Design of CURVED MEMBERS for Machines OBERT E. KREIGER PUBLISHING COMPANYrina Eon 1966, Repent 1979 wih sotectone ined and Pais by [ROBERT E, KRIEGER PUBLISHING COMPANY, INC Gis WeW YORK AVENUE HUNTINGTON, NEW YORK 11743, Copyright © 1966 by INDUSTRIAL PRESS, NC: ‘Tanferred to Aleande Bake 1978 Al rights reseed. No reproduction in any form of this bow in hole or im part ence for br quotation ie ta tices or rai), may be made thon enon Slthonceion rom the pdr, “bray of Congres Catling in Plicaton Data min ofthe eon pba by ada Pe New (ays 1979) casi eatoe BUN O&8275 9704 To Iris and SusanPreface ‘The overall concept of this book isto bring to focus the important clastic equations for the design of a variety of curved members in- volved in construction of machines and supporting hardware. The text contains numerous ready-to-use formulas, chart and mimerical exam ples applicable to circular rings, arched cantilevers, fat mechanical ‘Springs, curved beams, hooks, machine frames, circular archos, support bracketsandsimilar components undervariou conditionsofloading and ‘support. Th bookbrings together many formulasnot foundeleewhere or lostin the ood of current technical literature. The design topisand data presented should find application in all areas of industry wherever Strongth end rigidity characteristics of non-straight clastic members fre of importance. Although the designs based on a linear theory of, ‘lastictyere generally onthe conservative side, various practical Gn: Sderations and safety requirements of modera machinery make the ‘so of elastic analysis mandatory. "The treatment of the subject matter is generally tailored to the ‘eds ofthe practicing engineer and the theory is discussed only iit iluminates the derivation af working equations. ‘The prools of the theorem wed are considered not essential to fellow the mathematical techniques involved and are, therefore, omitted to limit undue repet- tion of the theoretical details adequately covered elsewhere. However, the analysis outlined often includes those steps in derivations, consid ‘red esental to grasping the physical and mathematical concepts of desig, which ae sometimes labelled “obvious” and thereby excluded from atherwise useful engineering literature "The derivations of stress and deflection formulas for curved elastic ‘members presented in tis book are based essentially on the Winkler-wi Prerace Bach theory, equation of the elastic line for curved bars and tho clas sical thoorems of Castgliano. Particular emphasis is laced on the application ofthe theorems of Castiliano which ae powerful tools ‘solving statically determinate and indeterminate problems, The for ‘malas and numerical data discussed together with the principle et ‘superposition, can be applied to great many practical design eit tions, Furthermore, the derivation techniques can be extended to a ‘arity of machine desi problems involving the geometry and lead: ‘ng conditions not treated specifically in this volume, Although this book is written primarily for the practicing engineer and designer it is hoped thatthe material presented will prove neta to members of the teaching profession, concerned with machine design and structural analysis, and tothe recently graduated engineers aa ing rather drastic transition from the academic envionment to the Industral busines routine, Over the past several years many individuals and organizations in {his country and England, engaged in design and research, iaflacnced the development ofthis text by means of personal contact or written communications, Furthermore, a sgnieant number of formles and chart, featured in this book, have been published from ttn ta tne ot Machine Design, Product Engineering and other magazines or menus ‘ls. Such contributions are hereby gratefully acknowledged, The author wishes to express his thanks fr the help received from his friends and associates atthe Aeroet-General Corporation dusie ‘sHous stages of the preparation of the manuscript, Me. John 6. ‘Schumacher contributed to the development of material for sections fon rings arcuate beams and arched cantilevers and looked over the ‘complete draft. Dr. Wilhelm Riedel and Dr. Karl Morghent road the final manuscript and offered useful comments. Me. Willamn A. Lestos ‘contributed isometric illustrations which added tothe clarity of res entation, Mr. Sigmunt R, Roland provided assistance in he foal op. ation ofthe design charts and diagrams for various sections of the book. Mrs, Sharon L. Adamski typed the preliminary material ara the complete manuscript, ‘Special thanks are due to Professor Kenneth E, Lotgrn for his re- vow of the sample material and the final manuscript as well os his direct contribution to the book by providing the analysis of curved ‘beams with varying cross-sections, Last but not leat the author i indebted to Mr. Holbrook L. Horton and Mr, Paul B, Schubert of the Industrial Pres for ther encouragement and eitrial help during all phases of getting this book into print. nally, although in developing and writing this book no fort has bean pre tn nein cece ofr aes omer work, ti perhap, oo mach to hope that al ere have bon ave ‘he author therefore neleomes the aling to hit stent of ny of the shortens and aro which may be decree Aurea Bax Rancho Cordova, California October, 1985,Contents haper Page Last or Tamas. 2... cow |. Gunenat Constonsarions ceed Introduction. Arcuate Members for Machines. Complex Springs, Closed Rings. Curved Beams and Honk Creuse ears 2, Banty Davetopaten oF Dsiow Tutzony rox Coaven Masenens 1 Ttoduetion, Barly Experiments and Caleulatone, Thick ty Exon ‘ays by re ‘Bae Winkler Bach Poul for Ses. Catalano Forman Enctuzenine Aseacte oF D ‘Rutten Engng Asumptin. Uso Din Pm Dasign Criteria Apparcit Versis Actual St Sttow Conse {enn actor of Seat Soh of Mater 4. Axaysis oF Stgase yp Dertzerto : Tittwutin, Sues Due to Fecare. Sines De 6 Tian Strom ‘Due ig Direct Shea, Torsion of Thin Walled Pubes Bending of Tubular Members In-pan Defection of Curved ‘Members ‘Transverse Deetion of Carved Members Elastic ‘Sten Breen" Analy In Blane Displacements by Seto of ‘GastelianeAbalpae of Tranevere Displacements by Method of {Catltane, Remarks on the Uae of CasglanBauatoon 5. Proreerins oF Secri0ns ne Ttrution. Moment of Thera, Secon, Meduts, Temional ‘Shape Factor ection Modulos for ‘Torsion, Compoun os Secon. Numerial Examples Ibe-Puawe Loon or Axcuare Meats a Acute Member under Vertical Laud. Fietitiogs Force Method ‘Arcute "Member ‘unde Tovizntal Lend. Arenas Member den Lgl Arcane Str de er ane Couple ‘General Dasign Fovinulas for Arcata Members Numer Ewamplas 25x ‘conrents 7. TRANSVERSELY Loango Axcunr® Mina Assumption and Sign Convention. Arcuste Memb Under Out ‘Arsinte Membor’ Under Out of Pane Coupe ‘Aeusie Member Under Out at Plane Union Lava Sool in of ‘Transversly Loaded “Arcane Mambo Neos 8. Destcw a» Ancit ax Curven-xxp CanriLaves 99 Draco Length Concept Formles-or Maximim Deion gfAisted Cattiovers Cutvadend Canticuer nih Quarer cee Beea Curvciend Cantilever with Halt che Beat Nemes 9. Comrusx Pear Spanos ae uo ‘Assumptions Thrwequartr Circular Spring Stapring Spring Circlay Wave’ Spring Dusen of Uspring ait Be Sees Glos gerne Sapte Spgs Sey "hare, ‘Ussing: Numeric! Earp 20. Dastow ov Twn Rics Loan ty PLANE oP CURVATURE. 141 ‘come Tansey era ea Sn Haag het Ee Constraint "Rng under Radial Loading: etn Ty Reel ‘Rotatins Ripa: Shnpliied Tables and Chart foe Calor Rinks Numerical Hip 11, Teassvensuty Loan Rincs aes Asumptions ‘Twist of a Circular Ring Ring Wider Transvre Sie Td rece Bane en Ts Une Tanne Method of Custihtinn Ring on Muliple Seyi Pose Paty Loading. Ring on Trinnion Sapparts: Nanesea Beagle 12, Timon ox Newnan Axis. pee) Ascumptions, Shift of Neutral Ars in Reclanguae ‘Crow Reka Stee Gti eae Se eal “Ath Cortecon Tor Boning "Stace Re m 13, Deston oF Twtex Corvin Mestnees 201 aslan Coneiderations Strength of Curved Bears. Approinate Re or Mat i Cun! rae, Apron ‘ica ea ec Bed Lord Ba Ue coh ings Ninel Basan Cs 14, Convso Manenexs wrrit Varvine Cross-Seorions Bngincring Considerations, Lofgens Samigraphical Method. Tole re Paramcric Method, Oeign ot Yassin See Nanette. oe a = 205 | 15. 16. contents i Desc or Cecoan Avene : imply Suppored Arch, Interpretation of Stain Ener Pinjited ‘Acc But in'Arc. Pnponted Rech det ‘nila uding Src Proms Conv Mire sic introduction. Ring on Elastic Support. Design of Pipe Bend Unt Uniform Loading. Backing Coan Spe : 269 Rareanwces IsorxList of Tables 10. 1038, 109, 10-0. actor of Satety, F ‘Ausiliary Trigonometric Functions ‘Typieal Sectional Properties ‘Summary of Design Equations for Transversly Loaded Arcuste Members Deflection Factors for Transversly Loaded Arcuate ‘Members ‘Peroentage Street Contribution in Thin Rings Equations for Circular Ring in Diemotral Tension rations for Circular Ring in Four Way Tension Equations for Circular Ring in Two Way Tension and Compression Equations for Circl ‘Equations for Circl ‘Opposed Couples : "Equations for Circular Ring Under Four Couples ‘Rquations for Citcular Ring Under Four Way Cosine Load Distribution ‘Equations for Circular Ring Under Cosine Laading and Tensile Reaction. ‘Equations for Circular Ring Under Cosine Loading ‘with Two Tangential Reactions ‘ing Undor Parallel Forces Ring Under Diaretrically - Equations for Cincular Ring Under Cosine Loading ‘with Two Radial Resctions Force and Displacement Factors for Combined Loading ‘Wilton and Quereau Factors for Stresses in Curved Pose 22 6 54,55 0 a M6 156 156 158 158 160 160 160 163 163 180 202.206General Considerations Introduction ‘The demand fr modern machinery and elaborate supporting equip. ‘ment hasbeen increasing constantly with the accelerated pace of port war technology. Answers to many theoretical questions, once of academic interest only, ind new areas of application. The older cut- and-try methods of machine design come largely uneconomical hile the practicing engineer is frequently required to make onthe spot decisions. Since to design well x to make sound decisions a ‘comprehensive knowledge of the mathematical techniques materials science and loading conditions should he combined for best results Although an immense volume of technical literature i available the tlastc analysis of even simple load earrying members i often teow Since many machine systems consist of complex. arrangement of Straight and curved members the detailed stress analynes of modern machinery becomes dificult and time consuming even for eementary conditions of loading and support. Especially wide use of carved ma. ‘hine and structural members of almost infinite varity in present-day industries demands that the design theory and the important design ‘equations in this field of knowledge be brovght to Torus, ‘Numerous machine elements and structural components, whose conte ines are plane curves, maybe clasifed under the general head ing of curved members. Furthermore, in many practical situations, the majority of curved members possess center lies which cathe prow2 (GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ar ‘mated by cteular curvature without appreciable error Such members ‘nclude closed and spit ing, chai links, hook, springs, arched cant. levers, curved beams, arches and similar machine elements: These ‘members may be loaded tranversely or in their planes of curvature, and supported in a statically determinate or indeterminate manner. ‘The design analysis of curved members for machines outlined in this book is based on the theory of strength of materials, By the def nition, elastic behavior requires that the extentions are recoverable fon removal of the loads, Since most common engineering materials splay linear elastic relationship the concept of linear theory of slastcty applies to the majority of the theoretical considerations presented. Although the designs based on linear theory of elasticity err generaly onthe conservative side, various practical consideration and safety requirements of moder machinery make the use of the lastic analysis mandatory ‘The development of almost all machines known to date has been Infuenced by past design experience derived largely trom empirical relationships. Today, the extent to which the engineers have to rely ‘on empirical methods, has boon reduced considerably because of the progress in analytical techniques. Selection of suitable mathematica "models leads to design formulas describing geometrical and physical ‘lations ofa particular load carrying member. However it should be noted that the mathematical approach has certain liitations ‘with ‘mgard to physical significance ofthe numerical data derived from the theoretical equations. ‘The structural integrity ofa machine partis defined largely by the ‘magnitudes of stresses and deformation tinder specific working cons 10" Ibs/sq in. The agreement between the tests and calculations was describe! ns satisfactory. In the derivation10 EARLY DEVELOPMENTS OF DESIGN THEORY one of formulas the strain energy due to bending, direct and shes stresses, ‘vas considened. The neutral axis was said to be at the centoidal axis fad the shear distribution factor was taken as unity. in the early twenties more interest was generated in the design ‘theories of curved structural embers fe was conidered for instance ‘that shen a crcular ring was subjected to tensional load produced hy evo equal and opposite forces epplied tothe internal boundary, the fngineering approximations were satisfactory provided the ring was ‘narrow, but cease to be valid when the radius of the inner circle ‘becate reduced, [twas held also that atthe point of application ofthe Toad a concentrated transverse prostre Was created. The physical meaning of such a pressure was thon explained as follows, Under a ‘concentrated Ined the material was intensely compressed and tended focexpand laterally with great force, Th elect of the expansion was ‘onsidered tobe purely local as long a the ring was relatively thin, Review of Curved Beom theory ‘Two years Inter Winslow and Edmonds reviewed state-of-the-art in curved beaun theory and conducted several experiments concerning the stress distribution which was stil subject. to diverse opinions (el. 6). "The taste were made to determine strain curves. The stress In radial direction was shown to be a vital factor in the design of, ‘curved beans of certain proportions. The authors reevaluated the following thee theories which were Uhen associated with curved beam, (1) The ordinary beam theory which assumed that in the cross: section of a carved heat the streses dve to bending were distributed ‘cording tothe same la at that in the case ofa straight beam, (2) Winkle's theory which took into account the effect of curv tue and was based on the hypothesis that plane transverse sections remained plane after loding. “G) The Anurews-Pearson theory which proposed a refinement of the original Winkler theory, taking account of the additional consid tration that the radial dimensions of the crose-secton after loading tere changed by the Polssontatio effect of the transverse strains resulting ftom norma stresses ‘Winslow and Edmonds maintained that while radil strains have received certain comment by previous investigators the theoretical fedial stress analyse of general application to curved beams appar- tently was not found in the enginering literature. Tey pointed out futher, that although the Andrews-Pearson theory took account of che EARLY DEVELOPMENTS OF DESIGN THEORY n ‘Poisons lateral distortion due to circumferential stress it ienored tential any considerations of strains due vo radial stress Te wa su. tested that these latter strens in certain shapes of crossection could bbevery large and in a considerable portion of any crose-section might be ina direction opposite to the Poisson's lateral strains. Tho assumption of interdependent relation of radial and circumferential strstes made the problem suficienty complex so that a direct mathematical solution 4d not appear to be posible, ‘The authors suguested thelr own ap proach to the approximate computation of radial stresses in curved ‘beams and propose to use the Winkler formula for the ccuenlren- tial streses. Their paper aroused great interest and caused lengthy technical discussions involving leading authoritce on clastcity. Fi nally, Winklee's theory was generally accepted despite its limitations, Winkler Bach Formule for Sse Te seems that the acceptance of the Winkler formula (later to be known as Winkler-Bach formula) for the analysis of eircumerential ‘teesos at any point in curved bear, marks the end of the ealy phase in the development of classical design theory of curved flexural ‘members, Despite certain limitations, the practical importance of Winkler-Bach formula remains unchallenged and its simple form is, as follows: f+saal* a ‘Staton chapter are sen ate en the chaps, nS ‘Where $ denotes the crcumfeentil etree at a pointe dstance from the central ans of atranavere ection of the bear at which the Bend- ing moment "The distance fom the ontroidal ssi othe ctor curvature of the unvtremed bean is R. Finally, A denotes the rea Of the com section and mea property of the eos tion given {he flowing equation: © Furthermore it can be shown mathematically that when K is made inniely large, Ba, (1) gives S=Mel = M/Z 6) Here, Si the bending strest and J and Z define the moment of inertia” EARLY DEVELOPMENTS OF DESIGN THEORY cna ‘and the section modulus, spectively. Equation (3) is known as the Stright-beam formula universally accepted by practical engineers land designers It apoies also with very litle eror to many’ beams that fre usally regarded as curved, unlss a given fexural member has ‘elatvaly sharp curvature. Coutgtiane Formula fr Deflection Where the amount of elastic dofcetion rathor than stress governs the design of curved structural members probably the most convenient metho for determining its value i by tse of Castigliano's theorem. ‘This extremly important theorem was fst disclosed by Castgiano in 1976 and translated in 1910 by Andrews (Ref, 7). Init moet gen ‘eral form it states thatthe partial derivative ofthe total elastic stain feergy, stored in a structure, with respect to one of the forces gives ‘tho displacement of the point of application of the force inthe direc- ton of the force, The remarkable feature of this theorem ie that it holds for statically determinate and redundant structures alike re- ‘gardless of goometry and size of the structure as long as the method ‘of superposition applies and the material is elastic. The terms force ‘and displacement in tho statement of the theorem have goneralized meaning, For instance foes may denote external Toad, bending couple ‘ora twisting moment. Similary, the term displacement may represent ‘deflection, slope or angle of twist ab the ease may be. Mathemetically the theorem of Castigiano may be stated a follows: au + o In equation (4) U defines the tata elastic strain enorgy stored in a Toad earrying member, P denotes an external force acting at any point of this structural member and Y’ stands for the displacement at the point of application and in the direction ofthe externel force "Enuation (4) represents a powerfal mathematica tool in stctural ‘design and analysis which, inidentally, s much more frequently em ployed in Burope than here in America Tt applies to straight and curved structural members alike and is very tsefl in the problem ‘Solution of the following three catogories ‘8 The diaplacement is required at the point of application of a pertioular force and in the direction of thet foren. The method {of solution follows divetly from the intarpetation of equation (4),and is unualy relezed to a che application of the St prin- Golo of Castiliane, cna EARLY DEVELOPMENTS OF DESIGN THEORY a 2, The displacement is required ata point other than that at which 4 given external fore is applied. Here yee is mae of ftitious {otee, ofan infinitely small value, acting st the point and in the direction of the displacement sought, In this ease the total strain energy U is expreste in terms ofall the real and Stitious qua tities and the displacement is calculated according to equation (4). This approach is often refered to as method of wit loads In the application of the principle of Castigliano the tol eneray involving real and Fctitions quantities is differentiated ith re- spect to the fictitious fee. The fetitious foros i then made ‘qual to zero and the remaining expression yields the desited dlisplacement, The magnitudes of statically indeterminate reactions are re- quired. In this instance the total strain energy of «structure is expressed as a function of the unknown redundant reactions and the patil derivatives of the strain energy with respect to each ofthe redundant reations aro set equal to zero, t0 obtain a many simultaneous equations as there are statically indetee- ‘inate quantities, This procedure is often known as the appl tation of the theorem of least work or the second principle of Castislano. The mechanics of deriving the requited snultancous ssquations once again follows from equation (4), with this stp lation the eU/2P = 0. In physical sense, aU/0P — 0 implies that the required statically-indoterminate quantity P, acting ata particular point, prevents that point from being displaced, Closing Remarks ‘The preceding early history of curved member design, however sketchy, indicatee that the orginal contributions of Winkler and CCastglano have certainly stood the test of time. ‘The base element tary formulas (1), (8) and (4) have universal eppeal and use in solving machine design problems which involve the theory of curved members. The development of engineering methods bas sways been Accompanied by more rigorous solutions of the theory ol larity ‘coupled with photoelastic studies, A comparatively recent review of State-of-theart by Leeman (Ref. 8) with particular reference to ana Iytical solutions for stroses in a circular ving, indicates that. the ‘error involved in applying the approximate Winklet-Bach theory i ‘ot signifeant. Furthermore, from the designer's point of view thee theory i generally safe because t tends to ert onthe conservative side“ EARLY DEVELOPMENTS OF DESIGN THEORY Symbols for Chapter? A Area cross-section, in? © Distance fom central axis to extreme fiber in, T Momento neti, in. M_—_ Bending moment, In. 1m Section property in Winkler-Bach formula P Concentrated Joa tb R_ Radiusof curvature to central ais, in S Strep Sending sees, si UV Bastie strain energy, Ibi, YY Dection in. Z Section modulus, in che Engineering Aspects of Design Introduction Since almost every engineering problem has many solutions, to design i to make a practical and workable decision. ‘Pie decision will, influence the size, geomotry and material ofthe finshed itam and it ‘lle the product of enginering aseurptions, mathematial methods (of analysis and knowledge of materials application, Because of sin plifying assumptions involved the design decison is usually 4 com. Dromise. To make the correct technical choice comprehensive know ‘ie ofthe thooreticl dsign principles is needed in addition to wood practical experience and creative imagination. ‘The development of ‘ew solutions or the improvement of the existing ones also involves ‘the theoretical methods and supporting experimental evidence. ‘The pplication of the theoretical methods leads usually &o a number of lanswors which must be subsequently selected and interpreted to as Sure comect physical sigueance of the results. It should therefore ‘be remembered that although the knowledge of mathematical models is essential to meaningful enginering analysis, even the best formulas contain certain limitations. With the current tendency to heavier loads, higher speed, increased machine complexity and weight restric: ‘ons, the extant of suc limitations should constantly be kept in mind Engineering Assumpti ‘The simplifying engineering assumptions may bo of basic or design ‘character. Here basic atumptions are employed in the derivation of6 ENGINEERING ASPECTS OF DESIGN cna the fundamental equations while the design assumptions are con- cemed with simplifying a complex machine part so thet it could realistically fit a mathematical model. However it i clear that al ‘though the mathematicl modes areas «rule, sell engineering tol, ometimes they fal to completely agree with experiments x0 that empirically determined corretion factors may have to be applied to the theoretical