Series: Investigations in Geophysics,

Volume I
Michael R. Cooper, Series Editor
 SEISMIC DATA ANALYSIS
Processing, Inversion, and Interpretation of Seismic Data

ÖZ YILMAZ

Volume I

Stephen M. Doherty, Editor

Society of Exploration Geophysicists

Post Office Box 702740, Tulsa, OK 74170-2740
To Mother In Memoriam
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

PREFACE

Volume I

INTRODUCTION
Processing of Seismic Data, 4
Inversion of Seismic Data, 10
Interpretation of Seismic Data, 18
From Seismic Exploration to Seismic Monitoring, 22

Chapter 1
FUNDAMENTALS OF SIGNAL PROCESSING

1.0 Introduction, 25
1.1 The 1-D Fourier Transform, 26
Analog versus Digital Signal, 28
Frequency Aliasing, 30
Phase Considerations, 34
Time-Domain Operations, 36
Convolution, 38
Crosscorrelation and Autocorrelation, 39
Vibroseis Correlation, 41
Frequency Filtering, 41
Practical Aspects of Frequency Filtering, 44
Bandwidth and Vertical Resolution, 46
Time-Variant Filtering, 48
1.2 The 2-D Fourier Transform, 48
Spatial Aliasing, 51
1.3 Worldwide Assortment of Shot Records, 67
Wave Types, 70
1.4 Gain Applications, 81
Geometric Spreading Correction, 81
Programmed Gain Control, 85
RMS Amplitude AGC, 85
Instantaneous AGC, 87
Relative Trace Balancing, 89
1.5 Basic Data Processing Sequence, 90
Preprocessing, 91
Deconvolution, 92
CMP Sorting, 93
Velocity Analysis, 93
Normal-Moveout Correction, 94
Multiple Attenuation, 94
viii Seismic Data Analysis

Dip-Moveout Correction, 94
CMP Stacking, 95
Poststack Processing, 95
Migration, 95
Residual Statics Corrections, 122
Quality Control in Processing, 122
Parsimony in Processing, 124
Exercises, 150
Appendix A: A Mathematical Review of the Fourier Transform, 153
A.1 The 1-D Fourier Transform, 153
A.2 The z-Transform, 155
A.3 The 2-D Fourier Transform, 156
References, 156

Chapter 2
DECONVOLUTION

2.0 Introduction, 159

2.1 The Convolutional Model, 162
The Convolutional Model in the Time Domain, 167
The Convolutional Model in the Frequency Domain, 170
2.2 Inverse Filtering, 171
The Inverse of the Source Wavelet, 172
Least-Squares Inverse Filtering, 173
Minimum Phase, 175
2.3 Optimum Wiener Filters, 179
Spiking Deconvolution, 180
Prewhitening, 181
Wavelet Processing by Shaping Filters, 183
Predictive Deconvolution, 185
2.4 Predictive Deconvolution in Practice, 190
Operator Length, 190
Prediction Lag, 193
Percent Prewhitening, 203
Effect of Random Noise on Deconvolution, 207
Multiple Attenuation, 209
2.5 Field Data Examples, 211
Prestack Deconvolution, 213
Signature Deconvolution, 217
Vibroseis Deconvolution, 219
Poststack Deconvolution, 222
2.6 The Problem of Nonstationarity, 222
Time-Variant Deconvolution, 227
Time-Variant Spectral Whitening, 231
Frequency-Domain Deconvolution, 233
Inverse Q Filtering, 234
Deconvolution Strategies, 241
Exercises, 247
Appendix B: Mathematical Foundation of Deconvolution, 249
B.1 Synthetic Seismogram, 249
B.2 The Inverse of the Source Wavelet, 251
B.3 The Inverse Filter, 252
B.4 Frequency-Domain Deconvolution, 253
 Contents ix

B.5 Optimum Wiener Filters, 255

B.6 Spiking Deconvolution, 258
B.7 Predictive Deconvolution, 260
B.8 Surface-Consistent Deconvolution, 262
B.9 Inverse Q Filtering, 266
References, 270

