phat 43 flelmeliydiler —almaliydilar (gelmetiter (0) Inferential: “they sayjsid U ovght 10 « « J. The separate fgelmelt imisim, almals imigim is rare ingular 1 gelmellymigim 2 gelmeliymigsin Plarct 3 gelmeliymisler almalrymuslar (gelmelilermis) —(almalilarmss) (@) Negative. The negative base, gel-me-meli,al-ma-malt, like the positive base, #8 used impersonally, ‘one ought not 19 vit, 32 ‘THE VERB a cometake’, as well as with the present, past, and inferential ‘endings: gel-me-meli-siniz ‘you ought not to come"; gel-me- zeli-ydik ‘we ought not to have come’, gel-me-mell-ymig- siniz ‘they say/said you ough not co come (6) Interogatice: gelmelt mi “should one come?” or ‘shovld he come?"; gelmell miydiniz ‘should you have eome?”; getme= ‘mei miydik ‘should we not have come?’ ete. (f) Conditional. In place of the conditional forms ofthe neces- sitative,« periphrasis is used, with the conditional forms of the verbs gerekmek or icabetmek ‘to be necessary’, o, particularly for the prcsent conditional, the adjectives ISzim or gerek ‘necessary and the conditional forms of "to be, following the mae verbal noun of the required verb with the appropriate personal suffix ‘delme-m gerekirse i» deabederse | if T ought to come (lt. “if my-coming ‘ Wazimsa is necessary’) fe gerek-se Sloss reins) we had cme (orig ws» Heabettiyse J was necesary) "The future necositatve is expressed by a similar periphrasis: fgelme-si gerekecek ‘he will have to come’ Chitcoming wil= De-necenary’). 31. di-past. This tense corresponds to both the English simple past and perfect with ‘have’. Its characteristic is ~di (-ti after ‘unvoiced consonant), to which are added the Type Ik endings, ‘Tome, ‘Tsaw, ‘Tdid,—“Tfound, have come’ have seen’ have done’ have found’ Singular 1 geldim —girdim = yapum —_buldum 2geldin —gdrdim = yapnn——buldun 3 eld goed yay buldu Plaral 1 geldik —gbrddk_——yapuk——butduk Sirdindz —yaptmz —buldunuz Sordiler —yaptilar—uldulara ‘rue veRD vu s2 32, Uses of the dl-past, This is the tense used in speech when relating past events poritively known to the speaker. If one has ‘witnesed the arrival of a touristship, one may report the event in the words bir turist vapuru geldl, ‘The newspapers will sy bir turist vapuru gelmigtir, although in the headline they will use the synonymous but shorter geld Someone who has learned ‘ofthe event from an eyewitness o fom the newspapers will report itay bir turist vapuru gelmis. 38. Other paradigms ofthe dl-past (a) Pluperfec From the al-past two pluperfect tenses are made, on the pattern of the two past conditionals of the verb to bo ace § 9. The fist is commoner than the second, but not 0 common as the pluperfect in -mig-t (5). “Thad come’ Thad seen Singular 1 geldiydim or geldimdi — gordiydtim or gbrdiimait 2 feldiydin geldindi — gordiydtin _g0rdonda 3 gelaiya gordiydil Plat rgeldivdik geldikti —girddyduk — gOrdiikta 2 geldivdiniz geldinizdt girdUydundz gdrdtintizaa 43 deldivdiler geldilerdi girdydller gdrdGlerdi “Thad done’ “Uhad found? Singular 1 yaptyydim or yaptimd: —bulduydum or buldumdu 2 yapuydin yaptind) — bulduydun buldunda 3 ‘yaptiyd ‘bulduydu Paral 1 yapuydik —yapukts —bulduyduk — buldukew 2 yaptiydinz yaptinied: bulduydunus. buldunuzdu 3 yaptydilar yaptiardh bulduydular buldulardt () Conditional. As inthe dl-plupertect, there are two possible forms, the first being more frequent, Only the conjugation of ‘stems with rounded vowels has been shown; for the conjugation of geldiysem/geldimse and yapuysam/yaptumsa, ef § 9, » ‘THR VERB ns “ET sa have seen’ “ET found, have found Singular 1 Qbrdilysem or gordiimse hulduysam or buldumsa 2 girdiysen gérdinse ulduysan buldunsa, 3 gbrdiyse Dbulduysa Plural 1 gOrdiysek grdilkse bulduysak — bulduksa 2 gordiysentz gOrdiindzse bulduysaniz buldunuzsa 3 Rorduyseler —girdilerse bulduysalar buldularsa (0) Plperfect conditional. ‘The separate iysem, ete, and not the sufixed forms are used, “if Thad come? Singular 1 geldi idiysem or geldim idiyse 2 geldi idiysen — geldin idiyse Plural 43 feldl idiyseler — geldiler idiyse (d) Negative. ‘The same endings are sttached to the negative stem: gelmedim “T have not come’, almadma2 “you did not take’, yapmadiydik or yapmadikt ‘we had not done’, g6r= imediyse ‘if he has not Seen’, bulmads idiyseler ‘if dhey had not found’ ee (e) Imterrgative. As the dl-past is conjugated with the ‘Type HI endings and'not the present of ‘to be’, the interrogative particle follows the whole worl: geldim mi? I comse?" yaptinz mi? ‘did you do?"; gordiikemt? ‘di we vee buldular mat?‘did they find? ete ‘There are alternative forms for the iterrogative of the ple perfect: “had 1 come?" Singutar 1 eldi miydim or geldim miyat 2 geldi miydin geldin miyai 3 ‘geldi midi