equations Many improvements have beew made to date in experimental techniques anda complet discipline has evolved known as experimental mechanic” One of the ‘more important branches of experimental mechanics, diretly applicable to desig, 1s ‘experimental stress analyst (Ref, 9) ‘One way of accounting for an element of uncertainty, present in ‘most designs it to adopt realistic design factors which can be related. to strength, stiffness or other mochenial charscterstics of the part under consideration. In designing curved machine elements snd simi lar structural members the fst calculations are wually based ot strength and rigidity considerations, Depending on the manner of loading and suppor the strength factors can be developed for ending, torsion, shear, tension, compression, fatigue resistance, creep, impact and other basi characteristics In partculr, when dealing with con struction of machine tools, stiffness criterion may be of primary Ia Portance, For instance cutting force could produce excerive defn. ‘on of the workpiece and cause inaccuracies in the finshed product (Ret, 10). Stiffness is also desirable for smooth performance. of closely assembled parts as it decreases excesive weer and vibration amplitudes. Use of Design Formulas ‘Many design formulas for curved and straight flexural members ‘are availabe and therefore it will be in onder t discus here briefly the most general rules oftheir use with specie regard to engineering ‘assumptions involved (Ref. 11). Although in most cases slde-rule ‘ecuracy is satisactory In making the computations, ome formulas {or curved beams, rings, ached elements and complex fat springs in volving the algebraic addition of quantities which ae lage in compat on with the final result, must be eleulated to a least four agen figures. Such formulas, at shown in various chapter throughout this text, involve numerous trigonometric terms, and although Usey appea lunnecrssarily elaborate their simplification is ifieult aad generally leads to substantial error. Ifa complex formula is expected to be in cas ENGINEERING ASPECTS OF DESIGN ” teqvent 6, goad eninerng practice wuld et seprvent it Pn erga new design form coring 1 a ete mate wnat od ang uneran trumry conto oad {Bho ralgny omit rt oth ck Sa the wal obtained stlsing bracketing sumption and anal esther fren to egierng fendtment Sich com Sp sme anyon see oe ‘hc agin slats ateton inured machine members img‘ cabin af sgh ted cree orton thre ius toy th pr te ert nar (reget crt entity or one some sumption to the eee length of sch ewer Te ase one of he dv Storer ete length redeem deta in Chapter SURE SSS Guts and charts inate thet signa or imine by oer siping amptne ple to acne Senate af tiga carved portions een in the mat lementary design cases. Design crtrie nd on specie mn all stations structural design eiteria must depend on spe reduirements, The extent of allowable permanent stain fr homoge eoun metal part is urally about 02 percent withthe exception of [enero of tes onentation whe gr plats sti any ‘ye admible without jeopardising the overall performance of ma Chine Rigidity roqitements for machine tools, however, are urvlly ite stringent. ‘"Otimate load on a machine member may be defined as the maxi- mum working fad multiply sltable factor of suey. Such a {actor makes some allowance for extreme conditions dependent om Inading rte, temperature cycling ad other external falas the com. ined eect of which inay be imposible to predict “The tneartical methods of analysis are based on the assumption of linear relationchip between the ste and stain. A spiel stes Sacre ors dn rer mae a carton chown in Fig. -1 In this diagram the slope of the clastic portion Shear ee negra forthe pre a arty The near felatinahip between the strese and srnin was fist. cicrvered. Dy ote Hooke in 1678 and his law ill extenavely toed in most Practical applications, For the cane of pe tension, shaded portion Uf the diagram represents the clastic attain energy. "This energy ean18 ENGINEERING ASPECTS OF DESIGN cha be recovered upon removal of external losing, This lading produces ‘ress 8," and strain e'The total area undor the stss-sesin curve represents the material's toughness. Here significant portion of the ‘nergy is dissipated as heat during the proces of permanent defor tion ofthe material Apparent Versus Acwal Stress ‘The seese-strain diagram, depicted in Fg, 3-1, not only Mlustrates ‘the resilimce and toughness of the material but also clarifies the uinecring aspects of design theory which may be sometimes oven looked. For instance, consider a machine element subjected te cteai {2 catresponding to stress Sy, The magnitide of 8» calculated on the {he assumption of Hooke law, e — $/, may be relatively high und ‘appear totally unscceptable, Tn the diagram thie magnitude is shows ‘8 apparent clastic stress If we now fllow the line of constant stain to the point of intersection withthe strew-strain curve it easy te see that the actual tress S; is only a litle higher than the masizue ‘The dilerence between the actual stress S, and the lastc stress S, can be tolerated provided the corresponding value of allowable permanent set, such as for instance 0.2 percent, is sot on ceeded, In this case therefore the design would be acceptable despite 4 rather high value ofthe calculated apparent stress, Furthermore, so {tated previously, the ealculsted permanent strain tay be so highly locatizod tha its elect on the total structural integrity of t maseding component under consideration will prove to be relatively insite ‘sant A rather typical example, illustrating this case, is well Keowy ‘0 spring designers. It concerns the ealeulation of the maximucs ok {urnfrental stres ina conical disk spring, or as itis often refered to Ballevile washer The theoretical methods of analyse this esc, ‘lar cago are based essentially on the elastic behavior and the sone, ‘sponding design formulas give stress values in excens of 200,000 Pa, and sometimes as high as 600,000 psi, At the same time It es beet ‘observed that these washers display ony limited permanent set oon generally give stistactory service. Naturally, a more necarate tone formula could be derived on the assumption of elastic lactic oer ofthis spring. A more practical alternative however watlé be to ae, elon an empirical correction for the existing formulas in order oo bring down the calculated stress values to more relic lel Such Foc ning of symbol an dimensions unt ined ae material a nd cna ENGINEERING ASPECTS OF DESIGN ” ‘a procedure, could be, in effect, compared with reducing stres level, ‘down to Sa shown in Fig. 32 Apparent stress erez Fig 5.1 Type strerstain carve fo strata tel Stress Concentration : ah ol inten te peta tain oh gia fh ln sity of stress may be quoted easily from engineering experience. For inlano inte dodgy of steed members made i cra ted the usual practice to extimate ten sre, assumed be n= tomly deed oer the working crower At th ne relatively high stone, which are ikely to develop th edges ol Fvet hole, are ignored. This nied again beens high intensity fates leads to loa plate ynlng which cass ste redistrib tion High local intensity of stress produced by such iegulartos ax notches screw tread, ble, sharp corere and sar abrupt changes in structural shape, i charetertic of elatic bavior. Hence, the ‘racial signfcance of such a stress concentration wil depend largely ‘on the type of material under consideration.» ENGINEERING ASPECTS OF DESIGN on By the definition, factor of stress concentration is usually expressed 4s the ratio of the actual maximum stress tothe apparent stress cal: culated by the design formulas using the net croseseetion her but ignoring the effect of form iregularities om Uh clastic stress Under static loading localized plastic stresses in ductile materials ‘may have only limited effect om the structural integrity of «given ‘machine part. However, the problem of such a stress coneenteation should not be ignored in the design of machine elements subjected ta fatiqu loading. In brittle parts, stress concenteation is always @ major considera- tion, Even under static loading conditions brittle material. displays ‘he inability to mite stress concentration and unpredictable nature of crack propagation. In general, stress concentration factors can be obtained mathemat- ically or experimentally. In developing wach factors by theory the ‘ssumptions of the theory of elasticity are utilize. Photoclastic and Strainsgnage techniques have heen particularly convenient in exper ‘mental approach. One of the more serious drawbacks in the analysis of stress concentration is the appearance of biaxial and teaxil ste ‘Systeme even for the simplest conditions of loading and geometry. Ta this connection, varius stross criteria for brittle and ductile materials hhave been proposed for the coration of experimental data, Tn the ‘inal analysis enginering judgement should be brought into play when ferentiating between the britle and ductile characteristics of the ‘material in question. As a rough practical guide the elongation of 5 Deroont may be assumed as m dividing line between the two types of ‘Structural materials Since the problem of stress concentration wa recognized numerous investigations of theoretical and experimental nature were made dur. ing the last fifty years. A very compete information on various ates «concentration factors was given by Paterson (Ref 12). His factors are liretly applicable to machine design. bution of Fector of Sefaty ‘The general concept of factor of safety is known to every practicing enginoer. For ductile materials, suchas low earbon ste, represents ‘usually the ratio of the yield strength of a material to the allowable working strss The latter is often referred tons the design stress, For brittle structural material, for which there is no defined yield points the factor of safety is normally based on the ultimate stengthy Tho cms ENGINEERING ASPECTS OF DESIGN 2 scetion of rational vl of th factor of sft is iportant bose Sie det ration fot ecomomy ond ary of the design For {tstanc, when the ected facet foo ih the design becomes Un ‘conics the eres wing st now, On other hand when the aco score oo lw the reevant working rs Dimas ecosiely high sod tft ofthe Ssgn may” be ie {nied The ically sling the veh vale str fom the fact Unt eld sens fe matrial mt dive rom experiments wth allorbewrsng sts hd on he a ‘ering judgement end experzne. Typical inencing conditions a {Scie the bros of slotion inca nad vail dynamic of tts encanta neon atria nora, starting environment, method of analysand unforeseen cicunstancrs “Het 1), Tn boner ie factor of eafety ay be interpreted the rod of several infiencing factors (Ret. 14). PaPXEX PX Fe © “The mumber of he inflncing factors may be ih a ten oF more tut forthe immediate pret nec four of thew factors cane intoduced a bing of praryinportace (Rt. 1) PaRXEXPXP © “The abors fur primary factors nay be descr follows. Fy de tes bere the caio ofthe ult strenght the clastic init of {ho meri, For dot materia thi rai vats roughly between 15 and 2 The vals ofthe cond factor Fy ony bse cor ing the following rer Stati load Ret Leal varying between zero and maximum y=? Alternate tension and compression of qual magnitude "The third factor F depends on the manner of load applisation. ‘Load gradually aplicd Rat ‘Load suddenly applid R=2 Impact or shock loading value fr factor F, must be calculate for each individual cave of machine part geometry, manner of loadin, fad material characteristics, In this cae the shape of the loadtime fcurve is of eptcal importance. Various spproximate and exact meth-2 ENGINEERING ASPECTS OF DESIGN cms fs of streasand stain analysis for shock loa 14 and 15), ‘The lat factor, Fis often elle the factor of ignorance which po. tects against unpredictable errors in manufacturing, service and mac terials Its value may vary between 1.5 and 10, but seldom exceeds 43, Factors of salty for general use, taken from Machinery’s Handbook san illustration are given in Tale 3-1 (Ret. 15). i are avilable (Refs. Tole 8:1. Fasor of Softy, Teas Material alretion_| alrections Cast Tron 6] 15 Wrought Iron 4 5 4 2 Steet 5 8 2 Wood 5 0 6 20 Brick 15 20 2% 30 igghp toon a fe mn ar aoe Ha z as oer al Fortunately fo the designer the slecton ofthe factor of sft can often be avoided since many national and inde! rgenetons Akl various design section in which they elode ee mended vie of th lovable working sea Strength of Motrile “he dino carved member for machines i concen withthe development of anata ethos ad lectin lpia ee on tebe ofthe seth characters The shen ote 5 sro of materia mato taqily mh mony cope oad tonite Thie mtn toc oo sw Tateinls wen whch sre usaly the nbc oe tet design inquiries, eee Pe ‘The majority of engnerng tvs canbe cai der ‘0 base eieorie ile tnd uct: Euonte thea co Sonal investigation fle mara ett ede ton ofthe important elects of sue fnsh aad Sarees tee ons ENGINEERING ASPECTS OF DESIGN 2 inate roa of Ch mater, Bact of Ue presen fn Upient microscopic cracks, acting as severe stres raisers on the sur- face of brite material, the amount of work necessary to initiate brittle fale is extremely stall im comparison with the theoretical ain energy required to break the molecular bond. This is one of ‘the most fundamental linitatons inthe development of brittle ma- terial technology. "The election of allowable strength values for a ductile mata i ‘pase on the stres-srain diagram such as that shown in Fig, 3-1 ‘Bocawse, ata rule iis rlatively dificult to establish a uniquo point fon the stese-strain curve corresponding 10 the onset of yielding an lrbitary value of plastic strain determines the require level of yield Strength, In desling with a stresstrain curve, « portion of whichis Tinea, the modus of elasticity i wally defined by the dope ofthe linear par, The modulus of elasticity represent stiffness of a mate- ‘al inthe elastic range and under nach conditions the numerical valuos ‘of the modulus in tension and compression are esentally the same. 'A meaaure ofstiffnes of the material in the diretion normal to the ‘lastie strain in tension or compression is Ube Poiseon's rato. For Inetallic materials Poisson's vatio may vary between 0.25 and 0:35, tile for uber materials this ratio approaches the value of 0.45 (Ref. 18), Tn stressing the material throughout the atic rango the area under the elastic portion ofthe strest-etrain curve determines the amount of resilience stored. When the stress is released the strain eneriy equiva Tent to the amount of resilience i completly recovered. Fesilonce helps to carry high streses and deformations in mechanieal springs and various other elements of equipment and machinery. "Tn designing steel members and complex structures 4 material with relative high ductility is generally desired bocause i ix capable of ‘ccommodating the appreciable strains and redistributing. stresses without premature factor, The usual measure of ductility is the percentage elongation. The latest trend in engineering design is to fefine the ductility of « material on the basis of the ultimate load ‘According to Marin (Ret. 14) the magnitude ofthe true ductility is D,=1001n (1-46) Hore e, denotes the nominal strxin corresponding to the ultimte load ts given by the stresttrnin curve. Where the point of the ultimate Ioad i difieult to determine Marin suggests alternative methods of caleulation (Ref. 14).2 ENGINEERING ASPECTS OF DESIGN ons 1m some areas of material seloction the familiar strength to weight ‘ratio may be of importance. Here such materials as aluminum alloy, ‘magnesium alloys, titanium, and plastics rate highly. One of the ‘modern developments concerns maraging steel for which the theoretic cal stength to weight rato as high as 10" as heen obtained. {In analyzing the shear propertis of « given material the modulus of rigidity @ ean be easly determined ifthe corresponding module of elasticity in tension E and the Poisson’ ratio pare known, G= E2044) ‘The strength and stiffness characteristics are important inthe de- sim of machine members for torsion, For the majority af ductile ‘materials the yield strength in shear may be assumed to be equal to {60 percent ofthe tensile yield. For bitle materials theultimate shear and tensile strengths are practically equal. In designing machine ‘members for bending yield stress values in tension or compression are commended, ‘Various aspects of strength of materials summarised inthis section are based on unianial and static stress conditions, Because of more Stringent requitements of modem machinery, wizatin of combined ‘ress properties and dynamic effets in devign may soon become a necessity. The detailed discussion of the developments in this area ‘considered to he beyond the seope ofthis book, For a comprehensive study of mechanical behavior of engineering materials the reader is referred to the Marin's latest work (Ref 14). Symbolafor Chapter 3 D, ‘True ductility E “Modulus of elasticity, ps « General symbol for strain ents String at stresses $; and S; « ‘Maximum elatistrain, es Sain atultimatestress F Resultant factor of afety + Component factors of safety ‘Modulus of igiity, pi Stress, ps Stresses at strains and en pe Maximum elastic stress, pei ” Poisson's ratio Analysis of Stress and Deflection tnedton formation ad internal srs ina lated, reiting rom extra fore ay offen nto nthe tg acne, ‘he sme of materia toaer withthe laws of satis ois evn furor engnetng ste 3 tndergadunte level rer saan aid the rcnly prone cone ling te esiion from th cade evtoient ods ec tie ‘Stots Due to Fexare Streat ditibution for a straight beam with longitudinal plane of ‘amet an be leer the entry fae formal Pa, {G), provided the relevant bending moment and sectional geometry are Known. Fora beam of rectangular crow-setion, as shown in Fig. 141, the moment of inertia about the canta xr axis, hich inthis ese is the samme as the neutral ais, is given by the well known equation “ o 12 ‘Since in this ease distance from outer fiber to the neutral axis i 1/2, i follows from Bs. (3) and (7) that 5, = 6/bhe = M/Z ° sen Mate ne met at ead of chaps, =" SE Sher% ANALYSIS OF STRESS. AND DEFLECTION cna Here Z ~ bf#/6 denotes the section modulus for rectangular cross: section, This form of sectional property i very convenient in calcu Jating maximum bending stresses in straight members end in curved members for which cross-sectional dimensions are small compered with the total length of the load carrying tember, Values of action ‘modulus Z are usualy tabulated in engineering handbooks for various ‘cross-sectional geometries. According t the sign convention depicted in Fig, 41, bonding moment is positive when the top surlace of the ‘eam i in compression. Since the bending stress varies linearly its value at any depth ofthe beam becomes S=My/t In the majority of design situations we deal with curved machine ig. 41 Stren dination in par ending cna ANALYSIS OF STRESS AND DEFLECTION 2 rmemabers in which bending stress predominates. Since the design cal Culstions start scaly withthe assumed or known values ofthe bend- ine moment M, yield stenath of the material, and the relevant factor of safety F, Bq. (8) can be easily restated to give EM coon a0) 5 io) Fora specified width of rectangular cross-section the required depth ‘ofthe beam becomes A= 245 FM7OS, ay For a soli circular cross section the design formula for the diameter is a= 21 «aay Similar working formulas can be developed by simple slgshrac tans: formation fr other ers setion geometries. stress Duet Torsion When twisting moment it applied to the bar in a plane perpen- dicular to the bar axis, a8 shown in Pig. 4-2, the maxinsum torsional ‘hearing stress can be calculated from the elementary theory of ‘rength of material. For bar of diameter d this stress S.=Ta/2l, 3) ‘Since fora solid bar crose-section the polar moment of inertia is Iya ath/o2 Sulmtituting this polar moment into Bg. (13) gives S,=18T/sd? as) Since the modulus of rigidity, according to Hooke's law, cam he ex- prescd as the ratio of shearing stress to tho shearing strain, we find that o=218,/nd as) liminating shearing stress between Eqs. (14) and (15) snd solving foe dean vit ofthe bar crm-xtion, sown in Fig, ye Te ar, ‘The general design convention for the cate of twist ie given in Fig 42. The double arow directed away fom the given crossection (28)2 ANALYSIS OF STRESS. AND DEFLECTION cha Fig. 2. Str datrtbton in pate orson ‘corresponds to the positive twisting moment in accordance with Fig. 2, The shearing area ix shown to vary linearly as the distance {rom the center of the bar. For bars of circular cross sections the ‘theoretical assumption, thet plane sections normal to the bee’ axis remain plane during the twist, holds true. However thie assumption is not valid for arbitrary cros-sctional geomet. ‘The product term Gi, is usally called torsional rigidity. For an arbitrary cross-section itis customary to write GK, where K may be {ermed torsional shape factor, depending onthe geometry and dimen: sions ofthe cross section. For a eirnlar geometry K~ Ty, For other ‘ross sections, Kis smaller than J, In some cases the vale of K may ‘be only a small faction of 1, Further discussion ofthe torsional shape {actor an some typical design formulas for K are given in Chapter 5 ‘The general formula for the maximum torsional shearing stres in 11K, a) cme ANALYSIS OF STRESS AND DEFLECTION » re K, is section modulus fo torsion. For more complex geometrical shapes the equation tobe used ie ,— TC/K, (Ref, 11) which appears fo be analogous to Eq, (0) expressing tho maximum flexural street. Th this cao however, € sa complicated function of arbitrary eros sectional geometry of twisted bar. Only for a circular erocesoction C-may be regarded as the distance of the extreme fiber from the ‘eural ans, While the neutral axia represents the line of zero Sher ‘res in'a bar subject to flexure, the torsional centr is that point bout which the section rotates. For many cross sectional geometrios these to points do nt coincide Te should be noted that the majority of the design formulas in- volving torsional strength, on the assumption of straight bars, apply ‘equally well to curved machine members provided their curvature i ‘not unduly sharp. ‘Stress Due te Diet Shear In most elementary design calculations the direct shear sires is ‘normally defined asthe shear load divided by the total cross-sectional fren of a load member, Because precise knowledge of shear stro ‘istribution is seldom available the concept of an average shear stress fover the area appears tobe the only practical approach tothe problem ‘The analysis of varios curved machine members, which are relatively thin, doesnot require the inclusion of shear stress ealeulations. ‘When the fect of shearing stress is required the distribution of this stress may be determined fr simple cros-seetonal shapes (Refs AGand 17). The transverse shear distribution fora rectangulae beam ‘ronesection, together with the relevant sig convention, is shown, in Fis, 4-3. By the definition of the strength of materials theory the formula forthe shearing strest in a beam derived over one hundred ears ago, is quot as) Here Q denotes the transverse shearing fore, while J is frst moment fof area with respect to the neuteal axis, sometimes known et the ‘Statieal moment. By reference to Fig. £3, HZ My ay r five 19) Integrating a. (19), gives Shy] ce)20 [ANALYSIS OF STRESS. AND DEFLECTION cna aL 897] -of oo \s het mo [n92A) ig... Traverse shar dstbuton for # retanlrcos eton ‘Bquation (20) indicates that the shearing stres varies paraholially ‘and that its maximum vale i obtained when y. — 0 Itcam be shown, alo that the shering sires, integrate over the total area of beam ‘ros ection, is equal tothe transverse shearing force @. Finally, cubs stituting ys = O and Eq, (7) in Ba, (20), yields 9/24 ey For the case of shearing stres distribution over a circular erose- section the maximum stress becomes = 49/34 (2) For other cases, suchas for instance -beam geometry, a reasonable approximation for the maximum shearing stress may be obtained by dividing the transverse shearing force Q by the web cross sectionel fares. It is normally assumed that the contebution of the Thea ‘anges tothe transmission of the shearing force i relatively smal. cha ANALYSS OF STRESS AND DEFLECTION a” ‘Based on the above considerations, and forthe purpose of further discussion, the shear distribution factor can bo defined