Chapter 3
VELOCITY ANALYSIS AND STATICS CORRECTIONS

3.0 Introduction, 271

3.1 Normal Moveout, 274
NMO for a Flat Reflector, 274
NMO in a Horizontally Stratified Earth, 280
Fourth-Order Moveout, 280
NMO Stretching, 283
NMO for a Dipping Reflector, 285
NMO for Several Layers with Arbitrary Dips, 287
Moveout Velocity versus Stacking Velocity, 288
3.2 Velocity Analysis, 288
The Velocity Spectrum, 292
Measure of Coherency, 295
Factors Affecting Velocity Estimates, 302
Interactive Velocity Analysis, 311
Horizon Velocity Analysis, 312
Coherency Attribute Stacks, 318
3.3 Residual Statics Corrections, 324
Residual Statics Estimation by Traveltime Decomposition, 336
Residual Statics Estimation by Stack-Power Maximization, 344
Traveltime Decomposition in Practice, 345
Maximum Allowable Shift, 346
Correlation Window, 361
Other Considerations, 362
Stack-Power Maximization in Practice, 365
3.4 Refraction Statics Corrections, 370
First Breaks, 374
Field Statics Corrections, 375
Flat Refractor, 375
Dipping Refractor, 377
The Plus-Minus Method, 377
The Generalized Reciprocal Method, 379
The Least-Squares Method, 379
Processing Sequence for Statics Corrections, 381
Model Experiments, 382
Field Data Examples, 395
Exercises, 432
Appendix C: Topics in Moveout and Statics Corrections, 437
C.1 The Shifted Hyperbola, 437
C.2 Moveout Stretch, 439
C.3 Equations for a Dipping Reflector, 441
C.4 Traveltime Decomposition for Residual Statics Estimation, 442
C.5 Depth Estimation from Refracted Arrivals, 444
C.6 Equations for a Dipping Refractor, 445
x Seismic Data Analysis

C.7 The Plus-Minus Times, 447

C.8 Generalized Linear Inversion of Refracted Arrivals, 448
C.9 Refraction Traveltime Tomography, 453
C.10 L1 -Norm Refraction Statics, 456
References, 460

Chapter 4
MIGRATION

4.0 Introduction, 463

Exploding Reflectors, 467
Migration Strategies, 470
Migration Algorithms, 471
Migration Parameters, 474
Aspects of Input data, 475
Migration Velocities, 475
4.1 Migration Principles, 476
Kirchhoff Migration, 481
Diffraction Summation, 484
Amplitude and Phase Factors, 485
Kirchhoff Summation, 485
Finite-Difference Migration, 486
Downward Continuation, 486
Differencing Schemes, 488
Rational Approximations for Implicit Schemes, 489
Reverse Time Migration, 491
Frequency-Space Implicit Schemes, 492
Frequency-Space Explicit Schemes, 493
Frequency-Wavenumber Migration, 494
Phase-Shift Migration, 498
Stolt Migration, 500
Summary of Domains of Migration Algorithms, 501
4.2 Kirchhoff Migration in Practice, 502
Aperture Width, 502
Maximum Dip to Migrate, 509
Velocity Errors, 509
4.3 Finite-Difference Migration in Practice, 520
Depth Step Size, 521
Velocity Errors, 525
Cascaded Migration, 525
Reverse Time Migration, 530
4.4 Frequency-Space Migration in Practice, 530
Steep-Dip Implicit Methods, 535
Depth Step Size, 537
Velocity Errors, 544
Steep-Dip Explicit Methods, 549
Dip Limits of Extrapolation Filters, 549
Velocity Errors, 552
4.5 Frequency-Wavenumber Migration in Practice, 559
Maximum Dip to Migrate, 559
Depth Step Size, 566
Velocity Errors, 567
Stolt Stretch Factor, 572
 Contents xi

Wraparound, 575
Residual Migration, 575
4.6 Further Aspects of Migration in Practice, 579
Migration and Spatial Aliasing, 581
Migration and Random Noise, 619
Migration and Line Length, 621
Migration from Topography, 626
Exercises, 626
Appendix D: Mathematical Foundation of Migration, 628
D.1 Wavefield Extrapolation and Migration, 628
D.2 Stationary Phase Approximations, 638
D.3 The Parabolic Approximation, 639
D.4 Frequency-Space Implicit Schemes, 641
D.5 Stable Explicit Extrapolation, 644
D.6 Optimum Depth Step, 646
D.7 Frequency-Wavenumber Migration, 649
D.8 Residual Migration, 651
References, 652

