BASICS

• What is Instrumentation?
• Basic Terminologies
• Process & its Control
• Field Instruments & its principles
• Valves & its working
 What is Instrumentation?
• Instrumentation is about measurement and
control.
• Instrumentation engineering is the
engineering specialization focused on the
design and configuration of process systems.
• Instruments are devices which are used in
measuring attributes of process systems.
 Basic Terminologies
• Process:
Series of continuous or regularly recurring steps or actions
intended to achieve a predetermined result, as in heat treating
metal, or manufacturing acid.

• Transducer(sensor):
Element which converts one form of Energy to Other form.

• Primary Transducer:
Transducer which converts the Process parameter to a form
readable by Secondary Transducer.
Eg: Orifice plate

• Secondary Transducer:
Transducer or transmitter which responds to a measured
variable and converts it to a standardized transmission signal which
is a function only of the measurement.
Eg: DP Transmitter
• Signal:

The signal is the event or phenomenon that conveys data from one
point to another.

• Loop:

A Loop is a combination of one or more interconnected instruments

arranged to measure a process variable. It shall comprises the whole chain
from Primary element to Correcting Element.

• Controller:

A device that operates automatically by use of some established

algorithm to regulate process variable(PV) according to the set point(SV).
The controller input receives information about the status of the process
variable and then provides an appropriate output signal(MV-manipulated
variable) to the final control element(eg-valves etc.,).
•Interlock:
It refers to the set of plant conditions(eg. Level of a tank, temp of furnace,
position of furnace or a valve, flow of a fluid, etc) which are to be satisfied before
operating(starting, stopping, opening ,closing ,etc)of any instrument or equipment.

ANALYSER:

•Monitor pollutant gas emissions from industrial processes.

•Gas analyzer is a gas comparator providing high linearity of signal

transformation function.

WEIGHFEEDER:

•Controller multiplies the signal from the load cell(belt load,kg/m) with that
from the speed transducer(belt speed,m/s) to get the feed rate.

•The controller then either changes the belt speed or belt load to get the set
feed rate.
CONVEYOR:
Conveyors are used as components in automated distribution and
warehousing. A belt conveyor consists of two or more pulleys, with a
continuous loop of material - the conveyor belt - that rotates about them.
One or both of the pulleys are powered, moving the belt and the material on
the belt forward. The powered pulley is called the drive pulley while the
unpowered pulley is called the idler.

BELTWEIGHER:
• Material flowing over the belt may be weighed in transit using a
beltweigher.A belweigher or belt weigher is a piece of industrial control
equipment used to gauge the mass or flow rate of material travelling over a
conveyor belt.
 Process & its Control
• Process Parameters:
– Pressure
– Level
– Temperature
– Flow
 Pressure Measurement
• PRESSURE
A force applied to or distributed over a surface. The
pressure (P) of a force (F) distributed over an area(A) is
defined as :
P=F/A
Standard Unit of Pressure is Pascal
Other units of pressure are psi
kg/cm2
bar
atmosphere
torr
1 Pa = 1 N/m2
 Pressure Measurement
• Primary Pressure Measuring Devices:
– Diaphragm
– Bellows
– Manometer
• Pressure measurements can be divided into three
different categories:
– absolute pressure
– gauge pressure and
– differential pressure
 GAUGE PRESSURE
• Gauge pressure is the pressure relative to the local atmospheric or ambient
pressure.

In measurements a gauge is used to record the pressure difference between the

system and the atmospheric pressure. This is called gauge pressure and can be stated
by the following equation:

Pg=Pa+Po
where
Pg= gauge pressure
Po = atmospheric pressure

• If the pressure of a system is below atmospheric, it is called vacuum pressure.

•When pressure is measured by a gauge, the quantity obtained usually

excludes the
ambient atmospheric pressure and is therefore called overpressure,

Poverpressure = Pgauge
 ABSOLUTE PRESSURE

If atmospheric pressure is included, then the resulting pressure is

called absolute pressure
Pabsolute = Patmospheric + Pgauge

The absolute pressure is measured relative to the absolute zero pressure - the pressure
that would occur at absolute vacuum.