as follows: a ‘numerical quantity which when multiplied with the average shearing Stress gives the shearing sreaa at the centroid of tho cros section, the average shearing stress, Fig. 43, is denoted by x andthe shear distribution facta by 5, we get toate (a) {Te may be of intrest to reall ere that at the upper and lower surfaces of the beam the shearing stresses vanish as indicated by Ba, (20), This is leo tre for other croer-sectional geometries and the above theory of strength of materials may be considered as entirely fatisfactory for most practical purposes. Ta the above examples the transverse shearing force @ is assumed to-ct through the cantar of twist, coinciding with the centroid ofthe ‘rou section, Under such circumstances the transverse force produces to torsion of the beam, Therefore in cross-sectional areas having two ‘hes of symmetry me have the tranaverse shearing tress only. For fineymmetrial cross sections the transverse shearing force causes {mist of the beam around the center of twist the location of which is ‘usually dificult to determine in relation to the centroid of the cross section. Torsion of Thin Welle Tubes ‘Many design cases involve solid cros-sections to which the ele mentary stress formulas given at the boginning ofthis chapter apply wcly. In caleulating shearing stresses induced by a torque in thin-walled tube, simplified Bredt’s formula can be used to advantage (Ret 18). el Bar Eq, (24) is applicable to any shape of thin walled tube cross-section. Here T' denotes the winting moment, ¢ is the wal thickness and A defies an area encloned by the mean contour of the wall For instance, for a tube of circular erox-aection described by mean radius r and wall thickness £, Eq, (24) becomes ee Bart It should be noted here that A denotes the whole ares described by mean radius and not the actual cont-sectional area of the tube, whieh 4 eo (25)2 ANALYS'S OF STRESS ANO DEFLECTION cms {inthis case would be Sor. Bredt's formula applies only to closed see- tions. Since the area enclosed hy the circular contour is maxitnum for a given length of «perimeter, a cireslar tube esteonger and stfer in torsion than any other form of hollow eros section, and therfore ‘ore eficent. Compare, for instance, a square thin-walled tube of mean side @ and thickness ¢ with «circular tube of the same wall {thickness and weight, both subjected tothe ame torsional moment, ‘as shown in Fig. 4-4. It follows from the condition of equal weight Ce Fig 44 al weet hina abn oso that mean radius for the citcuar tube must be r = 2a/. Peking the areas enclosed by the mean eontours for both sections and employing qs. (24) and (25) we find that the shearing stres for the circular ‘ection is about 21 pereent lower than that forthe square tan For the same enclosed ares, the tires x the same for bath sections but the weight ofthe elreular tube ie some 11 perent lower, cha ANALYSSS OF STRESS AND DEFLECTION » ‘ending of Tubulor Members In calculating the fexural strength and rigidity of curved members having thin-walled tubular sections, the deformation of the eros section under load should be considered. Von Kérmén and Tino shenko contributed simplified design formulas fr circular and square ‘ros-seetions, respectively (Ref. 11) ‘Tn dealing with the defection ofa circular tubulse member, fe igidity ET should be multiplied by the following factor 1 tte hes "Toye a oT BREmOr L OR = ERIM E20) en Hore R denotes mean radius of curvature, r is mean radius of tube section and ¢ is wall thickness, It is known that comparatively thin ‘urved tues are more flexible in bending than the usual thoory wou Indicate. The increased Neibiity is due to atoning of the tabes dur ing bending. Nomercally, thie phenomenon may be interpreted a= a ‘decrease inthe moment of inertia, Hence the corresponding maxiaunt ending stress must also be affected by the fattening of the ceo section and the relevant design formula is ee) Here wate (29) In evaluating the defection and stresses of «curved member, the crose-section of which isa thin hollow square, the relevant moment of inertia should be multiplied by the following factor 0.027 +6. (30) 0.0866, ‘Where Go ORY /a(a-4 1)? ORE/era + 28) on Parameter, given by Bq. (31) is similar to 9 given by Eq. (27). In Eq, (31), a denotes mean length ofthe side of the square section, Factors gy sand y are given in Fig, 45 Inplane Detection of Curved Members laste response ofa machine member to external loading is usualy judged by the magnitudes and direction of defections. These valueso ANALYSIS OF STRESS. AND DEFLECTION cha 2 ee 0205 OF 05 0807 OBOE 10 Parameters, and ar ity rated to the ste of ssn a gen member and ae in eonnin apres The set sale the elasti:reyonseinvoler vars semtsalend pel parte ter for wich neva! mathe of flcaton a eae te Fert Deite the ual spying seman soe of {nals ove tobe eednly cols na he niet eed teed th ena data by rely experimen, Te bak Iw ony ew satay tho a testo ae on Ast some tt imation, ane ben lo ately el thr fons ain pin sss ‘en conrng mi deca fa eal night tar suet pe Bening the wel wn etal ean’ te ey de ET ‘Equation (92) expresses the relation between the curvature, bending ‘moment and flexural rigidity of the beam. This relation follows om (2) ona ANALYSIS OF STRESS AND DEFLECTION as the fundamental equation of bending, originally developed by Ber oul and Esler over two hundred years ago Tn general, vlatvely slander curved member subjected to in-plane ‘external loading, undergoes radial and tangential displacements, ad 1 respectively, Tf the normal and bending stresses ata section of the ‘curved member aze taken into account the differential equstions of the relevant clastic curve (Ref. 18), are (63) Accuming thet radius of curvature 9 = R 28 y= MRE (33) a Here ds is replaced by Ral, while @ denotes the angle measured along the axis of the curved member. When the radius of curvature i con stant, such asin Eq, (95), the solution can be obtained by formal intogration, Similarly, Bq, (33) can be medifed for constant radius of curvature, a = (WR-M)/AB @ eee a If the bending moment M ean bo expresso asa function of one vari able radial displacement u ean be obtained fom Eq. (35), in terme of angle external loading and flexural eighty of the eurved member ‘The tangential displacement v can then he found from Eq. (36) uti lizing the general expresion for u. Note also that for an infinity large radius of curvature ¢, Eq. (34), reduees to Ba. (32), for straight boams. Furthermore, using similar substitution in Bq. (33), shows thatthe axial extension or contraction ofthe beat is proportional to the normal force N and to the length ofthe bear, and inversely po- portional to the product of the eras-sectional area and the modulus of elasticity, Me aE Since the uniaialstrxin = o/s, andthe tensile srs i simply en% ANALYSIS OF STRESS AND DEFLECTION cha 5S = N/A, Bq. (87), transforms into familiar equation defining Hooke's lay se (08) ‘Transverse Deflection of Curved Members ‘The equations of the clastic line for & transversely forded curved ‘member may be obtained by expressing curvature and twist in terms of displacement Y and the angle of twisty. The derivation of these equations is due to Bleich (Ref. 19). For'a curved bar of ire ‘curvature the relevant expressions are Money Rear el r 1 dy, 4 a¥) ax =~ (aw tee) 1 is assumed here that downward defection is postive, The angle of twist is considered positive when mesured counterclockwise Equations (39) and (40) can now be solved for Y and in the following way. Fist diferntiae both sides of Bq, (99) with respect toe. Ths gives A aw idm ey Eas Rae £2 «a Adding Bas. (40) and (41) eliminates the ange of twist and yields OY gf 1 a TP) re tere tae) ‘The angle of txt follows frm Ea, (38) MR, 4 ev Te Rae ae "The general Eqs. (42) and (43) can be solved for specific cases of transversely loaded curved members provided the relevant expressions for the hending and twisting moments as well a the boundary cond tions are known. The products £7 and GK represent the fexeal and ‘torsional rigidities ofa particular member while R denotes the radius of curvature. Once the equation for the transverse deflection Y ie ‘tablished from the solution of the differential By. (42), the nl ‘of twist» can bo calculated from Eq, (42) by difereniating the ex pression for ¥toice with respect to ? and substituting the result in cn ANALYSIS OF STRESS AND DEFLECTION a {2q, (43). The alterate method of solution for the angle of twist can be established by eliminating the terms involving Y from the basic Eige (39) and (40). This ean be accomplished by frst differentiating ‘oth sides of Eg. (40) with respect to 6. This gives ue ag ae 2 uo GK @ Rae ae Subtracting Eq, (44) fom Ba. (39), and rearranging, vields the fl Towing diferential equation forthe angle of twit. M_ 4) al TGR és ‘The above differential equation can be solved in the usual way by Ulilaing the expressions for the bending and twisting moments in & particular design ease with de rogard tothe relevant boundary con- ‘itions. Tt should be noted that the solution of Eqs. (42) and (45) Fequires total of five boundary conditions to evaluate fve integra tion constants, Ifthe deflection and the angle of twist are required Simullanoously it i convenient to employ Eqs. (42) and (43). An trample of such a solution is presented in Chapter 11, desing with transversely Toaded, thin circular ring, St ener lostie Strain Energy ‘The application of Castiglano principles, outlined briefly in Chap~ ter 2, depends on the interpretation of the expressions for stzain energy with regard to the conditions of loading and support. As a {eneral guido the strain energy should be expressed in, terms of ‘Saticlly independent forces and the integration extended over the {Entire load carving member. In dealing with statically indeterminate Structures the energy is expresed ab a function of redundant seac- tions. Various aspects of this procedure are ilustrated throughout the book in solving actual design problems “According to Timoshenko (Rel. 17) the general expresion for the total tea eneray in a curved bar of relatively deep cross section x (a By HE HY) ney 8) S. (cits * ais + 2o ~ are) Hare Nan @ dana bendng mort oma fread nr even cdc Ta trm’ ens te dna tren the et Soe yt eas whet dents the sar dantcer SALE Sra ntl on te geome of he coseton Sys2 ANALYSIS OF STRESS AND DEFLECTION cha Band G denote moduli of elasticity and vigidity. Radius of curvature £R, cross-sectional area A and angle # complete the notations used in the above equation. ts evident from Ea. (46) thatthe energy of strin is represented day functions of the secon degree in the external forts and moments ‘The displacements are assumed to be proportional to the applied Toads. When this is not the eae the strain ener in no longer a ec- fond dogree function although the material ofthe structute may stl {allow Hook's law. Such a special caso should be analyzed by other rethods the description of vthich is considered to be beyond the Scope of this treatise, Enuation (46) is applicable to in-plane loading and it can bes pli considerably for curved. members whose radial thickness is ‘mall in comparison with the rediue of curvature, Tn sich cases the Shift ofthe neutral axis Becomes rather small and bending need only be considered. The relevant theory of the shift ofthe neutral axis 3 's discussed in Chaptor 12 in more detail at an introduction to the analysis of links, hooks, thick rings, eurved beams and similar ma: thine members. When thin sections only are taken into account the strain energy due to bending ix =f wm For slender curved members loaded normal to the plane of eures- ture bending and twisting occur simultaneously. Essentially we are ‘concerned here with a general three-dimensionl problem. However, ‘ince loading entirely normal to the plane of eurvature doesnot pro ‘duce any deformation within thie plane, the elects of the external loading acting normal tothe plane of curvature only need be analyzed ‘The transverse hending and twisting moments in this particular case contribute to the total strain energy. Thieves, wor So (Gar + ae) ‘= in Ba (48), 7 represents the twisting moment whichis not an inde- pendant quantity but » function of external loading, Mathod of Costigione In caleulating the deflection or slope at a point of an elastic member the Castigliano thoorem, expressed by Ba. (1), is often convenient cha [ANALYSIS OF STRESS AND DEFLECTION ” to apply. If the total strain energy, given by Bq. (46), can be ex- promed in terms of P and M, considered as the extomal force and {xtermally applied bending couple, respectively, at which the deflc- tion and slope are sought, the general expressions for relatively thick ‘curved members become v= J. baal) + ae (Se) + 40 (SP) (3) —ae (Ge) wy v= 0 Chai) (anr)®** (wy For the case of relatively thin members, Eqs. (49) and (50) reduce to Soar (ie) B® Scr (ar) ®# 2 Equations (61) and (52) ate simple in use and can be employed in many practical design situations, ‘The advantage in using, for in- Stance Eq. (51) instead of Eq. (35) lies in the fact that in solving Bq, (61), evaluation of constants of integration is entirely avoided. ‘The results obtained with the aid of either of these equations are, of ‘course, in complete agreement. Numerous practical examples will be ‘olved in detail throughout various chapters of this book, utilizing the above equations, 30 thatthe mechanies of derivation ofthe design ormulas based on Castiglano’s principle wll become quite familar. Anolyis of ronsvorse Digplaements bby Meth of Costigtiono Since in the majority of applications oftrnsveraly loaded curved mombers the elect of bending and twisting moments is of primary importance, the strain enrgy can be iven by Eq (48). "The eer deo ch snlitinn come 4 be eral alc ‘sith much tore serious unavoible errs de to uncertain Eetnaury ouditone eoeouneral euch application. 1 hasbeen Shown steady thatthe deflection and the angle of twist ofa ran terslyIoaded curved member can becaleslate from the diferent uations (42), (43) or (45). The same rls can be derived frome ANALYS'S OF STRESS ANO DEFLECTION cna Ba. (4) wtltang te principe of Catia ven in mest general Fem by Eq. Heme the tans alae ne a Pinned andthe banding and stag tent Bf end, ae Some tunetion oP et wpe ase ryt Sear (ie) ae (ie) ‘After clenting the ection om Ba (3), te slope nthe plane perpedicaar tthe lane af earvetue sound fm 1 (er v= (i) 9 ‘Th angle of twist the pont of aplication of the exterally 4 ed tng eupe 7 aac boned ro Ea (0) by taking the paral dete wih epet to Te concen aden, ent vara This ie Wp MM) wags (TT) wap ana Sar (ia)** Sax (in) In Bas. (5) and (55), the bending snd twisting tment ae given 2 functions of P. However the wting couple, alo some fae. tion ot P, the Eq, (4) becomes mr ae + Gon) Ge) ‘my foe when this functional relationship between T, and P is tho deflection cane found from Eq. (88) by substituting Inittheyelations (68) and (55) and by ealeuating the partial deriva tive of 7, with respect to P, Equation (56) finds application to some statically indeterminate problems, such as transversely loaded circular frames with built-in supports, in which T, may reprint restraining ‘isting moment at one end of the frame, (Ref. 17) Remarks onthe Use of Castiglione Eqotions ‘Several design equations given in the receding sections for dec tion analysis find their origin inthe general statement of Castighiano, Y= aU/aP. In order to laity the mechanics of dealing with Cas tiglano equations, such as, for instance Eqs. (49), (3), (1) and others, consider a classical example of uniform curved beai, forming ‘the quadrant of a cree and carrying a concentrated vertical load P, as shown in Fig. 46.'To calculate the upward deletion of the lower cha ANALYSIS OF STRESS AND DEFLECTION “ Reese p-Rcose | p Fig 46, Quarter cit ured eam, ‘end of the beam due to bending, Eq. (61) will be used. Since the ‘roce-sction of the beat, radius of curvature and the modulus of ‘astcity are assumed to be constant, and since the beam subiends 0 dog anal, Ba. (51) can be written as follows al? ay Te may be noted here that formal integration with respect to # can be earted out only if the terme under the integral sgn can be ex- Dressed as suitable functions of #. To do this consider an arbitrary point defined by ¢, and write the expression forthe bending moment {out this point, eaused by the concentrated load P. The clementary trigonometric relation gives M=PR (cos) (sib) Inq, (61h), isconstant by the definition of tho problem. "The terms rand # represent independent variables. Acording to the sual rales ff calcula 2M 4P implies partial dferntiation of the function given by Ba, (Sib). I¢ swell to recall at thie point of the discussion that the general rules for finding partial dorivatives are the same as for ordi- ‘ty derivatives, and that esentilly the partial derivatives have the fame geometric interpretation as that forthe derivative ofa function fof one variable, Such considerations should convince the designer ot student of engineering tht the level of mathematics required for thea ANALYSIS OF STRESS AND DEFLECTION cna solution of Castglano-type equation ie quite elementary and should fencourage the reader to practice applications of this ingenious principle. “ence the term aM/@P is found easily from Bq. (51) by holding tho other independent variable # constant and considering M to be ‘function of only one variable, P. This gives aw Ra —cose) «ie, We now have two functional relationships (5tb) and (Ste), expresed in trms of , which can bo substituted dneetly into the Castigliano ‘equation (61a). Therefore the next step gives PR Y= [o-eanrae ww ‘The integration is performed with respect to 6 between the linits indicated according tothe usual rales of calculus, First the trigono- metric expression may be transformed as follow 3 conte acon 4 826 gnome Sy (1 eossy* Inserting the above expression in Eq. (51d), performing integration ‘term by term and substituting the relevant limite giver Chane Patan ane Se— 8) Pre : ) ar Y= 3502 PRET on ‘The above detailed procedure i typical of many applications of ‘tho Castglieno equation. The trigonometric functions ate very ‘useful in dealing with such problems The formulas fora variety of ‘curved members presented inthis book involve the algebraic addition Of trigonometric terms and often require more than three significant figures in the computations. For ths purpose a convenient simmary of trigonometric functions is given in Fable 1, cha ANALYSIS OF STRESS AND DEFLECTION a Table 41. Auntory Tigonomaile Funcont n= [= [* [6 [o |[s [wo ema] 096160) 0.52360) 078640] 1.07730). ata00) —1 S780 * oosest) o27«16| 0.61685) 100663) 1.71348] 246741 sinx | 035862) 050000) 70711} 086600) osesas) 1.con00 owx | 096893) 086608) o7or11} 050000) 025882) 0 xsinx | 006776) 026180] 0.55556) agooo1 | 125440) 17080 rons | 025268) 045945] 0.55536) 052950) 032880] 0 stein | oo17%4| o3706| o4se1s} 09171 | 1.65510] 240741, Poms | 000600] o2s7es] o4sers] oss] os] 0 sin2x | 150000) 086608) 00000] oseons 030000) 0 coax | ona) ono] 0 __|-0.50000 |. 100000, ae [105 [0 [5 | 50 | 16 | amo znd | 18%060[ 200420] 2sse19] —zertoo| zaTaTe] aT * aassea) .aassi| s.sousa| easae7| 20019] 950050 sinx | o9e1a) o8cana) o7o711| asoom0| a2s882] 0 coex | —0.25582| 0.50000) —o.70711| 08650809608 | 1.00000, esinx | 177016) 12181/ 1.66000] 1.30600] 074555] 0 semx | —047401| 1.01720) —.65000|—226726| 275108] 2.4159, wine | 24400) 3.70586) 3.92561] s4zep«) 210644] 0 ‘steorx | —0.80029| 2.10026 —a.92561| 5 90568|-s01004| 24859, ‘inde | —0.s0000 —086608) 1.00000] —ossens| 0.30100] 0 ‘ome | —08660|—0.50000) 0 sooo] oes] 1.00000 ‘Symbols for Choptor 4 ‘Area of cross-section in? Side of square section, in. ‘Width of rectangular section, in. Geometrical function fora tisted ba, i, 4 . c Distance fom entra axis to extreme fb, Diameter of solid bar in ‘Modul of elasticity, plANALYSIS OF STRESS AND DEFLECTION ‘Modulus of sgiity, psi Depth af ersesetion i, ‘Moment of neti, in. Polar moment of inertia, in ‘Torsional shape factor, in Section modils for tos “Length of straight bar in. Bending moment, Ibn. Externally applied! bending couple, hin, ‘Normal fore Ib Concentrated fore, Ib ‘Transverse shearing force, Ib. ‘Radius of curvature to ental axis, in Radiusof circular crosesection, in. ‘Stress, pe ‘Bending stres, pei ‘Torsional stress, ps ‘Yield stress, ps “Length of curved member, in "Twisting moment, Ibi, Extornally applied twisting couple, Ibn, Wall thickness, in laste strain energy livin Radial displacement, in ‘Tangential displacement in, Abiteary distance, in "Transverse deletion, i, cha cha yoo ANALYSIS OF STRESS AND DEFLECTION Distances from a reference axis in Section modulus, in Distance from neutral to central axis i. Angle at which force are considered ad Angle of twist ad Parameter in Von Karmn's equation ‘Von Kirmén’s factors for thin tubes Ausiliay factor "Timoshenko's factor for square tubes Slope, rad ‘General symbol for radius of curvature, i. Shear distribution factor ‘Transverse shearing stress, si Average transverse shearing stress, pi ‘Maximum transverse shearing stress, psHarter Five Properties of Sections Introdection Fundamental properties of plane sections are always required in the calculations of strength and rigidity of machine compenents."The ropertios of intrest usually include cross sectional areas, moments of inertia, sectional modali and centroid locations. Lest. requently required properties, but also of importance, are torsional shape fac ‘tor, location of neutral axis relative to central ais and shear dite ton factors The relevant symbol, definitions and formulas are given in many engineering publications. The mathematics necosary for the darivaton of such formulas represents a wide spectrum of ifcalty fand wil not be repeated in this text. However, the basic concepts, ‘some unique features, practical shortcuts and helpful data will be presented for some basie shapes of crossections which are more Jrequently employed in machine design, Moment of Into ‘The moment of inertia, referred to often asthe second moment of «an area, is a mathematical statement which express the sum of the products found by multiplying each element of the area by the square Of its distance from a given axis. ‘Thi axis lies in the plane of the ross-section. The maximum and minima moments of inertia can bbe usally found by inspection or by calculation depending on the complexity of the shape af the section.