Chapter 5
DIP-MOVEOUT CORRECTION AND PRESTACK MIGRATION

5.0 Introduction, 655

Salt-Flank Reflections, 657
Fault-Plane Reflections, 657
DMO and Stacking Velocities, 657
Turning-Wave Reflections, 665
5.1 Principles of Dip-Moveout Correction, 668
Prestack Partial Migration, 670
Frequency-Wavenumber DMO Correction, 672
Log-Stretch DMO Correction, 677
Integral DMO Correction, 679
Velocity Errors, 681
Variable Velocity, 684
Turning-Wave Migration, 685
5.2 Dip-Moveout Correction in Practice, 692
Salt Flanks, 692
Fault Planes, 693
DMO and Multiples, 705
DMO and Coherent Linear Noise, 716
Other Considerations, 716
Aspects of DMO Correction — A Summary, 722
5.3 Prestack Time Migration, 725
DMO Correction and Common-Offset Migration, 728
Salt Flanks, 729
Fault Planes, 742
Common-Reflection-Point versus Common-Reflection-Surface Stacking, 769
5.4 Migration Velocity Analysis, 775
Prestack Stolt Migration, 776
Common-Offset Migration of DMO-Corrected Data, 777
Prestack Kirchhoff Migration, 788
Velocity Analysis Using Common-Reflection-Point Gathers, 788
Focusing Analysis, 798
Fowler’s Velocity-Independent Prestack Migration, 803
xii Seismic Data Analysis

Exercises, 815
Appendix E: Topics in Dip-Moveout Correction and Prestack Time Migration, 817
E.1 Reflection Point Dispersal, 817
E.2 Equations for DMO Correction, 820
E.3 Log-Stretch DMO Correction, 823
E.4 The DMO Ellipse, 826
E.5 Nonzero-Offset Traveltime Equation, 827
E.6 Prestack Frequency-Wavenumber Migration, 831
E.7 Velocity Analysis by Wavefield Extrapolation, 833
References, 834

Chapter 6
NOISE AND MULTIPLE ATTENUATION

6.0 Introduction, 837

Coherent Linear Noise, 838
Treatment of Coherent Linear Noise by Conventional Processing, 840
Reverberations and Multiples, 843
Treatment of Reverberations and Multiples by Conventional Processing, 857
Spatially Random Noise, 876
6.1 Multiple Attenuation in the CMP Domain, 877
Periodicity of Multiples, 877
Velocity Discrimination Between Primaries and Multiples, 887
Karhunen-Loeve Transform, 887
Modeling of Multiples, 896
6.2 Frequency-Wavenumber Filtering, 898
Random Noise and Frequency-Wavenumber Filtering, 904
Statics Corrections and Frequency-Wavenumber Filtering, 905
Dip Filtering of Coherent Linear Noise, 905
Frequency-Wavenumber Multiple Attenuation, 907
6.3 The Slant-Stack Transform, 920
Physical Aspects of Slant Stacking, 920
Slant-Stack Transformation, 923
Practical Aspects of Slant Stacking, 924
Slant-Stack Parameters, 928
Time-Variant Dip Filtering, 931
Slant-Stack Multiple Attenuation, 932
6.4 The Radon Transform, 938
Velocity-Stack Transformation, 942
The Discrete Radon Transform, 943
The Parabolic Radon Transform, 944
Practical Considerations, 945
Impulse Response of the Velocity-Stack Operator, 948
Field Data Examples, 948
Radon-Transform Multiple Attenuation, 953
6.5 Linear Uncorrelated Noise Attenuation, 960
Design of Spatial Prediction Filters, 966
Field Data Examples, 966
Exercises, 976
Appendix F: Multichannel Filtering Techniques for Noise and Multiple Attenuation, 977
F.1 Analysis of Guided Waves, 977
F.2 Wavefield Extrapolation in the τ − p Domain, 980
F.3 Mathematical Foundation of the Discrete Radon Transform, 982
 Contents xiii

F.4 Free-Surface Multiple Attenuation, 989

F.5 Water-Bottom Multiple Attenuation, 992
F.6 Spatial Prediction Filter, 995
References, 998