P=Pg+Po

P=absolute pressure,
Pg=gauge pressure,
Po=atmospheric pressure.

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE

Differential pressure is the difference in pressure between two points.

 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

•The atmospheric pressure is the pressure in the surrounding air at or "close" to the surface
of the earth.

•The atmospheric pressure varies with temperature and altitude above sea level.

•Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted at the surface of a body by a

column of air in an atmosphere.

1 atmosphere on Earth = 760 millimeters of mercury (760 Torr) and

101,325 Pascals.

STANDARD ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE :

The Standard Atmospheric Pressure (atm) is used as a reference for gas

densities and volumes.

The Standard Atmospheric Pressure is defined at sea-level at 273 o K (0 o C)

and is 1.01325 bar or 101325 Pa (absolute). The temperature of 293 o K
(20 o C) is also used.
Types of Pressure Measuring Devices

Manometer Bourdan Gauge

Contd..

Strain Gage Types Peizo Electric

Capacitive LVDT
 Level Measurement
• Some of the most commonly used liquid-level
measurement methods are:
• RF capacitance
• Conductance (conductivity)
• Hydrostatic head/tank gauging
• Radar
• Ultrasonic
 Level Measurement

Level Measurement using Pressure Transmitter

P = ρgh
Open Tank Closed Tank
RF Capacitance
Conductive Type
Hydrostatic Head
 Ultrasonic Type
RADAR Type
 Flow Measurement

• Principle:
– Flow is measured by measuring velocity through a known
area.with this indirect method,the flow measured is the
volume flow rate Q .

Q=AxV

Where A is the cross sectional area of the pipe

V is the fluid velocity

Unit of low is m3/hr or litres/hr

 Flow Measurements
• Types:
– Head Type Flowmeters
– Mechanical Flowmeters
– Electronic Flowmeters
– Mass Flowmeters
 Different Type of Head Type
Flowmeters
• Orifice Plate
• Venturi
• Flow Nozzle
• Pitot Tube
• Elbow
 Orifice
• Service: Clean Liquids, Gases Steam,(no slurries or corrosive)
• Scale: Square Root
• Accuracy: 1% Full Scale
• Permanent Pressure Loss: High
• Cost: Low
Basic Equation :V=k*(h/D)0.5
 Venturi
• Service: Clean Liquids, Gases Steam Slurries and Dirty Fluids
• Scale: Square Root
• Accuracy: 1% Full Scale
• Rangability: 3:1
• Permanent Pressure Loss: Low
• Cost: High
Variable Area Meters
Mechanical Flowmeters
Electronic Flowmeters
Vortex Flowmeters
Ultrasonic Flowmeters
 Temperature Measurement
• Temperature:

– Webster’s defines temperature as “the degree of hotness

or coldness measured on a definite scale.
Various units of temperature are related as
C = 5/9 (F – 32)
F = 9/5 (C ) + 32
K = 273 + C
R = 460 + F
 Temperature Measurement
• Types of Temp Measurement:
– RTD
– Thermocouple
– Thermistor
– Thermopile
– Pyrometer
 Temperature terminology
Temperature Control Loop
• Temperature Loop Issues:
– Fluid response slowly to change in input heat
– Requires advanced control strategies
• Feedforward Control
Load
Disturbance
TIC
Cold
Water
I/
P
TT
Steam

Hot
Water
35
 Temperature Measurement
Technology
Change in RESISTANCE with response to change in
TEMPERATURE
• Example: Thermistors
• RTD (discussed later)
• Thermistors
• Semi-conductors made from specific mixtures of pure oxides of
nickel, manganese, copper, cobalt, and other metals sintered at very
high temperature.
• Used with Wheatstone Bridge which amplifies small change in
resistance - in a simple circuit with a battery and a micro-ammeter.
• Stability -
• Linearity - Moderate
• Slope of Output - Poor (Logarithmic)
Negative
36
 Temperature Sensors
RTDs
• What is an RTD ?
– Resistance Temperature Detector
» Operation depends on inherent characteristic of metal
(Platinum usually): electrical resistance to current flow changes
when a metal undergoes a change in temperature.
» If we can measure the resistance in the metal, we know
the temperature!