“ PROPERTIES OF SECTIONS cus ‘he two Basi princes mst commonly api in the desig a exletions concern the moment of inertia of compote sachoey sel ‘he's eld perl ons Uhorem 2) ‘The slthraic sum ofthe rments of inertia of component pars 5 cual tthe moment of inertia af the complete meeecce 3) The momento inti ofan ann ith rpc toe el ae {tins a minimam ae Destin by the momen of ierta wih rape to a i pal Jeo the ental, the parle ma torn es me Tem T ays (s8) ere A denotes the total aes of the cosesection and yi the Sa. tance betwen the parallel and the contrat In order to asrate the gener procedure of developing working forsale conser for insta tho noments of inert Senet at tual is and about the bao ofa rectal contin Cs irc ntarton and para al tram, Take baad ha at ‘a eight ofthe crnsaocton a chown in Fige 3. ao h— >» —+ ig. 1. Notation for moment of rin aot eee anf rectancle “Expressing the definition of the moment of inertia in mathematical = fou » For the ce of cone ax, Fig, vain Dtween —W? wo +H and lntary ae dt ba. 1 fay el outlier ud nara aan pie 0 tis and ther 1 a PROPERTIES OF SECTIONS. ° » =a Fi 52 Notation formament opera about base of rectangle ‘which on aubetttion of ints, gives Bg (7) ne 2 ortho ent illustrated in Fig, 3.2, the general equation isthe sme, tu th lini of tgrton fora now and Tis ads ely Ls (oo) 3 "To obtain the moment of inertia about the base line ofthe roo tangle, rng prallel ai theorem, Eq (58), write bas ryt be ate) “The moment of inertia forthe cross etion fa rlatively hin tubular trumber bs often employed in the design calculatins, The precise Forme in this casein 1 L aS asa Ry wy Here R, and R, denote the outer and inner tube radi, respectively. Rewriting Ea. (61), gives 12 (Rs + RAR, + RO (RR Denotins mean radius of tube by r nd wall thickness by fas befor, ‘the above formula can be rearranged to read ra here+2ne+e) « For relatively thin tubes, term # may be neglected, and) making re Rios Re gives Iam (02)0 FROPERTES OF SECTIONS. chs ‘Equation (52) can algo be obtained by formal integration with refer fence to a thin annular cross-section, using the basic expression, Ea. (50). Tt for instance, the elementary area is denoted by da trdé andy —rsin4, wheres the angle measured from the diameter about ‘which the moment of inertia taken, we get [fae Which on integration gives Eq. (62). The design formela given by Bq. 62) is much more convenient to se in the ealulations than the ‘orignal Eq. (61) involving fourth powers ofthe radi. The computa- tion error due to the above simplification ean be now analyzed, De ‘note the ratio ofthe outer to inner tubo ratio by m ~ F/R. Hence the parameters of Eqs. (61) and (82) canbe expressed a fllows R= Rs(m' 2) r= Bim Beim-+3) t= Rum—1) Dividing Ba, (61) by Bq, (62) and introducing the above relations ves 2m? 41) (mpi ‘This parameter is illustrated graphically in Fig. 5-3. Section Modulos By the definition, section modulus is the moment of inertia with ‘respect to a neutral axis divided by the distance from this axis to Ube most remote outar fer. The section modulus i urwally denoted by 2 and largely determines tho bending strength of stright and curved members of moderate curvature alike. This sectional property. is extremely useful in engineering calculations and may ‘be derived ‘mathematically for various shapes of cross-sections. It should be noted that while theres only one value of the moment of inertia with respect toa given neutral axis, the action modulis can have to dis: tinct values corresponding to two diferent distances of the extreme ‘ers from tho neutral axs. Two diferent valoes of section modulus ‘are therefore found in ll tneymmtricl sections. ea ee : peal i : aa a | : | | i 5. Cmparon of enc nd approxi afore ‘To illustrate the mathematical procedure of obtaining. working formulas consider section moduli of an equilateral triangle of side length o, illustrated in Fig. 54,2 PROPERTIES OF SECTIONS ons Applying the general equation (58) to the centroidal axis of the ving en te simil triangles yield Hence substituting for x in the above moment of inertia equation, Integrating and substituting the relevant Lite, gives 1 0k'/36 6) "Expressing triangle height Fin tems of side lento, the minimam and maximum section modul follow diectly from Eq. (63), by divid- Ing the moment of inertia by the corresponding distances of the cen- ‘roidal axis from the apex and base ofthe triangle respectively wo (60) ‘A practical short-cut in the calculation ofthe section modulus for 8 relatively Uhin tubular member can be developed ina. manner ‘hich wil now be desribed "The exact formula for Ube section modulus of an annular cross: section is 2s — RS) (66) Employing the derivation procedure followed inthe case of moment of inertia in the previous section, simplified design formula for the fection modlus becomes zou on Diving B65) ito Ba. (67), ad icing rade rato mat elon mts mime leprae ied nF 83. ih handle recommend wg armas (62) and (67) for socallal ver thin soto Very thin tonsa wl eonsdred thas for which m =. A cmpaon of the dsgn fre gen sn Fig'8.3 nisin ote ae te ent na cms PROPERTIES OF SECTIONS. 2 prsingly accurate results can be obtained for a wide range of m. Even {he error introduced by simplifying section modulus may be accept able over a telatvely wide range of m, considering that the accuracy ‘nith which we normally know the material properties, support and Toading conditions is seldom known with certainty Torsional Shope Factor {In dealing with torsional rigidity of non-circular section the stand ‘ad design formulas no longer hold and it becomes necessary to intro duce factor depending on the shape and dimensions of the cros- Section. In this book K denotes the torsional shape factor. There Seer to bono established and generally accepted definition or symbol for this fonction, Such names at torsional rigidity factor, torsional rsstance, torsion constant and similar have been used 0 denote this fectional property the dimensions of which are the same as those of Ioment of inertia, Some of the formulas for K, have been derived With the aid of rigorous mathematical analysis, others have been duced through membrane analogy and are considered s= approxi nations with not more than about 10 percent error, (Ref. 11). "The derivation of K values is generally complex because the die ‘uibution of shear strsses on a eros-soction of arbitrary geometry isnon-linear and the setion doesnot remain plane under twist. Since many formulas for K are based on membrane analogy it ean be ‘oneluded that narrow flanges and thin protrusions in a section have comparatively limited effect on the total torsional rigidity of 2 men ber Also narrow sections bent into chanaals or open curved configu ‘tons display substantially the same torsional stiffness as that of a ‘thin Bat plate having the sume length and thickness. “The value of K for a solid rectangular cross-section is of speci interest becuse the torsional shape factor of eroresectional area ‘onasting of rectangular components i roughly equal tothe sum of K Salues of individual rectangular areas. A very ustfl torsion parameter [K/h fora rectangular eros section is plotted in Fig 5-5 Stion Mod fer Tevion In caleulating torsional stresses for a membor with an arbitrary croqe-section, Eq. (17) can be used, Tn this equation, K.. denotes ‘sectional property which may be called section movil for torsion bby analogy to section modulus in pure banding. Both properties Z and K, are expressed in in.’ and their values are given in Table 5-1ss Kopacaad ec (on — ere) = aron |e grea) PROPERTIES OF SECTIONS. = wf me fe sino oes, noms sasdong (umH>HS HEAL g so we 8 2 E wunew : = - ne wii x ready jouoeg eal “g Ig0136 PROPERTIES OF SECTIONS cas for some typical configurations. Torsion parameter K,/DR? fora re- ‘angular crss-oction i given in Fg, 6-5. 5 a rarer Seer areG nae rea ea ane yn ig 65. Toon paramere srw an ange wit for "scangulr crus ata Compound Cros Section In many problems of machine design typical eros-sectional eom- ‘tres are used for which the properties are given in design handbooks and cothee publications. However in calculating composite cross ‘stctns additional procedures must be emplayed in order to end-up ‘with a single design formula desribing the particular property for a siven cross-sectional geometry. In such situations there i usually ‘more than one approach to the prablem Consider for instance the moment of inertia of an elementary ‘uilt-up cross-section, shown in Fig. -6. The wal mettiod of finding ‘the total moment of inertia ofthe composite section isto eraploy Ea, (58) which requires thatthe neutral axis of the whole section is rst. found. This is accomplished by breaking the whole area into eompo nen areas and finding the sum of fest moments of individual compo. nent areas about a selected reference axis such as, for instance, the baseline shown in Fg. 58. The fst moment is defined asthe product fof the aren and the distance of the centroid of this area from the PROPERTIES OF SECTIONS Fa ae eee bn Pig 68. Compost ection reference axis, The sum of the first moments is then divided by the {otal area of the composite croaection to ive the distance of the ‘neural ans from the hace ine. With reference to Fig. 56, this dein ton gives hye aby Th bike ‘Alo, by analogy to Bq, (59) frst moment of area can be defied ‘mathematically as follows Ja fos os) ‘The moment of inertia of a composite cros-tction can also be found more directly without calculating the neutral sxs, (Ret. 20) From Bq. (58), the moment of inertia about tho neutral axis is Tah aye (69) By he definition ofthe rst moment of area mada «70 ence substituting Bq. (70) in Eq, (69), neutral axis term is dropped out to give omss PROPERTIES. OF SECTIONS. chs In Bq. (71), I, stands for the sum of the two moments Ih and I, Here i, denotes the product of an individual area and the distance ‘squared measured from it enter of gravity tothe base line, The m0- tment of inertia ofan individual aren about its own center of gravity |S denoted by 1, Hence Eq. (71) may be reitated a follows o b+n-% am In some dosign situations J is rlatvely small and may be neglected, committing only a moderate conservative eon. Numeral Bxompl Design Problem 1: Calculate the minimum moment of inertia ofthe ‘composite cross-section shown in Fi. 5-6, asuming the following d- ‘mensions: b=? in, k= Tin, b, = in, and hy = 08 in, ‘Solution: Using symbols from Figure 5, Bq, (72) canbe expressed follows: ABS buh? (hye buh Bh he Substituting the numerical data, gives hye + bahay + 2.35 oha2 b= 2 Hence pp AXE AOR eax 296) L +2x 286" 4 LRP TAXOR Or ax gee Ta22Tins Design Problem 2: Calculate the angle of twist and the maximum shearing stress in a cantilever member of 20 inch length, under the fisting moment T= 2000 Ih-in. Assume the cross-sectional shape and dimensions to be the same as in Problem 1. The modulus of Figdity is G = 12 10" pa ‘Solution: The torsional shape factor K, for the sction ilustrated in Fig, 56 can be obtained diveetly from Fig. 6 for side ratios of ns PROPERTIES OF SECTIONS * ‘the recangular parts equal to /t (horizontal portion). Hence Kb = 0.229 K/bhs = 0.307 Since the total torsional shape factor is approximately equal to the fm of the above component factor, subtituting the Pelevant mis ‘merical values gives K = 0220 2X +0307 x4 05" (vertical portion) and by/hs and K=osit ins ne, utilizing Bq. (16), the angle of twist is TE ___2000><20 GK ~ Bx 10x 06 = 0.0055 rad, Using similar procedure forthe section modulus for torsion K,, Big 5:5 yields K,= 0246 x 2x +0307 x 40.8 K,=0.780in? ‘The maximum torsional shearing stress now found from Ba, (17) 5-2 = K, = 0708 5, = 2500 pst Symbols for Choptr a ‘Area of cross-section, in? e Side ofa triangle, in bb Width dimensions i, @ Modulus of rigidity, psi Ah ‘Depth dimensions, in. 1 ‘Moment of neti,RAR, 2am PROPERTIES OF SECTIONS. ‘Moment of inertia about an abies axis in ‘Moment of inertia with respect to base i ‘Moment of inertia with respect to cuntral axis in. First moment of area, in? ‘Torsional shape factor, in Section modulus for torsion, in? Length of straight ba, in. Radius (terra of tube, in Timer radius of tub, Mean rads of tube, in ‘Torsional stress, pei "Dwisting moment, Ibi. Wall thicknes,in Ahiteary distance, in Distances from a reference axis, Distance to central Section modulls, in Maximum section modulus, in? Minimum section modulus, in In-Plane Loading of Arcuate Members Arete Member Under VotcalLood ‘The arcuate member of wifrm, thin cros-stetion shown in Fg. 6-1 is often met in practice, Bec the structure behaves as stat telly determinate beam the bending moment at Une section defined by # follows from considerations of statics. By analogy to the pre- ‘ioudy established relations depicted in Eqs. (51a), (S1b) and (Ste) the integration can be perlormed for an arbitrary angle subtended by the curved member, (Ref, 21), The actual bending moment releted to Fig. 6-1 and previous sgn convention established in Fig. 4-1 gives M=PR (cos#—1)* ay Introducing ¢ as angle subtended by the curved member the bending ‘moment at the builtin end bocomes M=PR (cos —1) wm {In the majority of practical applications 4 weldom exceeds 180 degres eis evident from Eq. (74) that for ¢ — x the bending moment is MM =—~2PR and this value isnot exezeded when ¢ increases beyond 180 deg. For instance when ¢ = 270 deg, es ¢ = 0 and the bending moment at the built-in end reduces to PR. In the extreme case ‘when ¢ approaches 2x, the bending moment tends to zero while the ee + For meaning of smb and imentonal wie Ine for this av (CREME ESSE et endo area ILPLANE LOADING. chs Fig. 1 Arcinte tea under verti oad transverse shear at this point attains the fll value of load P. The average shearing stress obtained by dividing tho forco P by the area of the crose-section parallel to this force is usually relatively smal, Consequently the design for stress should be made only in regard to ‘maximum bending. In designing the member shown in Fig. 6-1 for deflection the CCastgliano theorem is especially useful. According to this theorem ‘the displacement of the fee end ofthe arcuate beam measured in the liretion ofthe applied load P is given by the following expresion in polar coordinates: 1 py at va fiw nae oo) As before BI denotes flexural riidty. For the purpose of tis deriva: tion BF remains constant and the bending moment i given by Ba. (73). Tn evaluating the derivative term @M/3P we obwerve as before that R and # are regarded as constant. Hence employing elementary rules of diferentiation, Eq. (73) gives a P Substituting expressions (73) and (76) ito the Castihano cation (73), extending the integration over the entire curved member, and substituting the relevant limits, Eq. (75) yields (cos —1) 78) PR: ¥ = PE (69 + sin 2p —Bsing) om cms IRLPLANE LOADING. « “The vertical deflection Y is considered here positive when messured dovenward. Filtious Fore Method ‘To find the defection of the member shown in Fig. 6-1 at point other than at which a given external load P is applid, use is made ofthe fictitious force concept together with the classical theory of (Castgtino, This fetitious or imaginary foro, considered ta be of an Ininitely small val, applied at point and in the diection of the Fequited displacement. ‘The bending moment equation is exprested in torms of all the real snd imaginary quantities and ‘otal strain, ‘cuergy is diflerentiatad with respect to the fictitious Torce sclectad ‘The ftitious force is then made equal to zero and the defection for ‘mula obtained. To ilustrate this extremely powerful design tol con- fider the horizontal displacement of the free end of the member thown in Fig. 6-1. Ifthe Sctitious horizontal foreo FT is applied at the {roo end of thie beam as shown in Fig. 6-2 then the modifies bending ‘moment equation, involving real and virtual foros, comes M-=PR (cos8—1) ~ AR sind (73) ‘The partial derivative with respect to the fictitious foro Hl follows from the sal rule of dilferentating the bending moment Af, given by Eq. (78) with respect to Hl, assuming that other quantities In- volved such aa P, Rand # remain constant, Hence, we have aM oH = Rein 73)“ INPLANE LOADING. chs ‘The requied horizontal displacement can be now calculated from the following Castgliano equation xe Ly a rf Maree (80) Hence substituting Bqs. (78) and (79) into Ba (80) yields Ree X= FP [ain o— Paine cons—1y)de (81) ‘Since by definition the fetitious force His considered tobe extremely ‘small compared with force P, all the terms in Ea, (81) containing A ‘may be dropped out. Integrating the remaining terms in Eq. (81) and ‘evaluating the limits, gives the design formule forthe horizontal dis: placement ofthe arched cantilever atthe point of application of the ‘ertiel load P. Pe X= PR (eos 26 — dean e+ PH (cos 26 — 4.0086+3) «ey ‘The horizontal displacement here is assumed to be positive when meagre inward tovards the center of crete of the carved ‘The design equations for the case of a horizontal end load H, ‘lustrated in Fig. 6, can be obtained by the use of Castigliano's Drinciple and che results of the previous analysis. Im applying the Fig 64 Aruate bess ner horizontal ot cn IN-PLANE LOADING “ recults of this analysis we call on Maxwell's theorem of reciprocal flefections. In the science of mechanics of structuree and materials Maxwells theorem states tht the work done on an elastic structure bya foree P, in acting through the displacement produced by a force HH, is equal to the mork done by the force Hin acting through the Gioplacement caused by the force P. In stating this theorem the no- tnenclature of the Figs, 6-1 and 6-3 bas been purposely retained to omonstzate its direct relation to our problem. ‘The vertical diplac ment of the free end of an arcuate beam resulting from horizontal loading and depicted in Fig. 6-3, is numorcally equal to the horizontal displacement due to a vertical load illustrated in Fig. 6-2 Hence we have HR. (om 24 — deo 83) ¥ = AB (oos24 — 40m 6 +9) sy In order to derive the design formula for horizontal displacement ‘under a horizontal load H, as shown in Fig. 6-3, we write fst the relevant bending moment equation M=—HRsine (68) ‘The negative sign in the abowe equation indicates merely that the relevant bending moment produoos tensile stress an the outer surface Of the arcuate beam, Dllerentiting the bending moment given by Ba. (84) with respect to H and substituting the result togetber with the bending moment expression, Eq. (84) into the general formula such as that given by Ba (80), gives xa EP [iw oa (85) Integretng and substituting the limits of integration the above ex pression gives the following design formula for the case illustrated inFig 63 (30) ‘The defection formulas given by Bys. 77), (82), (83) and (86) ‘an be now rewriten in a simplifed way and developed into a act of thre curves Mustrating the variation of the relevant deflection coel- Fcienes with angle ¢, subtended by the are of the curved member Understudy. Hence the simplified deflection formulas become = Pht ELra INPLANE LOADING. che (ss) (9) (00) ‘he defection coats Ki, Ky and Ky ae state raph in Fit Th bending mn oma Ege Cy a ae "lat snp end noe nthe converted int pose Deflection tactors Bees cro BO a0 6080120 OTe Subtended angie, $ eo) Pig. 4 Detonator fo arte ams anderen aking ‘Arcvate Member Under Uniform Load Deformation ofan arcuate ben carving a crcamforeta ifm load shown in Fig. 6-5 can be analysed fy fist considering the de entry fending monde to uit ad Scenery tertcal oad ia dete corresponding bending ment shoo roe tion defined by # is : _ aM, = GR? (con: — cos #) de Integrating the above expression between 0 and gives M,= aR (sin — ¢08 6) co ns IN-PLANE LOADING o Fig 64 Arise beam under uniform oad ‘To find the verizal and horizontal daplacements ofthe fee end of the bean, fictitious ores P and #1 are applied inthe diectons of the reqived defsctins as indiated in Fig. 0-5. Acoding to the ‘adopted sgn convention, total bending moment ata setion deSiced byes M = 9B? (90005 — sin) 4 PR (coe 6— 1) —Htsine (02) "The pertal derivatives necessary for the solution of the problem are identical with those given previously by Bas. (76) and (78) because ‘the geometry of the arcunte beam and the principal dictions of the ‘lsplacements at the fre end remain unaltered. Hence employing the general relations Eqs. (75) and (80), based on the frst theorem ‘of Castigiano, the expressions for the derivation of the deflection formulas ate EP cox 6— sin 6) (cos 0 — 2 (scons—sint) (cont —1) 8 (98) cos sin ode oo Integrating the above expressions and substituting the init of inte- ration, gives aR SET 24 sin 2p — Sp sin # 4 3.0824 — 18eo8 $4 24° 413) (95)o IN-PLANE LOADING ons in 26) (98) "The design formulas, Eqs. (91), (95) and (96) determine completely the maximum streses and deflections for en arcuate member shown in Fig. 6-5. To simplify the design process, Eqs. (95) and (96) may ‘be restated as follows ak x= TF cas + 2pe29 9) aR va aB x, on an xa x, 8) ‘he dein stints Ks and Ks een in Pig. 5 fo as of # ranging between 0 and 180 deg. ib Detection tactors, i $5 100-4 Tho Suttended angle, # (deo) ig 66. Deletion factors or arcte bam under ior ad -Arcuale Member Under In-Plane Couple Tn some special caer of arcuate tenors the en oad may’ be applied eccentrically, so that in addition to a concentrated Toad the as INGPLANE LOADING “ affect ofa bending couple must be considered. An arcuate bsam sub Seed to an in-plane end tnoment i strated in Fig. 67. Here the ‘pending moment is equal to —M, and is constant forall values of 8 Fig 67 Arie beam underin plane coal “The defection, however, varies with # and may be determined in the following way. Consider the system of two fictitious foros Hf and P ‘applied a the fee end of the beam shown in Fig. 6-7. As before ‘these forces are considered to be infinitely small and are introduced {or the purpose of establiahing the direction and the location of the required deflection, Hence the bending moment equation involving ‘eal and imaginary loading on the arcuate bear is M=—M, 4 PR (con0— 1) —HR sins 9) ‘Since the partial derivatives with respect tothe fictitious forces P and Frate again the same as those given by Pgs. (76) and (79), the de sign formulas for deflection are obtained withthe aid of the Eqs. (75) and (80). MR 1 y= 4 x, (200) Mat 101 xt x, (201) Hore Ke = 4 — sin ¢ and K; = 1 — cos 4. The design formulas, Eqs. (100) and (102) are ilustrated in Fig 6-8.7 IRLPLANE LOADING. che van A factors Detlection CE 2080-20160 8, (dea) lg 4 Defect fat for arate tn erin plane end couple Generel Design Formulos for Arcute Membors For a more general case of arcuate members loaded in plane of ‘curvature the design equations forthe deflection may he derived vith the aid of the theorem of Castigliano and the concept of Setitious Toads as before. The generl case ofan arcuste member under acon ‘centrated vertical load P, ata point at angle f from the free end i ‘lustated in Fig. 6-9. The bending moment equation applicable to this case is A= PR (cos 0 — cos) (102) Denoting by, , the angle at which deflection is required, the general ‘deflection equations become Fig 68. Goneeal ceo arcuate han under veri oad chs INPLANE LOADING n Where r= 208 8 — (cos a + cos 8) (sin — sin = 2B [op econ (cana end) an sin +05 (+B) +025 (sin 24 —sin20)] 203) PR x= ER [aime (sing — sin) — (6 —P) sin wos, “+ 208 com) — cos 6) +0.25 (eon24 — eos 26)] 204) Whena > 6 EE (con a +0088) (sin ¢ — sin [#2 cosaconp— (cons + con) (sin ) +025 (2 +sin24 — 20 ~sin20)] (105) = (9 —«) sins sin ta $0.28 (cos 26 — cos 20)] (108) Tt may be noted here that for reduce to Bas. (73), (77) and (62), ‘Employing the same nomenclature as in the shove equations and referring to Fig. 6-10, the general equations for tho ease of a con- ‘centrated horizontal load H are found to be 2M =HR (sin —sin8) 207) 5 =0, the shove fve equations lg. 10. General cane a arcuate under oreo oadn IGPLANE LOADING cn Whena