INDEX, xxv

Volume II

Chapter 7
3-D SEISMIC EXPLORATION

7.0 Introduction, 1001

The Need for Imaging in Three Dimensions, 1003
7.1 3-D Survey Design and Acquisition, 1010
Migration Aperture, 1010
Spatial Sampling, 1017
Other Considerations, 1018
Marine Acquisition Geometry, 1018
Cable Feathering, 1019
3-D Binning, 1019
Crossline Smearing, 1020
Strike versus Dip Shooting, 1027
Land Acquisition Geometry, 1028
7.2 Processing of 3-D Seismic Data, 1030
3-D Refraction Statics Corrections, 1036
Azimuth Dependence of Moveout Velocities, 1036
3-D Dip-Moveout Correction, 1046
Inversion to Zero Offset, 1048
Aspects of 3-D DMO Correction — A Summary, 1050
Velocity Analysis, 1050
3-D Residual Statics Corrections, 1050
3-D Migration, 1051
Trace Interpolation, 1065
7.3 3-D Poststack Migration, 1073
Separation versus Splitting, 1073
Impulse Response of the One-Pass Implicit Finite-Difference 3-D Migration, 1074
Two-Pass versus One-Pass Implicit Finite-Difference 3-D Migration in Practice, 1076
Explicit Schemes Combined with the McClellan Transform, 1082
The Phase-Shift-Plus-Correction Method, 1088
7.4 3-D Prestack Time Migration, 1099
3-D DMO Correction Combined with 3-D Common-Offset Migration, 1112
Crossline Migration, 1129
3-D Migration Velocity Analysis, 1131
Aspects of 3-D Prestack Time Migration — A Summary, 1137
7.5 Interpretation of 3-D Seismic Data, 1156
Time Slices, 1156
3-D Visualization, 1156
Removal of Opacity, 1158
Seed Detection, 1159
Structural Interpretation, 1161
Stratigraphic Interpretation, 1171
Exercises, 1195
xiv Seismic Data Analysis

Appendix G: Mathematical Foundation of 3-D Migration, 1198

G.1 Implicit Methods, 1198
G.2 Explicit Methods, 1200
G.3 3-D Phase-Shift Migration, 1203
G.4 3-D Stolt Migration, 1204
G.5 Trace Interpolation, 1204
G.6 3-D Nonzero-Offset Traveltime Equation, 1208
References, 1209

Chapter 8
EARTH IMAGING IN DEPTH

8.0 Introduction, 1213

Lateral Velocity Variations, 1222
8.1 Layer Replacement, 1226
Wave-Equation Datuming, 1229
Poststack Layer Replacement, 1230
Prestack Layer Replacement, 1231
Field Data Example, 1237
8.2 2-D Poststack Depth Migration, 1238
Image Rays and Lateral Velocity Variations, 1238
Time versus Depth Migration, 1244
Iterative Depth Migration, 1247
Iteration with Zero-Offset Data, 1250
Iteration with CMP-Stacked Data, 1258
Iteration with Prestack Data, 1265
Iteration in Practice, 1265
8.3 2-D Prestack Depth Migration, 1273
Shot-Geophone Migration, 1274
Shot-Profile Migration, 1280
Sensitivity of Image Accuracy to Velocity Errors, 1280
Field Data Examples, 1295
8.4 3-D Poststack Depth Migration, 1304
3-D Poststack Time versus Depth Migration, 1304
Two-Pass versus One-Pass 3-D Poststack Depth Migration, 1313
Implicit versus Explicit 3-D Poststack Depth Migration, 1314
3-D Poststack Datuming, 1321
8.5 3-D Prestack Depth Migration, 1321
Kirchhoff Summation, 1324
Calculation of Traveltimes, 1324
The Eikonal Equation, 1325
Fermat’s Principle, 1331
Summation Strategies, 1331
Migration Aperture, 1333
Operator Antialiasing, 1333
3-D Common-Offset Depth Migration, 1335
Exercises, 1342
Appendix H: Diffraction and Ray Theory for Wave Propagation, 1342
H.1 The Kirchhoff Integral, 1342
H.2 The Eikonal Equation, 1346
H.3 Finite-Difference Solution to the Eikonal Equation, 1349
References, 1351
 Contents xv