Platinum
resistance changes
with temperature

Thin-film sensing element

Wire-wound sensing element Rosemount’s
Rosemount’s Series 68, 58
Series 78, 88 Series 65
Two common types of RTD elements:
37
 Temperature Sensors
RTDs
• How does a RTD works?
– Resistance changes are Repeatable
– The resistance changes of the platinum wiring can be
approximated by an ideal curve -- the IEC 751
350
International Resistance

Resistance (Ohms)
300
IEC
vs. Temperature Chart: 250
751
o
C Ohms 200

0 100.00 150

10 103.90 100

20 107.79 50

30 111.67 0
-400 -200 0 200 400 600 800

IEC 751 Temperature (oC)

IEC 751 Constants are :- A = 0.0039083, B = - 5.775 x 10 -7,
If t>=0°C, C=0, If t<0, C = - 4.183 x 10 -12
Example: RT = R0 [1 + At + Bt2 + C(t-100)t3]
38
= 103.90
 Temperature Sensors
Thermocouples

What is a Thermocouple ?
– Two dissimilar metals joined at a “Hot” junction
– The wires are connected to an instrument (voltmeter) that
measures the potential created by the temperature
difference between the two ends.
Process
Temperature
“40 millivolts!,” Tommy
Hot junction Cold junction
+ Seebeck yelled in a heated
debate.
DT MV
-

The junction of two dissimilar metals creates a

small voltage output proportional to
temperature!

39
 Temperature Sensors
Thermocouples

• How does a Thermocouple work ?

– The measured voltage is proportional to the temperature
difference between the hot and cold junction! (T2 - T1) =∆T.
Hot junction Cold junction
Measurement + Reference
Junction Heat ∆T MV Junction
T2 - T1
Thermoelectric Voltage 80
vs. Temperature Chart:

Voltage (mV)
60
o
C Millivolts IEC
0 0.000 40
584
10 0.591 20
20 1.192
0
30 1.801
-500 0 500 1000
TYPE E THERMOCOUPLE -20
Temperature (oC)
40
 Temperature Sensors
Thermocouples

Types of Thermocouple

Type J
– Iron / Constantan
• White, Red
• 0 to 760 °C
+ - • Least Expensive Type T
– Copper /

Type K Constantan
» Blue, Red
– Chromel / Alumel + - » -180 to 371 °C
» Yellow, Red » Highly resistant to
+ - » 0 to 1150 °C corrosion from
» Most Linear moisture

41
 Temperature Sensors
Comparison

Why choose RTD over Thermocouple ?

• Better Accuracy & Repeatability
– RTD signal less susceptible to noise
– Better linearity
– RTD can be “matched” to transmitter
(Interchangeability error eliminated)
– CJC error inherent with T/C’s; RTD’s lead wire
resistance errors can be eliminated
Better Stability
– T/C drift is erratic and unpredictable; RTD’s drift
predictably
– T/C’s cannot be re-calibrated
Greater Flexibility
– Special extension wires not needed
– Don’t need to be careful with cold junctions

42
 Temperature Sensors
Comparison
Why choose thermocouple over RTD ?

• Applications for Higher Temperatures

• Above 1100°F
• Lower Element Cost
• Cost is the same when considering temperature point
performance requirements
• Faster response time
• Insignificant compared to response time for T-Well and
process
• Perceived as more rugged
• Rosemount construction techniques produce extremely
rugged RTD

43
Temperature Sensors
Comparison

RANGE OFFER

-200 to 500º C RTD

500 to 1100º C Thermocouple Type K

>1100º C Special Thermocouple R, S or B

44
 Sensor accessories
Thermowells

• What is a thermowell (T-well) ?