6 = HRY fo25 (coe 24 — cos 20) — (4 — a) sin con ¥ = FPF [0.25 (coe 24 — cos 20) — (4) sin con sin (sin —sine) s-eonta—eowgcosa] (110) HR = 05 ( —«) 40.25 (sin 2a sin 26) + (4-4) sinasing— (cosa — cong) (sina + sin] au For « = = 0, the above formulas simplify to Ens. (84), (86) and (88), representing more elementary cases of arcuate hears, For case of in-plane loading applied eccentrically at any point ofthe arcuate beam, the solutions to deletion under fn-plane bend ‘ng moment illustrated in Fig. 6-11 may be of interest. Here the defection formas become ig 6.1, Garo fae am ua plane couple chs IN-PLANE LOADING n Wena <3 YoME[ie—pcon—sing tans] ae = MEE [eoap—cosp— (b=) sinu] (118) Wena = AEE [lo —a) come —sin + sina] any X=AGE [eota—cons—(e—a)sina] (418) Again when a =) = 0, the above formulas educe to more cl smontary design Eqs, (100) and (101). The bending moment for the ase shown in Fig. 6-1 is constant as before and applies only when o> P. Tn order to determine vertical and horizontal displacements at any’ arbitrary point ofthe arcuate beam shown in Fg. 6-5, the following Gesign equations may be used AR Jo.grs (cou24 — cos 2a) + 2.008 1 (co8 a — cos s) y= [oss « 24 — 008 2a) + 2.008 ( +025 (48 — ) — gin gos + 0:28 (on 26+ «i 20) cs) oe ; x= AB fon 6) +025 got ocn20)— 037026 tos (60) +025¢ ) ~ 625 n 2a 4 sin a (26086 + 4sin 4 — asin )] ay Wen «= 0, lied in Bap (18) and C17) eh den formulas given by Eqs. (95) and (98) are readily obtained. Numeral Examples Design Problem 2: A cantilever spring of rectangular cross-section {a formed in a cicular ar and suvtends 90 dey a shown in Fig 612. ‘External load of 5 lp acts along the line inclined at 30 de to the horizontal axis Tt is desired to eleulate the maximum bending stest and vertical displacement of the tre end of the spring, assuming the following data:” INGPLANE LOADING cas Mean radiusof curvature R=Sin. Width of crossseetion b= 1in Depth of eote-setion 0.05 in, Modulus of lasticity B= 30x 10¢ pst S Be 5 EB lg. 612. Quartercirle cantilevers Solution: Introducing 9 = 90 deg. into Kgs. (73) and (S4) and ut ising the prinipe of superposition the maximum bending moments Section mortlus of rectangular cross-section ix z= 06 1x 0084/6 Z= 4a x 10-tin? Hence the maximum bending stress becomes S=Mz S,=— 205 x 1044.17 8, = ~49,200 pe "The negative sign indicates that the outer surface at point A, in Fig, 6-12 in tension shown, one IN-PLANE LOADING 1s "The resultant vertical deletion due to tho vertical and horizontal components in agreement with Fig. 6-12 is obtained from Ege (87) fand (89) by superposition, This eves R PR, + HK. Erk + HK) {In our case the values of K; and Kean bo obtained citer fom Eqs, (77) and (83) or by ditect reference tothe design curves depicted in Fig. 6:4, Hence for 4 = 00 deg tho corresponding deflection factors ‘become "The moment of inertia of «rectangular cross-section of the cantilever springs, =beene Ta1x 008/12 = 10.4 10-Fint ‘Hence substituting the numerical data into the above formula for resultant deflection ¥ yields y= 8X 10" (6 sin 30” x 0.355 45 605 30° x 0.5) 30% 10° x 104 ¥=0.26tin, Design Problem 4: An arcuate beam of uniform rectangular cross section is formed in s eemi-cteuar areas shown in Fig. 613. Deter ig. 618 Semiccla arcst eam ander uniform% IN-PLANE LOADING che ‘mine the displacement of the free end of the beam under its own ‘weight and show that the displacement is independent of the width (of the cross-section, Mesn radius of curvature is 5 inches and thick: ‘ess of beam amounts to O.1 in, Take modulus of elasticity to be {30 x 10" psi and the specific weight of the material equal to 0.253 i. Solution: Ib shall denote the width of beam cross-section, the ‘term common to both Bas, (87) and (88) is RY _wRbhy RY za ake re ED = aR * be =" Be ence tho required defection is independent of the width of the "The couicients K, and K, can be obtained either from Bas. (95) and (96) ote design curves given in Fig. 6-6, Hence for = 180 des, the deflection coficents a Ki 646 K,= 2.26 ‘The rcoultant displacement, u, follows from simple addition of two vectors represented by Eqs, (97) ad (98) rR on BP RT, ‘Substituting the numerical values gives 120.283 5" 30x 10" x or VOIP 23 u= 0049 in, In many practical applications the defection due to the bean’ ‘own weight may be ignored. However the above formals indicates ‘that this deflection is dirctiy proportional to the fourth power af the radius of curvature and inversely proportional (othe square of ‘material thickness, Hence any change in these dimensions can in- ‘create or decrease the defection rather rapidly. ‘Design Problem 5: Employing the method of superposition derive the design formulas for a quarter-cicle arcuate beam subjected to fend load P, applied eccentrically, as shown in Fig 6-4, Consider the horizontal extension bracket to be very right compared with the arcuate hear and expres the vertical and horizontal defections of cms InLPLANE LOADING ” ie 614 Quarter inl rot eam ander centric end ond the free end ofthe beam in general symbole, Write the formula for the maximum bending sre in terms of specified horizontal deflection sssuming rectangular hoam cross-section, ‘Solution: The equilibrium of the structure, shown in Fig. 6-14, will toe unaltered if by any eletentary rales of statics tho endl load P is transferred to point A, and provided an in-plane moment M, — Pe is added at thi point inorder to simulate the effect of orginal load fccentrcity. The deletion of the arcuate beam at point A becomes therefore sum of the defections due to end load P and in-plane end moment Pa. Hence for case of vertial displacement, combining fr tulas, Ege (77) and (100) gives a [26 (OR 4-22) — Asin g (2R + 0) +R sin 26] aT ‘When ¢ = n/2 the above formula reduces to a simple expression y= 2B (oa6r +0570) Similarly, combining Eqs, (82) and (101) and substitting ¢ = » the formula for the horizontal displacement of the free end of the freunte beam, subjected to ecoentee loading, becomes x= Fos +e) uy be ot inter to tn ht th a of verte fon detection nth doy ‘y $0.5t0 VR sR Fan IGPLANE LOADING. che "The above expression indicates thet the horizontal dieplacement un der vertical londing at ¢ — 2/2 is always greater than the correspond Ing vertical displacement, The maximum value of Y/X occurs when =O, which is the eae of zero eccentricity. The corresponding min ‘mum value of ¥/X is abou 0.57; however this value as limited prac. ‘teal signifieance. The maximum bending stres according tothe ee rmentary theory of beam flexure i 6P(R 0) = PRS "Eliminating load term P between the formula for horizontal displace iment and the above stress formula gives _ XBA(R 4a) Be (R 2a) or a = 0, which is the case of zero eccentricity, the above strat formala becomes Asc Symbols fer Chopter 6 Oftet, in, . ‘Width of rectangular section, in, Ee Modulus of elasticity, pi H Horizontal load, 1b a Fictitious horizontal loa, Ib A Depth of eose-setion, i, 1 ‘Moment of inertia, in. K, Ka. Ky Deflection coefcints for inplane londing on arcuate boame aM ‘Bending moment, in M, [Bxterally applied! bending couple hin, My ‘Bending moment due to uniforms load bin, Pp Vertical load, 1b P Fictitious vertical lon, Ib ns rer IGPLANE LOADING Uniform load, Ibn. Mean radius of curvature, in. ‘Bending sree, si Resultant deflection in Horizontal defection, in. ‘Vertical dfection, in. Section modulus, in Angle at which deflection is required, rad Angle st which load is applid, rad ‘Specifc weight of material bin? Auriliary angle, rad Angle at which forces are considered rad Angle subtended by curved member, radCHAPTER SEVEN Transversely Loaded Arcuate Members ‘Assumptions and Sign Convention "This chapter furnishes Joad-deflection relations for the folowing ‘aves: end lad, end twisting moment, and uniformly distributed load fcting normal to the plane of curvature ofthe bar. ‘The method of the derivation of the design formulas forthe transverse displacement, lope and angle of twist of bar eros-aection is demonstrated in some fetal, and the design curves are suitable for the preliminary engi- ‘neering calculations, (Ref. 22) "Asin the case of other curved members discussed in Chapter 6 the derived equations are valid within the elastic range ofthe material lind apply to relatively thin curved elements of uniform cross-section "The relevant sign convertion for a curved element loaded normal to the plane of curvature is iven in Fig. 7-1. All the bending and twisting morsents acting normal to this plane are denoted by vectors ‘sith double arrows, ‘The bending moments are considered positive Irnen they produce compression on the upper surface ofthe beam. The {twisting moment is reparded positive when feauses counterclockwise twist of the section as shown in the sketch Arcoate Member Under Out-o-Pone Loud Consider the displacement chersctaristice of the arcuate beam2 TRANSVERSELY LOADED ARCUATE MEMBERS on? a) ig. 1-4 ig omvnton for ranmralyIaded teats bane shown in Fig. 72. In order to calulate the displacements ata loc ‘to defined by angle a, measured from the free end of the beam, 2 sytem of two fetitious forces P and 7, x assumed to exist at that cn? “RANSVERSELY LOADED ARCUATE MEMBERS ® point, The resulting bending and twisting moments at the point A an be obtained from the considerations of statics and the goometry ofthe curved member. I is evident from ig. 7-2, that, thooretialy, tach of the forees, whether real or imaginary, contribute to the bend {ing and twisting moments. The elect ofthe fictitious twisting moment plied at angle a, can be obtained by reslving the vector, repre- senting the twisting moment Tinto the normal and tangential com ponents at A. It may be noted that this vector is tangential at the point of application of T, and is denoted, together with its components, by double azrows. Hence folowing the sign convention illsteated Fig. Tl, the bending and twisting moments become M=—PRaind—PRein(—) + Tasin (@—a)* (118) THPR (1— cond) + PRU cos ($—«)] + Tyco (0a) ca19) In equations (118) and (119) P and 7, ae titious quantities intro- ‘duce for mathematical reasons. Applying the principle of Cestiliano to the transverse displacement and the angle of twist forthe curve ‘bar shown in Pig. 7-2, yields Bp My, Bley at a2 ftw as 2 fr te am roa l Reta ee pie ae ne ene veloc et alt ae OM ‘Bquations (120) and (121) follow directly from the previously noted ‘Wqs. (53) and (58), The bending slope at any point of the curved member can be calculated withthe ad of Eq. (120), and the relation similar to Ea. (5). —avnde «22 ‘The partial differentiation of Bg. (118) and (119) with respect to the fcticious quantities gives aM, Mpa (0 128) iM — Rain (0— a) (a8) ar 2 Roos (a9 124 oF = Rit aim (a 89) a0 Mono a hein 25) rcrcbastapc arte raat etea TRANSVERSELY LOADED ARCUATE MENGERS cn? er Fam (126) It may be of interest to note that the limits of integration in Eas (120) and (221) are « and ¢ and not O and 4 as might have been ‘expected. The mathematical reason fortis i hat che partial deriva: tives in the intewval from 0 to must vanish since the fictitious lading P and T, dows not contribute to the bending and twisting moments ‘when #= a. This is quite evident from the diagram in Fig. 7-2 Introducing Bqs. (118), (119), (128) and (124) into Eq. (120), integrating and substituting the relevant limits fives the general ex. pression forthe displacement. Hence making the fictitious load equal to zero yields th formula for the defection due to the end load P. a os sn (24 — 0) Y= FE 105 (¢—«) cova + 0.5 sina — O25sin (24 — 0] PR + PE to.sina +-025sin 25a) +05 (6 —«) cosa $e sing sin (4 — 0) am Here 4 denotes the angle subtended by the curved member and a defines the angle at which th displacement is sour "The general expression forthe slope is found next by diferentiting ‘Bq, (127) with respect to « and substituting the result ia Eq. (122) ‘This procedure gives PR: A i: 6 = 2B 0.25 cos (24 — 0) 05 (9 ~a) sina ~ 025.083} PR: + BE feos (4 ~ 1) = 0.25.00 24 — 8) 05 (4 —«) sina +025 cos — 1} (228) ‘To obtain the angle of twist ofthe curved bar shown in Fig. 7-2, in accordance with sgn convention of Fig. 7-1, the formulas, Bas. (118) land (119) together with the partial derivatives, Eqs. (128) and (126) fre substituted in Bq. (121). Tntegrating Bq. (121) and negleting all ‘the tems involving T, yields PR 10.25 5in (24 — «) — 05 ($ —a) con — 0.25 n= FE 0assin (2p — 0) —05 (6 —a) cosa — 028. 4 DR + PE (eos (4 — a) 025 09 (24 —0) 05 (6a) sine +025 cosa— 11 (229) "The maximum bending and twisting moments forthe ealelation of stresses follow directly from Eqs. (118) and (118), and should be on? TRANSVERSELY LOADED ARCUATE MEMBERS as examined individually depending on the angle subtended by the ‘curved mersber “Arevalo Member Under Out OF Plane Couple Tn considering the displacements of the arcuate beam carrying twisting moment at the free end, ab shown in Fig. 7-2, the general Calculation procedure is simular to that outlined in the previous case lence resolving the vectors of the real and imaginary Cvisting mo- ‘ments into normal and tangential components at Ay (Fig. 73) a5 well {including the terms due to the imaginary load applied at «, the xpressions forthe bending and twisting components become M = —PRein (00) + Tysin(@—a) + Tasiné (130) = PRUt — cos (¢—«)} + Fyeos (6— 0) + Tacos (181) Fig 73, Arcuate beam under ot plane cule “The partial derivatives required for the solution of this problem are identical with thove given by Eqs. (123) through (126). Hence inro- flueing Ege. (130), (191), (123) and (124) into Eq. (120), integrat- {ng and making the fetitious load P equal to zero, gives vy = ER 925 sin (24 — a) — 0.5 (4 —«) c08 00.25 sina} EL TERE (ain g — 015 sin a — 025 in (25 — 0) + TE tings = 05 ($a) ens) (a2)is TRANSVERSELY LOADED ARCUATE MEMBERS ony "The gencral formula for slope can be found by differentiating Eq, (382) with respect to a and substituting thi derivative in 1ay =$ mis ietae R (0.25 e094 0.5 (6 ~a) sina ~ 0.25 e06 (24 — a} EL TR + BE 0.25 06 (26 — 0) +05 (4a) sina — 0.25 008 ul (33) ‘To calculate next the angle of twist ofthe bar shown in Fig. 7-8, Eqs (130), (191), (125) and (126) ate substituted in Bq, (121). Inte™ ating Ba. (124) and cancelling all the terms involving 7, yields n= TE fo2saina +05 0) oma —028sin 24 —2)) EE 005 (o— 0) cone 4025sin (2 — a) ~025 sina + BE 105 (6 — 1) cova +025 sn (24 — a) — 0.25 sn ul cass) ‘The maximum bending and twisting moments for stress calculations an be obtained from Eqs, (130) and (181) for esch particular ease ‘under consideration, ‘Arcuate Member Under Out. OF-Plane Uniform Loud {In order to develop the general displacement formulas for the case of uniform load, illustrated in Fig. 7-4, ii fist necosary to ealelate the bending and twisting momenta due to the uniforms load alone Consider a section at angle «=# and the elementary bending tnoment bout an arbitrary point 4. y= (ak 2, Eqs. (189) and (184) give negative results, Hence in these cases horizontal deflection due to P and veri cal deflection de to H! must be opposite to those shown in Fig 8-8. ‘Numerical Exel Design Problem 9: Arched cantilever beam, shown in Fi. 8.9 is subjected toa concentrated end load W, inclined 45 deg tothe hori ‘zontal axis. If the curved portion subtends the angle ¢ ~ 45 deg and ‘the ength to radius ratio k= 1, derive the formulas forthe maximumsma ARCHED AND CURVEDEND CANTIEVERS cha Fig 8. Arche cantilever uncer shew ed lat ‘bending stron and the resultant deflection. Assume rectangular erss- section ofthe beam with ® and h as width and depth, respectively. ‘Solution: "The load components in the vertical and horizontal sense ‘quivalent to skew load W are Pa viwe ‘The maximam bending moment follows from Eq, (143) where M, = 0,945 deg and h = are substituted. This gives M=—y2wR and tho corresponding bending stress M WR a4 WR Sao ane ‘The total vertical displacement is obtained by the algebraic aditon the daletions called from formulas Bas (149) and (162) WR (68 /— 96-4 1502 we AWRY (66. V2— 96+ 150 JB ae og (Sat aE) — 1000 ‘The total horizontal dispacoment follows from Bqa. (148) and (163) bby substitution ofthe speciied data and algebraic edition, = WR (sony 96 4242 wa xa WR (15 yP— 96-4 V2) yy WARE bee (SER EEN) m1 ‘Therefore the resultant displacement ofthe free end ofthe cantilever obtained by vectoral adation. 100 WR ‘SOE 11 the absolute value of the maximum bending stress is taken as = BE ieee pe Jae Viewer Fae cme [ARCHED AND CURVED-END CANTILEVERS ns ‘terion the above resultant displacement may be expressed as @ fameton of tess, giving the following useful formal: oes, AE In the above numerical work a slide rule was used and several num bers were rounded off The accuracy of the formulas derived inthis ay will be suficien for most practical purposes. ‘Design Problem 10: A tubular sted support member with » in. outer diameter and thickness of? ~ 0.25 ins made tothe shape and ‘imensions shown in Fg. 6-10 and caries a concentrated vertical loud P= 200, Assume that this member is fixed rigidly at ground level. we “Tuba carvend canlver1 ARCHED AND CURVED-END CANTILEVERS cn Calculate the magnitude and ditection of end displacement if the ‘modulus of elasticity B= 28 > 10° pai, ignoring tho effect of tube fattening due to bending ‘Solution: Displacement in the direction of lad is given by formula, Bq. (179) (0.7850) ‘Mean radius of the tubular cross-section ig r = 1.375 in, Straight length to radius ratio & = 60/15 — 4. Utilising the approximate for ‘mule for the moment of inertia and substituting the relevant numer Seal ¥alus, the above equation sielde PR x= PR a PE (h + 0.1854) 20> 18" (440.7851), BOX 10 x ax 1818" x 035 Displacement perpendicular to the direction of load application is found with the aid of formula, Bq. (178) 057 in PRE = PR sk 4054 y= FE (ose 40548) Hence ¥=00s7 OSE-£OS4§ _ 9951 125/48 =0.148%n (+ 07858) a ‘Tho rnutant displacement a= VEFYF= VOD F OT 0.6950, ‘The direction of the resultant displacement is given hy the tangent of the angle of inclination, 087/0.14 0.385 ‘The angle corecpanding to thie tangent is approximately 21 deg Design Problem 11: Curved-end cantilever with hall-crele bend ‘ustrated in Fig. 8-8 is subjected toa syste of ToreesH and. Find the ratio H/P such as to male vertical component of deletion dae {Hf and te bending moment due othe combined fect fH ond P equal to zero, ‘Solution: ‘The vertical displacement due to horiantal component cme [ARCHED AND CURVED.END CANTILEVERS us His given by formula, Eq, (184). For the condition of zero vertical isplacement ° HR HR (4) ook from which t= V2 ‘The bending moment at the base of the curved-end cantilovr follows from Ba (181) M=R (Hh 2) “Making this moment vanish atthe built-in end, and introducing & ‘V2; gives the required ratio P= VB Design Problem 12: A support bracket made of skuminsm inform ‘ofan arched cantilever, subtending 270 deg and dimensioned ss shown in Fig. 6-1, deflects vertically 02 inches under the working load P. Fig 8:11, Arched amilever appt bracket Celie he mana bending stro cate wth the spied Stet, ake = 1010p ‘Son’ Sime 9/18 25 and ~ 270 do, a own inthe state (48) samen PR (30.4815 ver (a) bheyt2 and b= 1Y= (G)CRY wos mae (68) oe So aniye! 10x10" Bes x DS ~ 854.94 1728 ‘The maximum bending moment for this structure is found at A equal toM =~ SPR Hence the corresponding bending tres ‘M__ PR __ 18PR Zoe Oe ‘Substituting the relevant numerical values gives Sib Deflection formula, Eq, (149) may be combined with the sbove strese formula in the following way. Let F (k,) represent « geometrical parameter. Then we have aes Bliminatin P between the stress nd lection formals gros j= __2YEA TP Ca) “This formu lis to cared cantilever for which 6/2 Symbol for Chapter * ‘Wide of etanglar ston in B Modula of antici, si Fis) Function hand (Ea 149) " orienta la Ib b Depth of eross-setion, in LR My Ma Me [ARCHED AND CURVEDIEND CANTHEVERS Ww “Moment of inertia, in. Straight length to radius ratio Length of straight portion, in Equivalent length in Bending moment, Ibsin, Externally applied bending couple, Ibi. Bending moments for various portions Ibn. ‘Vertical load, 1b ‘Meat radius of curvature, i. ‘Mean radius of tube in Bending stro, pi ‘Wal thickness, in Resultant deletion, in. Skew load, 1b Horizontal defection in Arbiteary distance, in ‘Vertical deflection in ‘Maximum defection of cantilever, i, Section modula, in? Angle at which forces are considered rad Angle subtended by eurved member, rad Slope, adCHAPTER NINE Complex Flat Springs* Assumptions mn the design of certain types of mechanical springs the engineer frequently deals with a complex-shaped fat spring with various com: Tinstions of straight and curved portions. A major portion of this chapter is devoted to detaled methods of analysis and the develop- tment of simple design equations which ean be applied to the variety tf comples-aheped flat springs, (Refs. 28 and 29), Tel be assured that all forces applied toa spring ae steady and are daivered to the structure without shock. The cross-sectional areas Stepring elements are constant and have an axis of symmetry. The position of the neutral suelace of the member coincides with the entra surface, The elastic rou isthe same for tension aswell ax ompresion, ‘The theory applies to small deflections only and the ‘method of superposition ie wld because of the linearity of the govern- ing relations between the load and deletion. This method is very tosefal inthis ease because it permits to reduce a complex load and ‘ppoet condition into a combination of simpler conditions ‘Three-quarter Crear Spring In various applications a precurved cantilever type lef spring can “Ban fi tr ver reid wih emi fm th Reith cesar 2 iol ius of Paver Beoremxa.120 COMPLEX FLAT SPRINGS ae ZONAL. CONSTRAINT "4 Fig 41 Thee quater cela pig te employed as longo sppoting eter, This ype of ern Sty ee ne treme enced at ‘cling in the pane of arate. Th deign poblen con a ofthe cleat of snr ad detections However many machine Slements suchas lea springs are designed pearly‘ the bess of thei laste deflection In thin dy’ therefore, mca attention Dald to defection although ste formulas ave elo ven. Let us now conser the fist example 2 eomper sping inthis (Ls +8) 8p i, La) _ SPR = BR ny 208) SPR in) t126 COMPLEX FLAT SPRINGS ne | a Fig 94, Uspring thor exteon When (Ls — Is) < (Ls +R) SPU +R) _ sPR oe ate) (205) ‘When Ls = Ly asymmetrical U-shape spring is obtained whose dflc- ‘om and maximum bending steess ean be computed from Eqs. (201) and (205), respectively. However when L, > L.in Fig 88, the spring ‘cannot be divided into symmetrical components and therfore it 15 necessary to analyze this structure in three separate stags a flows Pas AB M)=Px, Pat BC M,—P (1, +Rsiné) Part CD a») ane COMPLEX FLAT SPRINGS ww p19 a Pig 98. Caring, lng etesion Hence the total deflection under load P,sctng on a spring illustrated in Fig -8, can be derived from the following expression BLY. fo i a+ [ome BE wae fits Ma des 7? (208) Integration of this equation results in the equation for deflection (in this particular cae) idential with formal, Bq. (203).’The maximam bending sires for this type of spring is always given by Eq. (205) Drovided the condition L, = Z exat. The derivation methods dis: ‘cussed in relation tothe springs in Figs. 9-5 and 9-6 can be extended toa wide vatlety of compex-shaped springs. "The procedure shows the importance of the proliminary analysis of the distination of bending moment and the convenience of wblizing the Castiglanopriniple coupled with the method of superposition. Closed Uapring ‘The theory developed previously for arched cantilevers can be sp plied directly tothe closed U-spring shown in Fig. 9-7. However for fuch an equation as Eq. (149) to be applicable, the modifications tthich follow must be made, Let the component force Pact perpen- ticular to tbe straight portion Las shown in Fg. 87, Then P=Pemy eon FY, denotes displacement of loaded end A in the direction of P, andne COMPLEX FLAT SPRINGS ne YY the total change in the distance AB resulting from P then Y,=08¥ cosy (208) ‘The deflection caused by loa P, is obtained dvectly from Bq, (149) Introducing the modified notations gives Substituting Bqs. (207) and (208) into the above equation results in the fnal defection formula forthe closed U-spring 2PRP (hs) El y= (200) "Thus in this particular case the deletion under the load P is inde pendent of +. However when the maximum bending stress is con sidered, v appears in the relevant design formulas. For ¢ the expression for the maximum bending stress at 4” becomes 4y 5B reams) am ent 0), Ot arn hen Seremban eae 7 aE aan tte) ath When = Oand ¢ = =/2 then Ba, (211) reduces to Ba. (205) also, ae COMPLEX FLAT SPRINGS 19 1 desired, Bas, (210) and (211) cam be easily rearranged through the following substitutions: » — ¢ —x/2 and v ~ 7/2 — 6, respectively ‘The spring proportions limit» to-a value obtained from the geomet cal relation, k= cot» provided load P is ero For a specified deletion ¥ and 9 becomes E+ the imiing value Y=2R (conv — kein) cy ‘Equating formulas (208) and (212) gives EL 7 (cosy — bein) cara Fas ‘This equation giver the value of P at which the detected ends wil touch without exerting any pressure, This condition ean be accepted only if the corresponding bending stress given by Eq, (210), does not exceed the elastic limit of the materia "The total amount by which the free ends of the S-sping in Fig. 9-8 approach eachother under load P follows directly from Ea. (200) apes va ABE Pins) en130 COMPLEX FLAT SPRINGS ae Fig. 98 Shar bed cantilever ring ‘The maximum bending stresses can be computed frm Eqs. (210) and (21). Equations (212) and (213) ave also applicable Shorp-bond Springs ‘Where springs involve relatively long straight portions and sharp radi of curvature, such a illustrated in Fig. 0-9 and 0-10, the pre ‘ceding analysis must be applied cautiously. Sharp radii cause sees tuncentratios. There exists a considerable smount of design data on this particular aspect of structural behavior. As noted in Chapter 3 stress risers are charactvistc of elastic behavior, Plastic yielding reduces the effects of stzexs concentration, ao that the practical si cn COMPLEX FLAT SPRINGS ia nifcance of thi problem depends on circumstances. Ductile mate: Fal undor static loading is usually not sensitive to stess raisers. ‘The conditions involving fatigue also have considerable influence ‘on breaking strength in presence of various types of stress rises, dnd even ductility ean prove to be a poor measure of immunity #0 stress concentration ‘In the springs of Fig. 8-9 and 9-10 rather rapid stress variation is brought about by a curved beam effect of relatively small radius at the corners. Te init stress in a bear ofthis type are not divetly proportional tothe distance ofthe neutral axis Iocause the length of the elementary laments isnot identical. As a practical guide, as long ‘as the ratio of depth of section to inner radius ofthe filet isnot more than about 0.5 the approximate method of stres calculation should sield accoptale results for most design purposes. Also, in calculating ‘he defloctions, the ratios of straight length to radius of curvature are ‘usally quite large s0 that the effect of corner radii can be safely ‘ignored. ‘The cantilever spring in Fig 9-9 can be subdivided ito three portions, ¢ and d. The corresponding bending moment equations texprested in terms of load P are as follows My=— Pr (215) M=Pe (218) M=P(a—2) (21) "The total displacement ofthe loaded end ofthe spring inthe direction ofPis Bry= fm. it ty, iM aa ea (Pm Md fu ME ae 21) ‘This equation illustrates the general procedure tobe followed when the complex-shaped spring canbe subdivided into a numberof regions towhich particular bending moment relations apply. Because a and ‘ean be varied arbitrarily in this case the position and the magnitude fof the marimam bending stress can be determined by inspection, Introducing Bas. (215), (216) and (217) into Eq, (218), and inte- ating eves ate + 3atd— Sada) (218) ‘This equation is aplicable also to such cases where a= 0, a = © = 0, or 0 giving various design formulas forthe calculation Of che deflection,12 CCONPLEX FLAT SPRINGS cn When a frame-type leaf spring, Fig. 9-10, is loaded symmetrically, there must be a ze slope at F. The permits analysis of only one half ofthe structure, ad the bending moments become M.