Chapter 9
EARTH MODELING IN DEPTH

9.0 Introduction, 1353

Inversion Methods for Data Modeling, 1355
Inversion Procedures for Earth Modeling, 1356
Velocity-Depth Ambiguity, 1357
Model Representation and Visualization, 1360
9.1 Models with Horizontal Layers, 1365
Dix Conversion, 1365
Coherency Inversion, 1369
Near-Surface Layer with Laterally Varying Velocities, 1382
9.2 Model with Low-Relief Structure, 1387
Stacking Velocity Inversion, 1392
Coherency Inversion, 1404
Velocity Resolution, 1404
9.3 Model with Complex Overburden Structure, 1404
Image-Gathers, 1406
Constant Half-Space Velocity Analysis, 1415
9.4 Model Building, 1415
Time-to-Depth Conversion, 1416
Time Structure Maps, 1416
Interval Velocity Maps, 1417
Depth Structure Maps, 1425
Calibration to Well Tops, 1426
Layer-by-Layer Inversion, 1433
Structure-Independent Inversion, 1450
9.5 Model Updating, 1450
Residual Moveout Analysis, 1462
Reflection Traveltime Tomography, 1469
Limitations in Resolving Velocity-Depth Ambiguity by Tomography, 1479
Turning-Ray Tomography, 1512
Exercises, 1524
Appendix J: Data Modeling by Inversion, 1525
J.1 The Generalized Linear Inversion, 1525
J.2 The GLI Formalism of Deconvolution, 1526
J.3 Applications of the GLI Technique, 1530
J.4 Dix Conversion, 1534
J.5 Map Processing, 1539
J.6 Reflection Traveltime Tomography, 1545
J.7 Threshold for Velocity-Depth Ambiguity, 1553
References, 1554

Chapter 10
STRUCTURAL INVERSION

10.0 Introduction, 1557

10.1 Subsalt Imaging in the North Sea, 1558
Estimation of the Overburden Model, 1562
Estimation of the Substratum Model, 1562
Model Verification, 1563
10.2 Subsalt Imaging in the Gulf of Mexico, 1574
Layered Earth Model Estimation, 1574
 xvi Seismic Data Analysis

Sructure-Independent Model Estimation, 1577

10.3 Imaging Beneath Irregular Water Bottom in the Northwest Shelf of Australia, 1597
Earth Modeling and Imaging in Depth, 1597
10.4 Imaging Beneath Volcanics in the West of Shetlands of the Atlantic Margin, 1597
Earth Modeling and Imaging in Depth, 1607
10.5 Imaging Beneath Shallow Gas Anomalies in the Gulf of Thailand, 1620
Earth Modeling and Imaging in Depth, 1620
10.6 3-D Structural Inversion Applied to Seismic Data from the Southern North Sea, 1626
Estimation of the Overburden Model, 1626
Model Representation by Tessellation, 1630
3-D Coherency Inversion, 1630
3-D Poststack Depth Migration, 1637
Estimation of the Substratum Model, 1638
10.7 3-D Structural Inversion Applied to Seismic Data from the Central North Sea, 1651
3-D Coherency Inversion Combined with 3-D Poststack Depth Migration, 1665
3-D Stacking Velocity Inversion Combined with 3-D Image-Ray Depth Conversion, 1674
10.8 3-D Structural Inversion Applied to Seismic Data from Offshore Indonesia, 1674
Model Building, 1678
Model Updating, 1678
Imaging in Depth, 1690
Volume-Based Interpretation, 1690
10.9 3-D Structural Inversion Applied to Seismic Data from the Northeast China, 1703
3-D DMO Processing, 1720
3-D Prestack Time Migration, 1720
From RMS to Interval Velocities, 1742
Structural Inversion, 1742
Structural and Stratigraphic Interpretation, 1744
Exercises, 1778
Appendix K: Seismic Modeling, 1779
K.1 Zero-Offset Traveltime Modeling, 1779
K.2 Zero-Offset Wavefield Modeling, 1781
K.3 Nonzero-Offset Wavefield Modeling, 1781
K.4 Elastic Wavefield Modeling, 1790
References, 1792

Chapter 11
RESERVOIR GEOPHYSICS

11.0 Introduction, 1793

Elastic Waves and Rock Properties, 1794
11.1 Seismic Resolution, 1801
Vertical Resolution, 1801
Lateral Resolution, 1803
11.2 Analysis of Amplitude Variation with Offset, 1807
Reflection and Refraction, 1808
Reflector Curvature, 1813
AVO Equations, 1816
Processing Sequence for AVO Analysis, 1839
Derivation of AVO Attributes by Prestack Amplitude Inversion, 1851
Interpretation of AVO Attributes, 1862
3-D AVO Analysis, 1863
11.3 Acoustic Impedance Estimation, 1863
Synthetic Sonic Logs, 1864
 Contents xvii