– A unit that protects a sensor from process
flow, pressure, vibrations, and corrosion
– Allows for sensor removal without process
shutdown
– Slows response time (by 5 times)

Why are there different material types ?

– To handle different corrosive environments
– To handle different temperature and pressure limits

45
 Control Valves
• The control valve manipulates a flowing fluid, such as gas, steam, water,
or chemical compounds, to compensate for the load disturbance and keep
the regulated process variable as close as possible to the desired set
point.
• The control valve regulates the rate of fluid flow as the position of the
valve plug or disk is changed by force from the actuator.
• Control valves are valves used within industrial plants and elsewhere to
control operating conditions such as temperature, pressure ,flow, and
liquid level by fully or partially opening or closing in response to signals
received from controllers that compare a "set point" to a "process
variable" whose value is provided by sensors that monitor changes in such
conditions.
• The opening or closing of control valves is done by means of electrical,
hydraulic or pneumatic systems.
CONTROL VALVES:

They are basically pneumatically operated valves which require around 4

to 5 kg/cm2 of air pressure to operate the valve.

Pneumatic signal
I / P Converter POSITIONER CONTROL VALVE
CURRENT

SUPPLY AIR SUPPLY AIR

Control Valve Types
 Valve Body Types
• Diff. types of Valve Body:
• Butterfly Valve
• Globe Valve
• Ball Valve
• Plug type Valve
• Needle Valve
 Positioner & its accessories
• Pneumatically operated valves depend on a positioner to take
an input signal from a process controller and convert it to
valve travel.
• A pneumatic signal (usually 3-15 psig) is supplied to the
positioner. The positioner translates this to a required valve
position and supplies the valve actuator with the required air
pressure to move the valve to the correct position.
• Analog I/P Positioner—This positioner performs the same
function as the one above, but uses electrical current (usually
4-20 mA) instead of air as the input signal.
Automation (ancient Greek: = self dictated), roboticization or industrial automation
or numerical control is the use of control systems such as computers to control
industrial machinery and processes, replacing human operators.

The most commonly used automation systems are :

• DCS - Distributed Control System

• PLC - Programmable Logic Controller

• SCADA – Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition System

 DCS
• Distributed control system (DCS) refers to a control system usually of a
manufacturing system, process or any kind of dynamic system,
system in which the
controller elements are not central in location (like the brain) but are distributed
throughout the system with each component sub-system controlled by one or
more controllers. The entire system of controllers are connected by a network for
communication and monitoring.
• DCS is a very broad term used in a variety of industries, to monitor and control
distributed equipment.
• A DCS typically uses computers (usually custom designed processors) as
controllers and uses both proprietary interconnections and protocols for
communication. Input & output modules form component parts of the DCS. The
processor receives information from input modules and sends information to
output modules. The input modules receive information from input instruments in
the process (a.k.a. field) and output modules transmit instructions to the output
instruments in the field. Computer buses or electrical buses connect the processor
and modules through multiplexers/demultiplexers. Buses also connect the
distributed controllers with the central controller and finally to the
Human-Machine Interface (HMI) or control consoles.
 ARCHITECTURE OF DCS