= Psi (220) M.= Pan 2) Me=P (+22 (222) "The derivation ean be earied out with th the following deflection formula of Ba, (218) giving E + date y= Eee tar tate (223) In developing Bq, (223), it was assumed that the comer radi were relatively stall and could be neglected. Tn more preci analysis loca tion of the masimurn lending stress ina fme-type spring should be determined with regard to possible stress concentrations at the cor ners, When the comer rad are suficenty large to be neglected the ‘maximum hending stress will occur at Funder normal sping propor- tions. However, in addition to the above considerations the question of elastic stability of the vertical sides © may arise ifthe horizontal portions « andl d are found to be relatively small Special Applications of USprings {in many design applications involving instroments and similar pre cision devices, « U-spring of a "double cantilever-cantilver” type shown in Fig. 9-11 is expecially useful This spring produces no torque ‘slong ancl perpendicular to the sx of displacement unlike most com pression helical springs. This characteristic eliminates fictional frees at gues and pivots and the Usspring may be sed ucoosefully a8 « tension or compression device, (Het. 28). "The derivation of the stress and deflection formulas for this type of spring may be accomplished either with the aid of Hooke prin ‘ple of elastic deformation o Castigliano theorem. The stricture is Fnsially statically indeterminate beeause the slope of the spring at the mount remains equal to zero whenever the spring is deflected, Because of the symmetry only one ha of the spring need be ana: Ize and the bending moment equations forthe sraght and curved portions are =M,—Px ey 1M, =M,— PR (i+ sin0) (225) ae COMPLEX FLAT SPRINGS 133 Fig 048, Uapring with onde ante le Here M; is statically indeterminate and the equation for deriving its value is f 1 A a+ 03 eR de =0 (226) subttuing = 2 ea = 1, together with Bq. (224) and (225) into Ba, (226) td inegeting yielde 42 _ = pr (ES?) 27 or om Introducing ¢ — 1/2 in Eqs. (149) and (165), substituting the above ‘expression for fixing moment M,, and applying the method of super ‘position gives the taal deflection of the U-spring PH (033K 4 2.0048 4° 4 8.148 228) Yor E314 ee) Nomerieal Examples Design Problem 1: The complex-shaped fat spring made of spring sod), Fi. 9-12 is employed at a eip, going over a machine member136 COMPLEX FLAT SPRINGS one by spreading apart the free ends. Calculate the maximum bending stress for a spring with the following requirements! ‘Mean radius of curvature R= 05: Stosight portion 2b 15s "Thickness of stock f= 0.040%, Detection of fee ends 2Y = o2in Modulus of elasticity E= 30x 10"pei Solution: The stress and deflection formal applicable to this case are given by Eqs. (188) and (200), respectively. Since the load acting ‘onthe spring isnot known, 4. (188) is reerranged Sibi 18R Introducing the above expression, and I ve the equation for maxim stress oe, eR TT By the definition, & = L/R = 0.75/0.5 = 15. Hencs ‘numerical data, the maximum bending stress 5 x 30x 10" x 0.040 0.1 0.25 (86 X15 -+ 19 x S:14) 25,300 pi Design Problom 14: A fat Spring consists of two hall-rcles and ‘artes a compression load P, Fig. 19. Calelate the required thick ness of stock such that the maximum bending szess wil not exceed ne /12, into Bq. (200) substituting the one COMPLEX FLAT SPRINGS 135 30,000 psi when the spring is deflected 0.3 in. Also determine the resisting foree at that deflection. Width of the material i 2 in, — Din. and B — 30. 10° ps, Solution: The deflection factor FH, $) from Ba. (149) and Ea, (211) together wth Bq, (214) can be employed. Here, ¢ = >/2 and =O give F (kg) = 4/4, Hence Bq. (214) becomes 125PR" ER "The maximum bending stress is found from Ba, (211) by substituting = Oand g = #/2. This gives PR y 5= oF ‘Thus there are two equations and two unknowns, To solve, rearrange the above equation Sb P= Substituting this expression in the deflection formula gives the re (quired thickness of stock 2x Bld x 6.25 x 80,000 03x 80x 10" A= 018 in ‘The corresponding compression load can be now found from the stress equation 2S, 0,000 >¢23¢ 0.131 eR 6x25 P=60m P136 COMPLEX FLAT SPRINGS ne Design Problem 16: The anchor type ste spring, Fig. 8-14, earros iP at ts free end, Calculate the downward displacement of the froc end, nu the maximum bending tres for Ue flloving dimensions ‘Mean radius of curvature Balin Stosight arm ba Qin, Width of stock b= 050 ‘Thickness of stock o.1in Modulus of elasticity B= 90 x 10¢psi ‘Concentrated load 15h Solution: Deflection of the curved portion slone is given by Ea (187). The straight portion ean be considered ass cantilever bea loaded with P and a bending couple Mf, = PE, a9 illustrated. ‘The slope atthe end reslting from che couples M, LB — PRL EI. The ‘detection resulting from Mf, inthe line of action of Pis then PRL PRL (+R) ‘The component deflection because of the cantilever effect lone is PL'SEI. Hence adding the three components ives PR (as , +B 404s) a ae CCOMPLEK FLAT SPRINGS 197 Integration of Castgliano equations, will lead to the same result. ‘The corresponding formule for the maximum bending stress follows Aiecty from the geometry ofthe spring opr +8) ST Where = 1) =2 Sobsttting the mumercl data ves 15028 ‘0x HP x05 10 pitoxinxe pre Os x O0h cance Te is assumed that no sever strost ruse is present inthis spring at ‘the junetion ofthe curved and straight portions. ‘Design Problem 16: A fat, mechanical spring is made of steel and formed in U-shape as shown in Fig. 9-15. Ifthe modulus of elasticity Ps F =30 x 10° psi caleulate the derease in distance between the free ‘ends under concentrated end load. P— 5 1b. The ratio of straight Tength 1 tothe radius of curvature # isk = 8,'The remaining dimen slons are given in Fig. 9416. Solution: "The expression for vertical defection of one-half of the spring is given by Ea. (151). For # = 3 the approximate formula for this cage become y. uP _ se (2) EL ve Va)138 COMPLEX FLAT SPRINGS one Substituting the known values for PR, b, hand E gives 3005 x 8 5x 30x 107 Sinoe the structure is symmetrical, the total decease in distance be ‘seen the free ends is 2Y — 0.122 in Design Prables 17: A double cantilever — cantilever type U-spring ‘used in experimental analysis Joded symmetrically as shown in Fig. ‘9-16, The material is alumina with E— 10 > 10° and the sping, made of fat stock, hs the fllowing nominal dimensions y. 0.061 in, Ladin, R= Tin b= 025in, A= 0128in, Assuming that the slope of the spring at the point of application of the extemal loading remains equal to zero forall elastic daflctons calculate the theoretical spring rate ofthe device. Estimate the masi- ‘mum bending stress and the corresponding total compression of the Usspring lf the extemal load is P — 10 Ib. ne CCOMPLEK FLAT SPRINGS 139 Solution: By definition, spring rat is obtained by dividing the Lond carried by the spring into the deflection produced by this load. Hence utilizing formula, Eq. (228) ives PB EL (4k-+ 2) ¥ ~ We OGR 52008 + 4B 5 wh} 088) Since 0.25 x 0.125" = 225X025" _ 699 5c 10-¥ins 2 ~ and = 3, tho required rato becomes PY =stIbjin, Hence the defection is po yo2 - 8 Lousin, memes "Tho masimum bending moment forthe case follows from Eq, (227) PR (24 xk 4.18) paar 12 +axsa4 +9) fn sau 112 and the corresponding bending stress is MSM 6x12 sen9 pt Sa oP = oe = Osx Oe Symbols for hepa ie ene in 3 ‘Width of etanglar section, in B Modulus of atc, s F (i) Fonction of hand, (Ea. 149) a Depth of rosecton, in 1 Moment of nr, in* z Stag nat a radvnato TyLinly Straight lengths in,140 7 M, M, Ma MaMa My Mo Ma P PB R ES y Yaw, Yao zZ ‘COMPLEX FLAT SPRINGS Bending moment, bin Fixing moment, Ivin, Externally applied bending couple Ib-in, Bending moments in U-springs, >in Bending moments in sharp-bend springs, bin. Aviary length to radius ratio. ‘Vertical los Ib Component of vertical oad, 1b ‘Mean radius of curvature, Bending sees, si Arbitrary dltances, in ‘Vertical defection, in Components of vertical defection, in, Section modulus, in? Hiallangle in snap ring, rad [Angle at which fores are considered, rad Angle subtended by curved member, rad Ausiliary angle in U-springs, rad Design of Thin Rings Loaded in Plane of Curvature Assumptions "The analysis of thin circular sing is of importance in the design of machines and structures encountered in practically all branches of industry. The basic assumptions usually made inthe calculations in- clade the fllowing 1 Ring ermeaetion i uniform 2. Raila! depth of cros-section is small in comparison with the mean radius of curvature. Ring is considered to he thin when the ip of outer to ier ring diameter i not more than about 1.1 3. The strains are elastic 4 Deflections ate smal so thatthe ing dows not lose the initially ‘ireular ape wen loaded 5, External loads develop gradually so that no kinetic energy is supplied to the ring 6, Theelfect of rtrain enersy caused by bending is predominant. "The eontinaous elastic ring i esentally a statically indeterminate structure This means thatthe anual conditions of static equilibrium insuficent to calculate the reactive forces and! moments and itis fhecenary to supplement these conditions with the equations of elastic ‘formation. Hence in order to estimate the strength and rigidity Characteristics of closed ring the classical statically indeterminate ‘problem must be solved fist.142 THIN RINGS LOADED IN PLANE OF CURVATURE ch. 10, ig 104 -Thin rng in compeesion Thin Ring Theory ‘Consider thin elastic ing subject to diametrl tension and com- pression as shown in Fig 10-1. In order to obtain the expression for the bending moment in terms of statically independent forces Pad FL one quadrant Fig. 10-2, may be singled out forthe purpose of the discussion. For the convenience of the complate ana¥si, involving vertical and horizontal deflections, the sing s+ assumed to be lose bby a system of fores, P and H. Rither of these forces can be regarded ™, (Ch 10. THIN RINGS LOADED IN PLANE OF CURVATURE 149, 5 vol, or Setitious depending on specie requirements. Fr instance in considering the ring to be compressed along the vertical diameter the corresponding inerease in the horizontal diameter can be cale- lated withthe ad ofthe fittious load method and the fist theorem of Castilian. In this caso H is regarded as a fctitious quantity and denotes real external loading. One quadrant ofthe rng shown in Fig 10-2, rains in equilibrium under the system of forces P/2, H/2 and M,. "The verial and hot Zonta load component follow from the conditions of symmetry at ‘auilbrium. The fixing couple, M,,is however statically indeterminate fsnd must be found frst before the relevant bendy moment equation, tan arbitrary angle canbe defined in terms of compresive lading ‘The guneral expresion for the ending moment, involving real loading. a= 2B (1 — cone) —M* (229) ‘Obcorving that there cannot be any’ rotation of the ring eros-section at the point ofthe application of the fixing couple, the second theorem ‘of Castiliano states that the partial derivative of the total strain energy of the ring with respect to the fixing couple must be zero, Since in e thin ring the contribution of ending strain energy pe: dominates, we can write aU AR py aM ay a ar Lar e=0 (230) From Bq, (228), aM/@M, = —1. Hence, substituting forthe partial Aerivative and the bending moment in Ea, (220), gives My PR (ey) = Introducing Bq, (231) into Eq. (229), yields (2—x0080) (232) ‘The maximum bending moment i found from Ba. (232) when 6 — 2/2 substituted. Ths gives M — PR/x. Positive sgn indieates here that the bending moment at the point of appliation of load P puts the ‘outer surface of the ring in compression in accordance with previously ished convention. rotons in Mpa en ad Pega te144 THIN. RINGS LOADED IN| LANE OF CURVATURE Ch. 10 Once the bending moment is expressed in terms of statically inde- pendent force P, at shown by Bi. (252), the decease in vertical diam ‘ter of the ring flows from Bq. (61), "This yields ARP . a 23 aS as Note that the above integration in effect, extendod over the entire ring. Since from Ea. (282), ¢M/aP — R (2 608 )/2, making the hecessity substitutions and integrating Eq (238), gives PRY (92 —8) ® “The sbove formula is wellknown to designers, The numerical results ‘obtained from this formula are sufiiently accurate provided the mean, {dius of ring R, is large in comparison with the radial thickness of the ring. In order to determine the incraso ofthe horizontal diam- ster, reciting from compression along the vertical diameter, se is ‘nade of the ftitious lon! method. The bending moment equation ix y (238) a= EE (2 noone) + BB sine (235) estar Sa te tse ee ARP Mt fhe SE as (238) However in thi case Mi gven by Ha, (235, instead of Ea 222), tnd the relevant partial derivative, aM/aHt =A-xin 6, Solving Ea, (206) and remembering that the titious load His nally made equal toro, gives xo th _ PRE Was) EL te It may be of interest to note here that the ratio of vertical to hor- ‘zontal defection in his cae a greater than one, and is equal to ¥/X (it — 8)/(8 2s) ~ 10803. Ako, making the bending given by Bq, (252), equal to zero, we find that the moment changes its sign at about #= 5045 dog 1nd Diet Stross Eos on Thin Rings ‘The question sometimes is asked what error is actually introduced in the analysis of thin rings by ignoring the effects of strain energy esr) ch 10 THIN RINGS LOADED IN PLANE OF CURVATURE 14S due to shear and direct compressive force. ‘To analyze this consider the general expresion for the total elastic strain energy, Eq. (48) Since we are dealing with relatively thin rings the neutral ais can be ‘assumed to coincide with the central axis and the shear stress may be {aken to bo uniformly distributed over the ring cros-section. Hence Eq. (46) can be simplified to read Sl lesr + ais + ata] 2 ae By analogy to Ba. (49), the relevant expressions for the delctions ‘on vertical and horizontal diameters ofthe ing become raft ee ee la In order to derive more exact formulas for deletions the normal and shear forces at an arbitrary section #, are considered, The relevant fxpressions can include the real and fictitious quantities simultane- ‘ously. This gives Peon Heino va Pome _ He ay and 22) elizing Bq. (235), and Eqs. (238) through (242) the vertical and horizontal deflections become PR (st), PRx 269) BD ie t MAE ‘a y PRG— 2) PR PR EL 2A * AG In order to evaluate the contribution of bending, direct and shear146 THIN RINGS LOADED IN PLANE OF CURVATURE Ch 10 stress to deflection take for instance G = 0.84E, A = bh, T= bn/12 and the ratio y = R/> This yields v= Pe armwey +om+200y ay ont x= PE (6002 — 0.5000 + 1.3020) (246) 1 the value of x = 10, is substituted inthe above eauations the per ‘centage contribution of various streses can be calculated diecly ‘The results of thete cleulations are summarized in Table 10-1 Teble 10:1. Porantage Stee Contribution in Thin Rings Bending | Direct | Shear Stes’ | Sues | Stres Vertical Detection esas | 4048 | has Horizontal Detection | +9951 | —o30 | 40.70 Dividing Bq (245) into Bg (246), giver also yx = 1856 y" 4 2.8907 1.889217 + 0.8020 {eis evident that fora eeatvely large value fy, the above expression ives 1.0803. For; ~ 10, weet ¥/X— 1.1012 ‘The results illustrated in Table 1-1, indicate clearly that for rela: tively thin rings the elects of direct and thear strates om defections ‘can he safely ignored. Such a simplification results in sizeable reduc tion of the amount of mathematical work normally associated with the development of working design formulas. Ring Under Off! Loading In performing the analysis of « thin cicular ring subjected to a Aiametral compression it was admissible to analyze only one querter ‘ofthe ring because of complete symmetry af deformation about tie two perpendicular axes. Tho case ofa continuous eitalar ring carry ing any two opposite and localized bending couples should be com sidered as having only one axis of symmetry. To illustrate an approeeh 1 the caleulaion of bending moment for such members consider 8 ch 10 THIN RINGS LOADED IN PLANE OF CURVATURE 147, ring under diametrically opposed bending couples as shown in Fis 105. ‘Asin all the cases involving close rings we have to deal ere with a Maticaly indeterminate member. In order to simplily the calula- ‘Sons the coupes are assumed to act atthe end of a diameter. Hom fever the reasoning developed in this special case applies also to all ‘ther eases involving opposite coupes acting at the ends of a chord ‘Since the deformed shape ofthe vin, illustrated in Fig. 10-3, can be symmetrical only about the vereal diameter, the ving may be con sidered as consisting of two semi-circular members, fxed. st the top and held in equilibrium by the horizontal foreas H, fixing moment M, Fig. 10 Thin ing under opps eng coupler sand the externally applied ending couple M,. By analogy to straight beams, known from the elementary strength of materials, we conclade that there must be to expressions for the bending moment appli cable in the ranges O'= y= w/2 and 3/2 == 0 = = Denoting these bending moments by M, and M., respectively, gives My = HR (1 — e086) 4M, en and Mz-=HR (1 coo) +My — MM, (248) Since both Hand M, are considered here to be statialy indeteri nate quantities, we may cal on the second theorem of Castigliano, fxpreiting zero bending slope and vero tangential displacement at (0. "The corresponding equations are ht, doy fae ee (219)ui THIN RINGS LOADED IN PLANE OF CURVATURE ch, 10, aM, [in Se des Me (250) Note that in Eqs. (249) and (250) the terms refering to flexural Figidity and radius of the ring can be cancelled because they are ‘Smply maltipied by zero. ‘Tho required partial derivatives fllow directly from Eas. (247) and (248) eM, _ aay 2M 2B (cone) 51) and aM, _ a ea ean (282 Combining Eqs. (247) Urough (252), performing integration and substituting the relevant Limits gies the redundant reactions, H ad ‘Min terms of the applied extemal couple Mf. Ha 2MaR and My=— (42) Mya ‘Substituting the above values into Eqs (247) and (248), yields 2 — Bont) a 259 (254) ‘Equations (253) and (254) can be used in the calculation of bending strength of a thin ring subjected to diametrically opposed couples ‘The usual elementary formula, Eq. (8) can be employed here with ing with Horizontal Constraint, ‘An intresting case ofa horizontally constrained circular ring sub- jected to tensile loning is shown in Fig. 10-4. In order to evaluate {heelet of constraint on the bending strength of such a curved mtn bet, consider one quadrant of the ring fixed at the top and held in ‘equilibrium by a statically determinate reaction P/2, together with the two redundant reactions H and M, The thrust His caused by (Ch 10 THIN RINGS LOADED IN PLANE OF CURVATURE 149 P ig. 104 ‘Thin sing with ort ont the presence of the horizontal member which in this particular case wil be assumed to be absolutely rig ‘in accordance with Fig. 10-4 and previously established sign con- vention, the bending moment at an arbitrary section defined by 6 is waHRsine~ PB (1 —coss)— mM, (259) Since the horizontal displacement and angular rotation of the ring, Section ancent tothe rigid horizontal member, are zero the following Castgtano equations apply aM Mano 238) Siar and : “Mayo asm) eM ae '150 THIN RINGS LOADED IN PLANE OF CURVATURE Ch 10, Substituting the above derivatives and the bending moment, Eq. (255) into Eqs. (258) and (257), integrating and evalvating the lim its of integration, yields the following simultaneous equations ARH —4M,—PR= (238) ARH + 2a, + (x— 2) PR=0 (259) Solving Bqs. (258 and (259) for H and M, gives nap tt==) 8) (280) = pp 44 2e—) a= pr tae enn ‘The above formulas for the redundant reactions, derived forthe ease ilustated in Fig. 10-4, are of special interest hocsuse their numerical values are the samme as those which wil be found later in the analysis of built-in semicireular arch with a central concentrated load. Tt follows then that each half of the ing with a rigid horizontal con- straining member will have the stme streses and deflections as those found ina semicircular arch with hullt-in supports: ing Under Redo! Loading ‘The special case of «closed rng with symmetrical radial loading is shown in Fig. 105. Assume that the ring i held riily at the top Jacket which resists two radial loads, I ow the ting is eut at ¢ — 0 (Ch 10TH RINGS LOADED IN PLANE OF CURVATURE 151 redundant forces H and M; must be added at that section to assure ‘quiibrium, Because of symametry there is no rotation of the section fat the bottom ofthe ring and no tangential displacement atthe point ‘of application of H. The redundant quantities Hf and M, are unknown. In order to determine their values Castigliano's second theorem applied as before. The bending moment expresions areas follows My =M,— HR (1 — eos) (82) and My=M,— HR (1 — 0258) + WRsin (@—9) (263) "The Castgliano equetions applicable to this case are essentially the samme as Eqs, (249) and (250) with the exception of limits of inte {ration which should now be Oto Band f ton. The partial derivatives hevessery for the solution of Eqs. (249) and (280) are esentally those given by Eqs. (251) and (252), Note however thet the sign of AM/aH and #M./0H is opposite because of the difference in sgn for H in Eqs. (247) and (262). Therlore the Castgiano equations ‘written in fl for this eac give [lute a cmt ~ os 8)] d6 + J UR (1 — e009? — Bf, A cos #) — WR (sin 086 ~ co sin) (1 — exes) 1a¢ =0 (264) and fom He 1 —cosonndes fiat, HR (1 — cos) + WR (sin 8 cos — cos sin) (285) [Noting that some of the functions in the above equations remain un- changed for any value of as evident from Fig. 10-5, equations (264) ‘and (265) may’ be simplified by combining certain limits of integra ‘ion. This yields [228 (= coo) — 38 (8 — on 91 ds ffi" sia8 cos 8 — cos bin) (1 — cos 991 do f (288)152 THIN RINGS LOADED IN PLANE OF CURVATURE Ch 10, ond fines (1 coe0y1 a+ fiw (in 9 c08p — cos sn) d0=0 . . (287) Integrating Ens, (266) and (267) betwoen the limits indicated and slmplying the tsigonometrc functions involved, ives ‘3eHiR — 24M, — WR 2 +208 8-+ (x—8) sini] =0 (268) AHR 42M, + WR (1+ 0088) =0 (280) Hence, solving Eqs. (268) and (288) for H and M, yields the desired redundant quantities a= (270) and M2 te psing— (emo) Note hat when = 0, Bas (20) and (211 gH = 0 and <2: WR. This value is esontally tho samo'as that ven by Ba, (232), for = 3/2, provided W— P/2 Piston Type Rings {In some cases a piston type ing of uniform cross-section, Fig. 10-6, may be applied in machine design. If ¥ denotes the intial gap in the "ing at q'~ 0, the load per nit length g, necessary to close the gap ‘may be calculated in the following manner. Consider an ausliary Angle smaller than 8. The elementary bending moment taken about ‘point defined by sis dM, — qltde >. sin (8 —«). Hence the total, ‘bending moment i ak fin @—0) ae Introducing fettious load P, the bending moment equation becomes M=gR* (1 con) + PR (1 ~ con 6) ery Castglano principles applied tothe model shown in Fig. 10:8, gives aR (1 — cos) am pry aM vat fin Mw en) (Ch 10 THIN AINGS LOADED IN PLANE OF CURVATURE 159, Substituting Bq, (272), and #M/3P ~ B (1 — cos 8, into Ba. (273), land integrating between the limits indicated, yields SagR! EL ‘Since many’ rings in practice have rectangular crow-sections, substi tuting Bg. (7) for J, in Eq. (274), and solving for 9, gives, YEbne ‘360k When # = x, the maximum bending moment follows trom Eq, (272), y em a er) for P = 0. The coresponding bending stress 12aR* s. om (6) In the above equations, q is expresed in pounds per inch of circum ference. If this unit load is divided by te width of the ring cro section, extemal pressure in pounds per square inch i obtained, ‘When the ring shown in Fig. 10-6, has varying cros>section the ‘maximum bending stress at an arbitrary cross-aection is 6.aR? (1 — cone) Ss, a em154 THIN RINGS LOADED IN RANE OF CURVATURE Ch. 10 At ¢= x, Ba. (277) reduces to Bq. (278). For a ted value of the ‘working stro= S, extomal load g, and width ofthe sing b, Bq. (277) ves cost) qo=aa 8 cs ae Iti therefore posible to sect such values of ring thickness as funtion oft for which the external presure and the bending stress wil remain constant. Tn the design of pinto rings thie wl ase a tnform pressure foning against the inner wal ofthe cylinder. azran y/o Retetng Ring ‘When a closed circular rng is rotating in its plane of curvature the analysis of stresses may be made by considering the diagram shown in Fig. 10-7 At the horizontal diameter opposite and eal in mage tude intemal force P, hold the sper and lower portions of the Ting together. 1f uniform radial load, vepresents the centsfugal force pet unit longth of ving periphery, the force corresponding to the Ting ‘loment i, i gfe. The horizontal component of this foree is bale ‘anced by a similary situated component on the opposite side of the yy ans because of symmetry. However the sum ofall vertical com ponents produce tensile stresses att sections of the ring. This sum Js given bythe following camentary equation of equi ig. 107 Rotating rng in pane of cuvatare (Ch 10 THIN RINGS LOADED IN RANE OF CURVATURE 155 ich gives Pak (279) Thc rac tnt stv tn, Yr igh ty fe ascmratete Aco esata Sete ep ele Oe arf Seat is Sato SETS OA ae ae oe ie hl) thE eras Fa we s est) 2 ‘This simple formula defines the tensile stress in a rotating ring. The specific weight of a metal y, soften given in Ib/in When this othe ‘aso it shouldbe remembered to express V inthe shove equation, in Insee, and put g = 386.4 in/se!. When this is dono Eq. (281), will Yield stress in psi. The above quoted formulas apply to relatively thin ings and the tensile strens cated by Uhe centrifugal loading ie assumed to be uniformly distributed over the ving cross-section, Simplified Tables and chars fr Cireslr Rin ‘The preceding discusion of thin elastic rings indicates tht even in tho elomentary cases of loading and support the calculations may be time consuming, The solutions involve usually numerous trgono- metric term and the problem is complicated further by the static Indetarminacy.A comprehensive study of circular rings hasbeen made bby Biezeno and Grammol (Ref. 27) to which the reader with broader theoretical interests is referned. "This section brings forth tables and charts for more common cases of cireular rings loaded in plane of curvature. This information has ‘een extracted from the published data (Ret. 2) and concerns radial deflection, bending slope and bending moment at an arbitrary ring ‘ronssection. Tho type of loading analyzed includes concentrated ‘extemal loads, extamal bending couples cosine load dstibation anc ‘combinations thereot. Symbols u, and Mf refer to deflection, slope, and bending moment, respectively, The corresponding design factors fare danoted by K,. K, and Ky. The design equations are given in ‘Table 10-2 through 10-11. These equations are ius in Figs. 10-3 through 10-17,156 THIN RINGS LOADED IN PLANE OF CURVATURE Ch. 10 Oh 10 THN ANOS LOADED mune OF cur 7 Tale 108 ptr Cr Rg a Te p13 r Tenge of (Ot om Symbol Function ern A ‘] eu, i | Omoamer (set ommend | Oma Ea " city wbtky Fe 10328000 03027) an nal volt MERI, [asain Oates oes . oo a +] : = [ - a : al 7 eS -aooa | k Fy ood WY ee I I c 2 be "8 we) "a (eee) (tn pr, ‘Fig 10.9. Dosign factors for circular ring in four way tonsion, Table 10-3. 2 "ET Mu 8-02 Ps e é w Bry MPRA i -od i Zz e 30895 BO a o teen) ee rg i ro en nt 10 tins Chr nr Way een 0 : oe, Range of -ol pre, fyaba Fanti ae i vty K [OHO F Ones Oe aaa — 0.2800 4) cos #— 0.6366 - RK Re [ bas b= aha ORT [Oa fo TL ine) 08 a ©, Ges "™ |°0.500 (sin @— cos 8) — 0.6886 Euend ‘Fig 10-10, Desien factor for crcaay, rng in two way tension and compremion,158 THIN RINGS LOADED IN LANE OF CURVATURE Ch. 10 ble 10-4. Equations for Cicslar Ring in Two Way Tension and “compresion, Fg 1010) Range of Symbol Punction L_avoleation ch 10 THN RINGS LOADED PR, IN PLANE OF CURVATURE 159 id pre, un ERK, pay MePRKY 1 K | O50 pan (er z Ly OBB ce owe ee Ky Ke 02800 (1.508) sind Oa? | —O— WB he 1, [5000 inde = 32 I 1.500 (in cont) won Bete ce SS [at Table 10-5. Equation fr Ciesla Rng Under Praia Foret, Fg, 10-1 Factors KK 25 30-80-80 BO Taneat Somba Fneton ae 0. ten) iia aes ar Yc 11-Dec eaa ing ne eal Ti 15 K, | 07500sin 0.6000 (1.5708 —@) cond | w/4— Balt ae oaeEF 8 me Laentane =a a TO (9 TAR) aint FOB —| w= BU 7 ~aness Tat ke [aie 09 i aa faa Foi Factor Tele 106 evo fe Cele ig dr Domeriy Seal cin Banas o: t sya Panetion foo : 7 K,_| oso ~0aiet vane —oniécwe | 0—wt I Ke | Osea —03t88 pcm =A 3. BO Ky | 2:5000 = 0.6366 con | 0- x72 ©, (deg) 0.5000 — 0.6966 00s # "aa Fig. 10-12. Pactors for cireular ring 2 ©, (de) der ameticlly oppo couples, ‘Tobie 108140 TWH RNGS LOADED I PLANE OF CURVATURE ch. 10 ch 10 THN RINGS LOADED IN PLANE OF CURVATURE 161 2 ‘Table 10-7. Equations for Cielor Ring Under Four Couples, Fig. 10-13, MA ZBBRMy wel, TY Rage of ° ° z a = [eae yeti, x, [LaOatiteaine—1onmtewe |= KY O07 int — 04502 tind — O3EIT cond | WA BW +06 Meee [eatin 0atea rem | Oma a O07 coed = B85 in —OAOET we WA BE 7 = 100008 oe € Toa ? Ky [= 09008 ese Waa alt A & = 1+ 0.9008 cos 6 ‘ant * 9 - § Ku He fi eee doe YH ang ae Wo | Rana ,.ca % Symbol Puncion AE in ee Ke | = 0.1111 cos 20 O-x * “ . - ‘Ky | 0.2222 sin 26 Rk Meg A ‘Ku | 0.3333 cos 24 ade nl Ba 2 [TT f Table 109, Eqns for Cr fing Un Cane 20) : (big oi tet Py Zl 2-020 My = Tange ot iS Aas aa oo Soro | Tipsygeer wt -aORe ee | Ona 20 “6 ic £ -o10| Taina agar Fees 3 [ dsq,cos20 aia on etd -o20] t (DarW6 — 02000) sind £00008 ¢coxd | —O— HE 030 Ky (0.2500 ¢ — 0.4055) ain # + (0.1250 aa 0.0398 6) cos 6 — a 70 ae (0.3183 6 sin @ + 0.2387 cos # — 0.3618 0-5/2 ne “19.5000. (0.0796 cos ¢ — 0.3618 ‘ig. 10-14 Desien facto for cous ring under four way cine led162 THIN RINGS LOADED IN PLANE OF CURVATURE ch. 10, Factors 306 BO 18 180 2 6, es) ig. 1015. Dna fcor for scala ng under coin lading an tile ee, Fox0f- 5 ,00s-k, of 008) -019) le Factors K 380 BS 7, ©, be Pig 1038, Daan ato fel decoding with > Ch 10 THIN RINGS LOADED IN PLANE OF CURVATURE 162, Table 1010, Equation for Creslor Ring Under Cosine Loading ish Two, Tongetie Reecton, Age 10:16 Tange of Symbal Punetion Apion DaeTOasine + (5082 —01502A) ome | O—a/2 pe 0.07969 02500) sind} ONBBT cose | 5/3 —= {oer | liso O38iR) an OTIC | OE i * [0.0115 sin # + (0.0796 9 — 0.2500) cos # a2—= “ey LBBB in ORES cs — 0.9058 0 [01502 cos 6 + 0.0047 w/2—x Teble 10:1, Equton for Ciclr Rig Under Cte Leotng aioe be Recon ng. Renee ot Symbol Funetion applstion ! ‘R09 cos + 03807 vsin@— 0.125 Famed] 0—x/2 ‘ane x, | 5808 + 009019 sina + RTOS awe | Calas) cove 48 Googe — 04214 sind — OATS oo | aaa os Wun25# —0B6ii) nop OIUMTIcd | O—we ! (G38859— 0888) sino (OORT | w/2— Sah i, Ke | +0.1768) cos # ie Ta0ER sing (0008 OHTA) cmd | aE {14501 in OSTA con ¢— 0.6019 o=n2 Ky [D7OTLaing O06 cond CDK (a= ak = 0329 cor 0.6019 (sa Nomericel eomples Design Problem 18: Find the ultimate load capacity and deflection fof a proving ring shown in Fig, 10-18, suming yield strength 8, — 100,000 psi andthe modulus a elasticity # — 28.5 X10" pa.164 THIN RINGS LOADED IN PLANE OF CURVATURE Ch. 10, Ky and hy L010} MePRKyy 3080, 30 RO SO Teo 2, ay BO i. 1017, Dag factors for cea ing ur cosine landing with two radi See RT Pi. 1018 Proving sine Solition: "The maximum bending moment may be found rom Table 1022, or desi curve in Fig. 10-8, for # = 0. The same result is ‘obtained also from Eq. (252), volding M = PR/x. In pare bending, ‘Eq. (8), the stres is S, = M/Z. Since for the rectangular section (Ch 10. THIN-RINGS LOADED IN PLANE OF CURVATURE 165 2= 08/6, woot ePR 5-8 from whieh p— 2008S, oR ‘Substituting I = b4*/12in deletion formula, Eq, (284), gives y— SPR Ge—8) EOI ‘Substituting for P, in the above forma, yields (2-8) 88 - ER enc introducing the merc! data, ives y= = 8) 100000 x 45 = BS XOX Y= 0686, “The corresponding ultimate lad ia axa 1x10 x45 22,3001 Design Problem 18: A machine fame i mspported tangentially at two points as chown in ip 10-19 and caries avaiable redial Loading dutnted over one ball of the creumference scoring to cosine io. Ifthe mean fame radia 16 Inches and the frame has © fectangla comrsecton meamorng 40.5 inches, cleulte radial Acection and the corponding bending tress at che Bottom of tho tae, asuing that each tangential oad P= 2000 Ti, and E = 90 xi" pt ‘Solution: Momento inertia 1 P= bm _ 4xos 2 Radial deflection at the bottom of the ring ner int sven in Fig. 10-16, as }, Table 10-10 gives 0.0929, Hence 200015" BOX 10" x 0.0817 0.0829 ATT inches166 THIN RINGS LOADED IN PLANE OF CURVATURE Ch 10 "The bending moment is found from Fig, 10-16 and Table 10-10 a8 follows M=PRKw for #= 0, Table 10410 yields Ky = 0.7958 — 0.9053 = — 0.1005, ‘Then M 000% 15 x (0.1005) — 3285 bin, ‘Therefore the bending stress root COREE 19,700 pei furtace is P= tenon) Design Problem 20: 4 support bracket male in form ofa circl frame with rigid trunnions along the horizontal diameter, caries vertical loading the distribution of which may be approximated by ‘cosine function as shown in Fig. 1020. Caleulate the net change n vertical ring diameter and the angle of slope of tgid trunnions due to frame deformation sexuming that the maximum unit load at the bottom of the frame ie 200 Ibn. Take the modulis of elasticity B30 x 10°. Solution: ‘This ease can be solved by the method of superposition, combining the solutions depicted in Fig 10-12 and 10-16, According to Fig. 10-12, there is zero net change in vertical diameter under the 8, = —9285 x 025/001 (Ch 10. THIN RINGS LOADED IN PLANE OF CURVATURE 167, action of two diametrically opposed bending couples. The radial de ‘ection frm Big. 10-188 ‘The design curve for Ky indicates that the values at ¢ = 0 and at 180 deg are ofthe same sign. From Table 10-1, K, = 09982 — 0.9058 = 0.0328 and 0.0681 + 0.0947 = 0.0266 ste 180 once the total design factor K, = 00329 + 0.0268 ‘Acconding t Fig. 10-16, g0 of P, can be now caleulated aRgn _ 2X 10% 200 4 4 P=1570 Ibe P.168 THIN RINGS LOADED IN PLANE OF CURVATURE Ch. 10 ‘The moment of inertia I ~ 3 x 0.84/12 = 0.128 int Hence the ve aquired net change in vertical diameter ix 1570 x 10° x 00585, 30 x10" 0.128, = 00248. ‘The slope at the attachment point of the trunnion, # — 90 dog, ix ‘made up of two components. Die to ost of reactions P, Fg. 10-20, the ring becomes pear-shaped under load, developing a flatter shape in the lower part ofthe ring. thereby cning the tangent to the mean circle at # — 90 deg to rotate counterclockwise, The elect of cosine Toading sion, supported as shown in Fig. 10-16, i to develop simi pearshaped configuration with Matter portion ofthe ring at the top, thereby causing the tangent to rotate clockwise, Henoe to get net angle of slope for the trunnions the value of Ky should be taken ax the algebraic diferonce of the cate illustrated in Figs, 10-12 and 1016, [Negative rotation (Table 10-6.) Ky = —0.502 oa Positive rotation (Table 10-10.) Ky = +0.0115 Oana Hence the net angle of rotation is given by the following: PR: 4 1599 MR y=oon5 2 _ 0.1502 a In the case of Fig, 10-20, M, = 9 > 1870 = 4710 Ilsin, Therefore substituting th relevant numerical daa gives 0.0115 x 1570 x 10% 0.1592 x 4710 10 0x 108 0.188” 30x 10° 0.128 (0.0015 rad (counterclockwise rotation) ¥ ‘Symbols for Chapter 10 A Area of eros-soction, n> 5 ‘Width of reetangular section in B ‘Modulus of elasticity, ps @ ‘Modulus of rst, ps ch 0 # A 1 Ke x, K, a M, M, My My Me Na ME gcE CB ass Ove THIN RINGS LOADED IN PLANE OF CURVATURE 169 ‘Acceleration due to gravity, ise? Horizontal loa, Ib Depth of eoss-setion, in. ‘Moment of inertia, in. actor for bonding moment Factor for radial deflection Factor for slope ‘Bending moment, bin, Fixing moment, bin, Externally applied bending couple Ibi, ‘Bending moment due to uniform loa, vin, ‘Bending moments for various portions hn [Normal ore, tb Verticl load, Ih ‘Transverse shearing force, Ib Uniform load, lyin Maximum loud per unt longth, I in ‘Mean radius of curvature, in ‘Stress, pst Bending sre, pi Baste strain energy, Ibn ‘Radial displacement, i. Peripheral velocity in/eee Radia oad, Ih ‘Weight per unt length in, Horizontal defection, i, ‘Vertical defection in ‘Section modi, in?wo Rh SHIN RINGS LOADED IN PLANE OF CURVATURE Ch, Angle at which load is applied, rad Spcifo weight, hin ‘Aviary angle, rad [Angle at which foros ate considered, Slope, rad Ratio of radius of curvature to depth of section CHAPTER ELEVEN. Transversely Loaded Rings Assumptions "The design of machine members and various supporting hardware frequently involves the calculation of stress and deformations of @ cireular elastic ring loaded normal to the plane of curvature Te axis ofthe rng is usualy considered to be a plane curve and iti assumed thatthe ring maintains its circularity under load. Since the forces act ‘normal tothe plane of curvature the bending and twisting effects ate ‘analyzed simultaneously. An extensive Uheoetical treatment of out ‘tplane deformation of crear rings i given by Biezeno and Gramm: ‘el (Het. 27). Ths chapter treats several cases of rings with statically ‘determinate supports which have varied applications (Ref. 22). The ‘analysis of these members is generally considered to be beyond the ‘Scope of most text books on strength of materials and enginocring handbooks, 'As before, the rings dealt within this chapter are assumed to be ‘hin and uniform in croce-setion. ‘The deformation is therfore cased mainly by bending and twisting moments, andthe elects of shear ad ‘normal stresses are neglected, Twist of Cnet ‘When a free circular rng is subjected to the action of two diamet- ically opposed twisting. moments the deflection formulas can bem TRANSVERSELY LOADED RINGS. oan derived withthe ai of Eq. (42) and (43). An example ofthe det ‘ation procedure, obtained from the published account Rel. 22, i sven below. ‘Consider a free ring under toroidal moments, usteated in Fig. 11-1, The plan view of one half ofthe ring indicates the geometrical sae fered mete rulations necessary for establishing the bending and twisting moments, follows then that M=(Tysin/2* (282) and T= (Pcoss)/2 (233) From Eq, (282), aw, a cou (8) ca TRANSVERSELY LOADED RINGS va Hence substituting Bas. (282), (283) and (284) into Ba, (42), gives wy. ay. oy Acoss (235) ‘Where EBay (286) BET Hero, as before, , represents the ratio of flexural to torsional rigidity EI/GK. This parameter is important in all studies of out--pane deformation of curved members, The autliay relation for the solution ofthe dileential equation, Ei. (285), ie nm $1) 0 (231) [is evident thatthe roots ofthis oquation are 0, -}, and —i. There- fore fllowing the usual procedure inthe solution of the general linear ssjuation, given in standand books on ealclus, the complementary funetion is FaAy4 Arcos + Avsing (238) Tn Bag, (288), Ay, Av and Ay denote arbitrary integration constants tobe detarmined from the geometric boundary conditions. Since the complete solution of the lines differential equation requires thatthe ‘complementary function F,, be added to the partcalar integral, we find by observation that Fy =A (sin +8608 0)/2 (239) Although sovers rigorous mathematical methods are available for finding particular intograls, with some experience the observation ‘method ean give relatively quick results. In this approach we assume ‘the most likely form of the particular integral and setfy the result by differentiation. For instance in the problem under consideration, making ¥ =F, and obtaining the appropriate derivatives from Ea. (289), gives ay. 7 =— 4 Cees —ssinsy A (osin9— deo A tosins—4e080) Eeptnng tombe od mening for thi and other4 TRANSVERSELY LOADED RINGS cn Simple addition ofthese two equations in accordance with Eq. (285) proves that the selected particular integral, Hq. (288) full the necessary requirement Hence the general solution of the difeental equation, Ba. (285), i Yori Fr 20) Hore F and Faro given by Eqs (288) and (289), respectively. Com- ‘ining these equations gives Y= Ai +Azoms+ (As —4) sins “Looking over the diagram in Fig. 11-1, we observe that when the outof plane deflection st that point must be ze. Hence putting = Quand ¥ —Oin Eq, (291), gves A, ——A> Because of symmetry ‘of deformation ofthe ting the bending slope at ¢ ~ 0 and # — 3/2 ‘must be equal to zero. "To find the slope equation, difeentiate Ba. (20%) with respect to and make A, =A This yes $Y (ay — A) cone + AUS Again (292) Hence, putting ¢ — 0 and ¢ = x/2, in Bq. (202), and making dY de ives two additional equations from which Ay = 4/4 and As = A, Substituting for As, Ay and A, at well as 4, = —A in Bq, (290) fives the design formula for the deflection at any point of the ring Shown in Fig, 1-1 re PRE 41) (2008) — noon 6-4-2 2ains) y=2Ea+nc + (283) Te is noted that for 9 = 0, Eq. (203), vanishes in accordance with the recoibed boundary conditions. The maximum value of the deflection {obtained from Bq, (283), when # = 2 is substituted ak gg va TE 20+) om ‘The slope due to the transverse bending can be obtained by difer: ‘entintng deflection, Eq. (203) with respect to # and substituting the result in Eq. (54), This yells = EE (40-29 si (295) SET cn TRANSVERSELY LOADED RINGS ws Again, in accordance with the prescribed boundary conditions of the problem the slope is found to be ero when #0. or # — 1/2 ie uly stituted in Bq (285). ‘The design formula for the angle of twist can be now found from Ba. (42), Hence diflerentiating Bq. (293), with respect to # and substitu. ing the result togothor with Eq. (282) into Eq. (43), eves n= FE 2 sine +0) 29) com) (296) aEr Substituting in turn ¢= 0 and # ~ 2/2 in Ba, (206), yields N=eTR (140) EF (297) and y= PRB (298) Since by the definition i = RI/GK is always greater than one, Bas. (297) andi (298) disclose an interesting phenomenon. When ring js twisted under the action of toroidal moments, ig. 11-1, midway between the moments applied the ring setion actually rotates in the ‘opposite sense to T,. This observation can be easily verified by tating ‘simple paper model. Ring Under Transverse Uniform Load Circular ring subjcted to tranaverse uniform load i shown in Fig. 11-2. The vertical reactions here are statically determinate and are qual to 29R, each. It is assumed that the ring crose-sections can rotate frely at the supports. The bending and twisting moments, casting at an arbitrary croseseetion defined by 9, can be obtained Fig. 112 Greta rng unr trnworeeifrm ond6 TRANSVERSELY LOADED RINGS. on ig 13. Auer diagram for ranmenely Idd eal ‘with the ad of the diagram in Fig. 1-3. Consider for instance a hypo= thetical cut ofthe ring at 9— 0. To Keep this end of the member in ‘qullbrum the vertieal reaction for one quarter ofthe ring is =a2/2 ‘The fixing moment M; supporting one quarter ofthe ring makes the bending slope at 9 — 0, equal to zero. Ts value follows from the sum- ‘ation ofall elementary moments about the horizontal axis shown jn the diagram. In mathematical tems this is M= fiw sin e) qRde = gR* (299) ‘The bending moment caused hy the uniformly distributed load Mf, ‘about an arbitrary setion defined y #, is given by Bq. (135) as before. Hence the total bending moment at becomes M=M,—M,coss uae (300) Substituting Eqs. (135) and (298) into Bg, (300), in accordance with the adopted sign convention, gives woe ( 1 may be recalled that nogative bending moment was assumed to produce tension in the upper surface of the ring. To verify the sign for Ba, (801), put #= 0, to get M = —oR 'Sinco the ring is assumed to roll freely at the supports there wil ‘he no fixing twisting moment at 8 ~ 0."The twisting moment due to ‘the uniformly distributed load 9 ie given by Bq. (136). The total ing moment at an arbitrary crowesection defined hy # ean be ino—1) (aon) (302) ca TRANSVERSELY LOADED RINGS a Hence substituting Bas, (186) and (299) in Eq. (302), yields att [ #4 5 (cose 0] (308) Ie may be of interest to note that putting # = 0,8 = »/2 or 8 = 2, in Bq, (808), indicates no twist ofthe ring cros-aetion. The marimar value ofthe twisting moment can be found by the asual rule of dir ‘ential calculus dasling with maximizing a given function. Therefore, from Eq, (203) and making the result equal to zero ar x Taam Fany = From this, sin ¢ = 2/s, and @ is found to be approximately 99% degrees. ‘ce the ceneral expressions for the bending and twisting moments, ‘Eqs. (201) and (303) are established, the procedure utilized in the development of the design formolas for the ease of toroidal moments an be applied to find the deletion, slope and the angle of twist at fy point ofthe sing shown in Fig. 11-2. This yields y sin 8) $48 (1 — con) 4 212x (#089 asin g) x (1 — 08) + 48 2) (08) ee AL — 20) sin y= ta (x2 sing Aas 29) A (20 n000)]) (605) and ah EE (141) sino 4 (2-28) cose— aye) (308) SEI ‘The preceding solution by the method of diflerential equations is especially useful when the general displacement formulas are required ‘The same result ean be obtained hy tho method of fttious loading snd the theorem of Castgiano. To ilusteate this point, calculate the ‘maximum deflection for the eae ofthe transverse uniform load shown in Pig. 1-2. Consider the equilibrium of one half ofthe ring subjected touniform load g and fettious load P ae illustrated in Fig, U4. Theve TRANSVERSELY LOADED RINGS. cn Fig 4 Haltsing equim ander transverse anil leading relevant bending and twisting moments for this ease are (2808.1) 4 PR ine Maar (28021) 4 PE Gine—eone) (607) wa = aR*( 04% cose— 2) + PR (eine + cone: Toa ( +S eme—-) + PE one peore—0) a0) ‘Tevet detonator Ba (59) 2B ry aM yy, 2 6G IT gy ee oe ee ee From Bg (07) and (308) «sto wd re 2K cine-peme—n om Hence substituting Bqs. (307), (308), (810) and (311) into Bq, (800) and integrating yields y= SE [2-242 2-9) (312) on TRANSVERSELY LOADED RINGS 79 [Note tht as before, Ps mad equal to zor in bending and twisting moment equations, ut only after the required. partial derivatives OMAP and ¥/6P had boon found. When ¢~ 1/2 introduced into Eq, (304), Bq. (312) is readily obtained. On the other hand shen ‘is substituted in Bq. (304) tho deletion vanishes inline with ‘the boundary conditions pertinent to Ue case shown in Fig, 1-2. Ring on Mutiple Supports ‘A use summary of design equations for a circular ring under a combined transverse loading and multiple supports is tlen fom the paper on rings and arcuate beams (Ref. 2). The orignal equations, forming the bass fr this section, have been developed by MeGuiess, (a. 25), ‘Tho general viow of tho ring subjected to transverse uniform and concentrated loading i given in Fig. 11-8. The corresponding working formulas are ‘Vertical reaction at any support V=(P42xqR)/n (s13) Bending moment at & M=—(PRD, + aD) AB (uy Bending moment at @= a/n M= (PRD, + aR°D,) (1208 (as) Fi. 115 Combined transverse loading on supports180 TRANSVERSELY LOADED RINGS ca ‘Twisting moment at 9 = 3/2 Porm) ROY? ca and uno ttionst y-Beemm (242) am ‘The namerial design factors for the solution of the above equations are given in Table 11-1, to help the designer in his work. ‘Tabakman snd Valentin (Ref. 35) solved a similar problem using differential ‘equations, Eqs. (39), (40) and (42) and presented design formul for bending moments, twisting moments, defection, slope and the angle of twist. Te shouldbe notod here however, that these results do not apply to ‘he case ofa partial ring with the ends fixed as to slope and rotation, Tobe 111, Fore ond Dtplacament Foc: for Combined Loading DB [Dd [|b Dy D | De 72000 | 479909 | 2n2084 [o2oTi0 | 22802] 0.58640 103920 | 42.7080 | 22.5968 | 0.05157 | 1.6305 | 0.17950 .40s | 41.2038 | 21.2628 | o.c2060 | 1.4876 | 0.08072 9.7476 | 40.5567 | 20.6968 | o.oros1 | 1.4006 | 0.05618 ez | 402174 | 20,3014 | 0.005889 | 1.3859 oos7s0 seer | 40.100 | 2o2i42 | oonssre | 1.2455] oo2sse asivz | 30.814 | 20.0861 | o.co24so | 13327] oor990 aszez | 30.7089 | 200182 | ooor711 | 13239] oorss7 10 | 9.501 | 39-7386 | 19.0602 | 0.001250 | 13178 | oo1296 11 | 9.4896 | s9821 | 19.9422 | o.oo09a4s | 1.3135 | oo107s 12 | 9.4824 | sa.s60 | 19.0051 | o.oo07166 | 1.3097 | 0.00885 36 | 9.4320 | 90.4805 | 19.8008 | .o0002646) 1.2952 | 0.00154 vimit| ax | ae | ae | 0 a | 0 ‘The maximum transverse deletion for the case shown in Fig. 112, ‘an be now checked with the aid of McGuiness formula, Bq. (317) can TRANSVERSELY LOADED RNGS we Substituting n — 2, P = 0, EI/GK — 1 and tho rlovant displace: iment factors D, and De from Table 1-1, gives previously derived ‘deflection formula, Ea. (312). Four Point Looding ‘To aid in the analysis of gyroscope gimbals, handling equipment and other similar systems, working quations for the circular ring, Toaded and supported as shown in Wig. 116, reprinted from Ref. 2, are given below. ms PB cineca 21) PE tins on ‘ 1 = FE (sing +om0¢—1) (a1) FE ag nyuneg areas) onntnt va ZE{24¢—nyametanst—o Filey oar 206—9 daa en ural (620) +d I(r —24— 4) sing +202) e009 +4) (32) Pe 7 nae =) sin 4 (== 2 — 28) cos BEE (141) (10) sin + ( ) cos (a2)2 TRANSVERSELY LOADED RINGS. oan = 1/2, Ba. (820) gives esentally the same result as that found with the aid of Bq. (317) when q = (and Pn, fom Fig. 11-5, is taken to be equal to P shown in Fig, 16. Ring on Trunion Supports ‘The method of superposition can be conveniently applied to in- voran din probleme involving trnsverly lnded ngs spparted Consider, for instance trunnion-tupported continuous ring, ear ying a uniformly distributed load, as shown in Fig. 11-7. The re- ‘quired design formulas can be obtained by superimposing the re sponte of a ring under uniform load, Fig. 11-2, and that shown in ig. 13-1 under toroidal moments. The toroidal moment T. follows feom Fig. 1-7 y= Vax age ig 112. Trumlonsupported contin ig Hence combining Bas. (203) and (304), and substituting for 7. gives = Efe tatB) 140) ham d—Band neat +s) OR Go sano] aay an TRANSVERSELY LOADED RINGS. 