Operator Operator Operator

Database
Workstation 1 Workstation 2 Workstation 3

Controller 1 Controller 2 Controller 3 Controller 4

Input Output Input Output Input Output Input Output

Module Module Module Module Module Module Module Module

Sensor 1 Actuator 1 Sensor 2 Actuator 2 Sensor 3 Actuator 3 Sensor 4 Actuator 4

DCS : BASIC CONFIGURATION
ETHERNET

HIS HIS ENG

STATION

V NET

V NET V NET

BCV
FCS FCS
RL BUS
RIO BUS

MOPL MFCD
NIU NIU

MAR

MAR MAR FIELD

FIELD INSTRUMENTS
INSTRUMENTS

JB 2
JB 1 JB 3
 BASIC TERMINOLOGIES OF DCS
HIS: Human Interface Station
The HIS is mainly used for operation and monitoring-it displays process variables,control parameters and
alarms necessary for users to quickly grasp the operating status of the plant.
NIU: Node Interface Unit
These are remote I/O units which all the Instruments are connected.these units in turn are connected to FCS
through RIO bus.
FCS: Field Control Station
It is the main control unit which controls the plant.there can be more than one FCS which then communicate
with each other and also communicate with the HIS from where the Operator is operating.
Vnet:
The Vnet real time control system BUS links station such as FCS,HIS,BCV andCGW.
ETHERNET:
Ethernet is used to link HIS,ENG and supervisory systems.it is also used for transferring data files to
supervisory computers and for HIS data equalization.
RL Bus: This a control system BUS(communication link) which connects Field control units,operators
stations.
CGW: Communication Gateway
This unit links the Vnet control system BUS to an ETHERNET BUS
BCV: Bus Converter
The communication bus of one version of DCS may not communicate with the newer versions so BUS
CONVERTER is used to convert the BUS to suitable mode.
In our plant our existing RL BUS is converted to newer system bus Vnet by the Bus Converter kept in
Engineering room near central control room.
 Programmable Logic
Controller (PLC)
•Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) is a microprocessor based system that uses programmable
memory to store instructions and implement functions such as logic, sequencing, timing, counting and
arithmetic in order to control machines and processes.

•Unlike Personal Computer, PLC does not contain peripherals, such as display or keyboard, that allow
user to directly interact with PLC. In order to facilitate interaction, separate computer is provided,
normally taking form of a standard PC. Through this external computer, operator can re-program PLC,
provide set-points and view trends of process variables that are controlled and manipulated by PLC.

External
PLC Actuator Process
Computer

Sensor
 Programmable Logic Controller Architecture

PLC

Power Supply

Microprocessor + Memory

Operator
Workstation Communication Module

Discrete Input (DI) Module Discrete Sensor

Analogue Input (AI) Module Analogue Sensor

Discrete Output (DO) Module Discrete Actuator

Analogue Output (AO) Module Analogue Actuator

 Programmable Logic Controller Architecture

External Communication PLC

Computer Module

Microprocessor Output Module Actuator Process

Input Module Sensor

PLC consists of the following components:
• Microprocessor – This is the brain of PLC. It reads input signals, executes control program
and communicates results (decisions) of control program as action signals to the outputs.

• Memory – It stores control program that is to be executed at a prescribed rate.

• Power Supply – This component is used to convert the mains AC voltage to the low DC
voltage (e.g. from 240V AC to 5V DC). This unit powers the processor and the circuits in
the input and output modules.

• Input Module – This component receives information from external devices (sensors). It
contains circuitry that provides electrical isolation and signal conditioning functionalities.
Input module can be analogue input (AI) or discrete input (DI) module. AI module receives
continuously changing signal whose amplitude is proportional to the current value of the
measured process variable. DI module receives discrete/digital (ON/OFF) information from
discrete sensors, for example push button (ON if button is pressed, OFF if button is not
pressed). Note that DI is much more frequently used than AI.

• Output Module – This module communicates control actions to external devices

(actuators). It contains circuitry required to interface PLC with actuators (e.g. digital-to-
analogue converter and power amplifier). Like input module, output module can be
analogue output (AO) or discrete output (DO) module depending on the type of actuator
used.

• Communication Module – This component allows PLC to communicate with external

devices using sophisticated multiple-bit digital communication protocols (e.g. Ethernet).
Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)
 PLC Programming

• Ladder Diagram - most common

• Structure Text Programming (ST)
• Functional Block Programming (FB)
• Instruction List (IL)
• Sequential Function Chart (SFC)
 Supervisory Control and Data
Acquisition (SCADA)
• SCADA system performs the following tasks

• Collection of data from field devices, which can be sensors, actuators and
controllers.

• Transfer of field devices’ information via communication link to the central

site (master station)

• Execution of any necessary analysis and supervisory control calculations,

all of which are taking place at the master stations.

• Display process information on a number of operator screens.

• Convey any required supervisory control actions back to the field devices.