83 ‘Similarly th slope is obtained from Eqs. (295) and (305). ela (a $8) (x20) sin (x — 26 — moos. SBE (a+ R) +1) (420 sin +R (x —24 — x02] (a2) Finally the angle of twist following from superimposing Eq. (296) and (306), yields rein ) ha orl? OUR (1 +2) +21 —¥)) 4m (x20) (04 R) (1-42) cos b—aR (1 42} (325) “The corrcponding bending and twisting moments are a= RN gy RY — aR (628) and mgRem no 7 +R) +aR* (0— 5) (a2) ‘The maximum transverse defection follows from Eq, (328), when 3/2 ie substituted. This gives BE laema+n 694m 6-0] ca) Wen srt «hm, Ba, (25) edt Ba, (12 Wi ho fc se ei neater, aeons “ncn ansaid by opin th elo a foro. Tomine he place, amon moet ts Ty tainned nee Income eg ofa te save ‘mul shold chang mgt Nomariol Examples Design Problem 21: A continuous machine fame, formed in «crcl with mean radius of R— 15 inches, is designed to be supported on ‘tro diametrically opposed trunnions, 1¢ eatin a uniformly distrib lted load q-— 50 Ihvinch of circumference, ating normal to the plane of curvature as shown in Fig. 11-7. Assuming the frame eros. fection to be tubular with outer and inner diameters of 3 and 2.75 Inches espectivly,calealate the maximum deletions for the offsetvas TRANSVERSE LOADED RINGS cn luge being pad outside or inside the frame ring, Assume the offset gs to be perfectly rigid and a= 3 in, Take B= 90°% 10° pol and G=04E. ‘Solution: Since the tubule frame i thie caae is relatively thin ca culate the moment of inertia from the approximate formula, ‘This fives Teen c29te x0428 rotate Since fr bw clr erection the tool shape laa aly teh alt te Le BIO4B 20) = 138 uation (28) an now eed oct he minum deectins ‘When eps ae gr apne ote and B25) es 150 18 ya PMX OXI ay 4 129 AAP fas asia 0u—2 +125x 15.44] Y= 00065 ‘Wen te apse placed ine he ngs a (828) apis poid Meter es) een ih te te). as 0027 i Design Problem 22: Develop a theoretical relationship between the st to ean ratio a/ and the ratio of flexural to torsional rigidity 3, for which the maximum vertical displacement ¥, Fig. HT, can be ‘made equal to zero, when the lug is on the inside ofthe ring, Solution: Consider modified version of Eq. (328), in which (a +) ls replaced by (Jf — a). For ¥ Yo be 2ero the expreasion inthe brac ‘ets must be equal to zero, (Ra) V1) (2) + REA) Dividing ths expression by Rand solving for a/R, gives 42x RO GDG—D As stated before, must always be greater than 1. Taking the lowest practical value ! = 125, the above formala gives nad 42. an TRANSVERSELY LOADED RINGS 185 Fora relatively high ratio, the offact to radi ratio may be approxi- mated by 2142-9 RUit s-2 Hence the theoretical minimum value of a/R is about 0.25. It should te noted here that such aw ratio of &/ may not be aceptable be suse of the tendency of thin eross-soctional members to become ‘lastically unstable, However, this example indicates that atleast partial redaction of the maximum defetion can bo considored attain ble in certain practical eases. ‘Design Problem 23: A closed circular ring of constant crost-section| is reting on equidistant multiple supports and carries a transverse Toad uniformtydistribated along the periphery. Evaluate the relative ‘fect ofthe torsional sgidity on the maximum out-of-plane deflection. ‘Assume 2 — 1.25, ‘Solutions When P = 0, and 2 — 1.25 is subtitutod in Ba, (317), sve get the fllowing simplified expression for out-of-plane defection, = 20h CD, 41.25 Dy Ewer : ‘The contribution of torsional git inthe above equation is given by the term 1:25 De Hence, utilizing Tablo 1-1, the following param: fer can be evaluated as «function of the number of supports, Yn'BI ma “The results ofthis evaluation are plotted in Fig. 1-8. Its eany to see {rom this diagram thatthe llectof torsion on the maximum defection tthe ring on multiple supports becomes negligible when the number Gf supports i greater than about four. Also, Eq. (317) indicates that this elect isthe sume regardless whether the transverce loads are concentrated, uniformly distributed or « combination of both =D. +125 De Symbols for Che a ‘Aviary factor in, Ay Ay Ax Integration constants ° Offset, in Dy, Dz,.--De_ Design factorsTRANSVERSELY LOADED RINGS an 20) Bending and torsion| Bending Nondimensional parameters rol 2S 26 oe Number of sueportsn Fig 168 Contutono Bening and tarson te destin of ig on msupont Ez Modula ofetasticty, psi Complementary function, in Particular solution, Modulus ofrigiity, pat ‘Moment of neti, in. ‘Torsional shape factor, in * ‘Bending moment, Ihsin, Fixing moment, Ibn. ‘Bending moment due to uniform load, In. ‘Number of equidistant supports Vertical, 1b Uniform load, yin, an TRANSVERSELY LOADED RINGS. v7 ‘Mean radius of curvature, in ‘Mean radiasof tube, in "Twisting moment, Ibn ‘Externally applied twisting coupe lb, ‘Twisting moment due to uniform oad hin, ‘Wall thickness, in, Vertical reaction 1b Vertical deiecton in Auxiliary angle, rad Angloof twist, rad Anglost which foros are considered, rad Ratio flexural to torsional rigidity ‘Slope, adcharter TWELVE Theory on Neutral A: Assumptions By the usually accepted definition neutral axis is the line created by the intersection of the neutral surface and the given cross-section ‘slong which the longitudinal fiber stress due to xu i zero, When, ‘2 curved member, Bving a small depth compared to the radius of initial curvature, is subject to pure bending the neutral axis can be ‘assumed to passthrough the centroid ofthe cross-section. ‘When a curved member of sharp curvature such as a machine hook, chainlink or thick bearing ring ie submitted to pure bending, plane ‘ectons are assumed to remain plane but the neutral axis is found to be diuplaced towards the center of curvature, The magnitude of tuch displacement depends on the shape and dimensions of the eros ‘ction in telation tothe mean radius of curvature "The general mathematical relations, governing the method of eal~ culation of the distance between the neutral and central axes, can be ‘demonsteatad fora curved beam of ayetangular cros-section subject to lexure (Ref. 29) Shit of Nevtrol Axis ina Rectangular Cross-section According to Fig, 12-1, the neutal axis, defined by Ra, i assumed to be displaced towards the enter of curvature by tho amount, 8 ‘while an arbitrary section corresponding to # has rotated through an {Angle y. By the definition, the Aber at radius Re retains its orginal190 THEORY ON NUTRAL AXIS one a Newtral ig 121. Nolan for ding diplacoment of neutral ala longth but any layer outside this radius must undergo elongation or shortening given by the amount 3. Since the originally unstrained lengti is the ratio of elongation tothe unstrained length defines the strain Hence Hooke’ taw gives ame om) Equation (829) defines the normal stress on the erection result ing from bending ‘The elementary normal fore acting om the section dA, Fig. 12-1, is simply the product ofthe stzess times the area. Utilizing Ea. (329), Su iE a o Assuming that che modulus of elasticity B, docs not vary across the section, the total normal force can be integrated a fllows SE pees om) cn THEORY ON NEUTRAL AXIS v0 Tis evident from Fig. 12-1, thatthe elementary are is A= bdy For a given sectional geometry of the curved beam, R, is constant, ‘and y may be expressed in terms of radi yaork. Differentiating both sides of tho above relation with respect to gives dy—do Introdncing the above relations in Eq. (330) gives VE PM 9 —Re gy vee te yb (331) 1 the curved mamber is subjectod to bending only, according to the conditions of equilibrium the net force N, normal to the cros-section tnust be zero. Hence Eq. (331) becomes by pty, BEWRe do Be fae Sr t=o (332) Integrating Eq, (392) gives Ry —R,— Relog. (RR) =0 (33) Equation (388) is now solved for Ry end the following substitutions ‘are made with reference to Fi. 121 h=R-R v=R-R h Roth la » R=R-4 "This prooedure yields the expression forthe displacement of neutral axis towands the center of curvature for ¢ roctangular cros-oction (saa) ‘When the value of his rather small compared with the mean radius of curvature , the socond term of Eq. (334) may be expanded a tording to the well known theorem of Maclaurin. ‘To ilusteato thewe THEORY ON NEUTRAL AXIS ne ‘method of application of this useful theorem consider the logterm of Ba. (334). 2h . lou oR (335) "The Maclaurin’s caries is expressed as follows 110 +47 + EP OLE POs 5 (336) Yn. (6) + ses a inden vil en eer inate he mmr tena ee eet oie ie ced re ne Seria pr olan sete ey 1). Tilt encode Se ae eco ae oe pray = #L = Rh ae GR aj _ so 4 2a 1° y= SL = SO ‘When h 0, the above derivatives give PO) = UR #10) =0 Peo) = 128 Since (0) = 0 and /”(0) = 0, the fist and third tarme of tho Mac- arin's series, Eq. (336), drop ouk, while the seeond and fourth terms give Am ; Aye can) ting tis expansion in Ea, (84) yields wR ae on Ina similar manner other dosign formulas for the displacement of neutral aris in various cross-sections can be developed. Where the eometry of the cross-section eannot be simpy expressed by mathe- matical relations graphical integration is usually employed. on THEORY ON NEUTRAL AXIS 99 "Novia Axis Corection for Sending Stain Enorgy In calculating the elastic energy due to bending for @ curved mem- ber of sharp curvature the usual expression MF/2ET can be modified to take into account the shift of the neutral axis, Taking moments about the center of curvature of the eurved beam shown in ig. 12-1, the elementary bending moment is aM = S0dA "Eliminating stress fom tho above relation aves the aid of Ba, (920) ar 2 an ‘The total moment ofthe normal frees is a Epa oa ‘Bquation (389) can be now rearranged through the following subst tation Ma (339) dA bay yao ay=do aA =bde ene. (3) tee = 2B fe Rode Integrating the above expression gives w= Abe (340) ‘The elementary work done by a couple Min rotating the beam eros section through an angle dy, Fig 12-2, is equal to tho elastic energy (of deformation provided this energy can be totally recovered upon, ‘the removal of external loading, ‘Ta fi y= Mae (any From Eq. (340) Mo = aes194 THEORY ON NEUTRAL AXIS an ‘The rate of change of v, with respect to ¢, follows fom the above equation Ma an Sabetitting for dy in Ba (341), gives Hence forthe total curved member the elastic strain energy in bend- ing becomes ae Mas BABS ‘The term defining the clastic stmnin energy, Eq. (242), enters the general energy and displacement expressions, Bs. (48), (49) and, (60) (a2) Nui Axis Corection for Bending Sersor ‘As pointed out in Chapter 2, the urual engineering formula Sy — Mc/T, representing a special case of x more general Winkler Bach forma gives satisfactory rosults for straight beams. When the straight beam formula is applied to the curved members of sharp ‘curvature such as hooks, chain links, thick rings, press frames and Similar machine parts the maximum bending strestesealelated on the assumption of straight beam thoory may be too low. This is de to the shift of the neutral axis. Based on the theory of neutral aie one {THEORY ON NEUTRAL AXIS 195 tnd experimental analysis, Wilson and Quereau developed simple ‘correction factor to be used with the Winkler-Bach forma when culating stresses in curved members, (Refs. 15 & 30). The effect of considerable initial curvature, reflcied in the magnitude of the shift of the neutral ais, is such that the distribution of the normal stress over the depth of the cross-section is hyperbolic instead of linear, Fig. 12-8. The corretion factor of Wilson and Querea, de- ig 12, Ditton of norma stra in a the crv member noted in this book by We, may alto be used when combined axial and bending loads are applied i, P sam(f +48) (343) ‘When a curved bar has sharp curvature, Fig 12-8, the critical stress are found at the inside Sher The approximate formula for Way dve to Wilson and Quereau, applicable to inside fibers (a) Here I denotes the moment of inertia of har cross-section about the controidal avs, while b,c and R, are defined in Fig. 12-3,196 THEORY ON NEUTRAL AXIS can Numerical Examples Design Problem 24: Ror a carved member of deep cross-section, dimensioned in Fig. 12-1, calelato the ratios of the elastic strain energy due to bending using the formulas for thin and thick curved members, respectively. Find the sift of the neutzal axis, using simpl- fed and exact formulas, Fie 124, Curved mb of dp cos section Solution: Denote by U; and U, the elastic strain energy due to ‘bending for thick and thin members, repectively, This gives 1g. n= ag fire Ocal, and 2 ths al Dividing both sides ofthe above equations yields UYU, = VAR Substituting Tabe/zand A ‘the above ratio becomes y=" /2R. Substituting = 8” and R= 6” in Ba, (334) gives, bat bog, XEEH (ex6—5) cnn THEORY ON NEUTRAL AXIS 197 Using simplified formula forthe sift of the neutral axis, Fa. (338) veld x6 2x 96-42! 0328 Hence using exact formula for gives 25 axexoase plied expresion for 8, Ba. (838), on the other hand gives UUs = 0.798 x 0.438/0.328 = 1.058 Design Problem 25: In calculating the shift of the neutral axis for a curved member of rectangular crosreection Musteate graphically the range of applicability of the simplid formula. Present all results ‘ondimensional form using 8/ and as parameters ‘Solution: Dividing bath sides of Eq. (254) by I? and introducing yh gives UW; = 0798 my ae xe (7) oe ‘The above nondimensional expressions are iustrated graphically in ig. 12-5 for values of varying between 06 and 5.0. Symbols fr Chapter 12 4 ‘Area of crost-cetion in? > ‘Width of rectangular section in, © Distance of extreme fiber from oentral axis in. EB Modulus of elasticity, psi ° Steain f.f(2), f(a) Fanetions of one variable A Depth of ros-section, i.198 THEORY ON NEUTRAL AXIS ne ca THEORY ON NEUTRAL AXIS 199 I 8 Stress, psi a & Bending stron pa 1 U,04.U, Ric strain nee, in : ™ ‘Wien and Queen tee correction fctr . # Fe BH : Arbitrary dito, A ’ Distance rom een in ; | 5 Distance rom nett cent ax, i ’ “Angle a which foros arconsdeed, ad 2 e (General eymbo ora of ora, 5 ’ Shope ad ; BU Ratio of ada of curetueto depth fection Bos 3 i > 3 a ape a Ratio ig 125, Comparton fh f ura ass by xa and approximate orl rae aga en I Momentof inertia, n+ aM Bending moment, Ibn. N [Normal force, Ib > [External load, Ib R ‘Radius to center of gravity, in Ry ‘Radius to neutral axis in. ‘dius to inner surface of curved member, in. Rs Radius to outer surface of carved member, in. BCHAPTER THIRTEEN Design of Thick Curved Members Design Considerations {Tt was shown in Chapter 2 that early developments of curved beam ‘theory date back some two hundred years ago. This is not surprising when it i= relied the enormous variety of machines, fand structures in all branches of industry involving some kind of ‘curved members, Hence the need for design methods and formulas for such load ‘arrying members a proving rings, volling-element ‘bearing rings, machine fees, load hooks, chain links, shackles and ‘curved brackets of every description. "The elementary formulas for straight beams, often applied to ‘curved hear design, become more in error az the neutral axis of @ sharply curved member shits toward the centar of curvature. The theory of neutral axe indicates that the st is primarily a function of the degree of curvature and the depth of the crosesection. The tect of the sectional jeometry appears to be of somewhat lesser ‘gaiicance. "The basic question which often arises, concerns the problem of Aiferentinting between Use 90 called thin and thick members. An often quoted rule of thumb tater that when the mean radius of Ccurvatire ‘reases to about ton times the depth of tho cross- fection, the member is considered thin. In these cass all the pre- lousy’ developed design formulas apply with negligible error. "The rule of ten ties the depth” is considered relatively flexible202 DESIGN OF THICK CURVED MEMBERS cha ‘and should be viewod with particular regard to the accuracy of the caleuations required and the knowledge of material allowables. 1 fact the rule ean often be relaxed since the trve mean! prop- crtics of engineering materials are seldom known with an accuracy Detter than plus oF minus ten percent. Also the available experi rental evidence, desribed later in this chapter, suggests that the Tinting ratio of R/h as low as 6 may be acceptable, Srongth of Curved Booms In calculating bending szesns in essentially straight beams the sual engineering formula S, — M/Z, sives satisfactory results Homever, in dealing with curved machine membirs, characterized hy sharp curvature the sess developed at the inner face of the beam may be substantially higher than those calculated by the ight members Bach formula, Eq. (1), which takes into account beam curvatite i theoretically cormet and relatively im ble in form, but requires determining section property parameter im dened by Eq. (2). To simplily the design procedure Wilson 4nd Quoreau developed» correction factor. ‘The numerical values fof this factor are given in Table 18-1 for typical cre sections en countered in eurved-beam design, (Ref. 15). The factors are ap- plicable to the ealculstions of tho maximum stress at the outor And inner faces cha DESIGN OF THICK CURVED MEMBERS 00 Tole 13.1 (cont) Won ond Quereou Factor for Sirs in Carved! Beams Ter | Oster Face |'Faoe | 0m 230 | 0st | O05 213 | 08s | 0204 in | os7 | oa 183 | 070 | ota 132 | 073 | o.090 130 | ost | one 120 | 088 | oa riz | 0.90 | o.one Yo9 | 092 | 0.005 ior | 04 | nous Tyner | Oxter Face | Face | 9/2 Sor] ose | Ose 238 | oso | 0220 ust | 065 | 0.168 iso | 088 | 0138 5s | on | o02 133 | 030 | 00% 123 | ost | ooze 11s | 38 | oot Lio | oot | 01060 tos | 093 | oo Toba 12-1. Wihon ond Queeay Factor for Stesis in Cured Seams ny Tne pn | ye | ace i 12] Sal | aa) 240 18 | 138 13 | 135, 4 20 | 162 a0 | 133, i a0 | 133 60 | tis sf 10 100 | 108 Taner | Outer Face | Face | 0/R 300] 056 | 0336 225 | 2 | 02% iat | 066 | 0.168 173 | 070 | ozs tat | o73 | o02 137 | oat | 004s 126 | 036 | ozs 117 | 091 | oon 118 | 034 | 0.0060 111 | 095 | ono9208 DESIGN OF THICK CURVED MEMAERS ce cn DESIGN OF THICK CURVED MEMBERS 208 nt), Wikon and Quersou Factors for Sttts In Curved Beams able 19-1 cont), Wika and Quereou Fair for Stress in Curved Brom Wi We Taner] Outer mat Bt 2 Tenor] Outer Face |Face | 9/R F ; Rye | ae | Pace | vik ia] 052 | 0362 1 12] 355) 007 | vane 223 | ose | 020 y | t4| 248 o72 | o202 ts | ose | om 4 al Bi 18 | 207 | o76 | azz 174 | 085 | os8 i Z4e\ | 1s | 133) o7s | oa7e iat | 088 | oro S 20 | 169 | oso | ous 134 | 0.76 | 0.050 L Y; | 3.0 | 138) 086 | 0.087 rai | 082 | coz 7 4) | 136 | nao | 0.098 11s | ast | oor R 80 | 115 | og | oo 112 | ast | 0.0060 | a0 | 130] 94 | oor 120 | 093 | nous 100 | 103 | 085 | 0.006 We S Tpner | Onter Tyner Face | Pace | of Rye | Face ve 326 | Ona | 0261 12 | 252 7405 230 | 050 | 02st 1a | 190 0285 199 | 034 | 0.186 | re | 188 | 208 urs | oat | ods 13 | 130 0.60 58 | 080 | ote 20 | Lan oust 131 | 070 | ose 30 | 133 0.058 iar | 075 | o1na9 ao | 116 30 116 | 032 | ois 80 | 110 013 112 | 086. | 010060 80 | 107 9.0076 too | 088 | o0os9 190 | 105 0.0048 We Tyner | Outer Tyrer ace |‘Face | 0/R Rye | ace wa 363 | 058 | Oais 12] 328 7209 2354 | oa | 0290 ra | 231 ose aaa | ost | 0229 18 | 139 ise 139 | 070 | ota 18 | 170 408 173 | 072 | ose 20 | sr oss ta | 079 | 060 80] isi | ost | 038 120 | 083 | o.na0 40 | tat} oss | o.n20 Tis | ose | oms 80 | 113 | 090 | 0087 113 | 091 | ono 80 | 110 | 092 | 0099 io | 092 | odes mo | 107 | 095 | oonar206 DESIGN OF THICK CURVED MEMBERS ch Toblo 19.41 (cnt), Won ond Queteou Factors for Srene n Cured Booms We. Taner | Outer tp eta Rye | Face | Face | 0/R = TE] oat] oar] oa THAT i | a | iat | os | 20 {Je 13 | tas | on | ans S| | as | tS | ee | dss 4 20 | 143 | 080 | 0.127 a {| 50 | ta | ose | ose g in 40 | 115 | op | oost Ee] | Go| tas) oer | con So | tor | oot | oome 100 | toe | 095 | Gone ‘Approximate Formule for Maximum Bending Strength of Conved Mombors ‘The values of stress corection factor Wy given in Table 19-1, Ihlp to make a rapid etimate of the bending stress at the inner and outer faces of the curved member, There is also a uniform tension for compression across the sction of the beam analyzed for bending ‘and this is why Eq. (S43) contains the term P/A. To this equation the term P/A, is shown as positive. In the actual case, caro should bo taken to interpret the streses due to bending and direct loading, respectively. For instance the tena stress due to the direct loading must he added directly to the tensilo stress duo to bending and sub- tracted from the compressive atrss due to bending. Of course the reverso is also true and the compressive wires due 0 the direct Toadiag should be subtracted from the tensile stress due to bending and added directly to the compressive sts resulting from bending. TBeaminstion of Table 1c-1 indicates that despite rather striking ferences in the cross-sectional geometry of the curved mombers ‘onsidered, the valuce of correction factors W, do not difler ex- cessively for the He ratios higher than about 2. Plotting. the available W, factors from Table 13-1, for the case ofthe maximam Dending streaat the inner surface of the beam, shows thatthe entire range of W, valuee may be represented by the following ‘approximate equation w, 0 (Se) io) “ihantstgencaldartel riya = ee ch DESIGN OF THICK CURVED MEMBERS 207 For instance taking 8/e the calculated factor from Eq. (245), Looking over the corresponding values in ‘Table 12-1, shows that the correction factors vary between 1-15 and 1.28. This accuracy may be acceptable for the preliminary design calculations. ‘The design curve based on the approximate formula, Eq. (345) is shown in Fig. 19-1, For more exact values Table 13-1 ie recommended. 15] ae <4 8 12 oe 4 I 1234 867089 Ratio RE It should he noted that the correction factor W, is used only to calculate maximum streses provided there are no’ abrupt changes in cros-section. For unusually wide and thin webbed members factor must be applied with eaution because of the tendency of thin scetions to fail by buckling due to compreson or facture atthe free edges due to tension, This is of special importance when