Processing Sequence for Acoustic Impedance Estimation, 1865

Derivation of Acoustic Impedance Attribute, 1866
3-D Acoustic Impedance Estimation, 1872
Instantaneous Attributes, 1896
11.4 Vertical Seismic Profiling, 1907
VSP Acquisition Geometry, 1907
Processing of VSP Data, 1907
VSP-CDP Transform, 1908
11.5 4-D Seismic Method, 1911
Processing of 4-D Seismic Data, 1912
Seismic Reservoir Monitoring, 1913
11.6 4-C Seismic Method, 1915
Recording of 4-C Seismic Data, 1919
Gaiser’s Coupling Analysis of Geophone Data, 1922
Processing of P P Data, 1926
Rotation of Horizontal Geophone Components, 1926
Common-Conversion-Point Binning, 1933
Velocity Analysis of P S Data, 1946
Dip-Moveout Correction of P S Data, 1959
Migration of P S Data, 1961
11.7 Seismic Anisotropy, 1961
Anisotropic Velocity Analysis, 1965
Anisotropic Dip-Moveout Correction, 1968
Anisotropic Migration, 1980
Effect of Anisotropy on AVO, 1998
Shear-Wave Splitting in Anisotropic Media, 1999
Exercises, 2000
Appendix L: Mathematical Foundation of Elastic Wave Propagation, 2001
L.1 Stress-Strain Relation, 2001
L.2 Elastic Wave Equation, 2007
L.3 Seismic Wave Types — Body Waves and Surface Waves, 2008
L.4 Wave Propagation Phenomena — Diffraction, Reflection, and Refraction, 2012
L.5 The Zoeppritz Equations, 2014
L.6 Prestack Amplitude Inversion, 2019
References, 2024

INDEX, xvii
 PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
The seismic method plays a prominent role in the search
for hydrocarbons. Seismic exploration consists of three
main stages: data acquisition, processing, and interpre-
tation. This book is intended to help the seismic analyst
understand the fundamentals of the techniques used in
processing seismic data. In particular, emphasis is given
to the practical aspects of data analysis.
Topics in this book are treated in two phases. First,
each process is described from a physical viewpoint,
with less emphasis on mathematical development. In
doing so, geometric means are used extensively to help
the reader gain the physical insight into the different
processes. Second, the geophysical parameters that af-
fect the fidelity of the resulting output from each pro-
cess are critically examined via an extensive series of
synthetic and real data examples. For the student of re-
flection seismology and new entrants to the seismic in-
dustry, this book tries to provide insights into the prac-
tical aspects of the application of the theory of time se-
ries and waves. For experienced seismic explorationists,
this book should serve as a refresher and handy ref-
erence. However, it is not just meant for the seismic
analyst. Explorationists who would like to gain a prac-
tical background in seismic data processing without any
mathematical burden also should benefit from it. Nev-
ertheless, for the more theoretically inclined, a mathe-
matical treatise on the main subjects is provided in the
appendixes.
The seismic analyst is confronted daily with the
important tasks of:
(1) selecting a proper sequence of processing steps ap-
propriate for the field data under consideration,
(2) selecting an appropriate set of parameters for each
processing step, and
(3) evaluating the resulting output from each process-
ing step, then diagnosing any problems caused by
improper parameter selection.
xix
There is a well-established sequence for standard
seismic data processing. The three principal processes
— deconvolution, stacking, and migration — make up
the foundation of routine processing. There also are
some auxiliary processes that help improve the effec-
tiveness of the principle processes. Questions often arise
as to the kind of auxiliary processes that should be used
and when they should be applied. For example, if shot
records contain an abundance of source-generated co-
herent noise, then dip filtering may be valuable before
deconvolution. Beam steering may be necessary to im-
prove the signal-to-noise ratio while reducing the num-
ber of channels in processing by a factor of as much as
four. Residual statics corrections often are required for
improving velocity estimation and stacking. In a daily
production environment, many questions arise concern-
ing the optimal parameter selection for each process.
Some of the most repeatedly asked questions are: What
is a good length for the deconvolution operator? What
should the prediction lag be? What should the de-
sign gate for the operator be? How should the corre-
lation window be chosen in residual statics computa-
tions? What kind of aperture width should one select in
Kirchhoff migration? What is the optimum depth step
size in finite-difference migration? Many more questions
could be included in this list of questions. To help an-
swer these questions, a large number of examples us-
ing both field and synthetic data and describing a wide
range of processing parameters are provided.
Since the old adage “a picture is worth a thousand
words” is especially apt in a discussion of seismic data
processing, figures make up the major portion of this
textbook. In preparing some of the figures, I received
great assistance from my colleagues at Western Geo-
physical Company. Thanks are due to Darran Lucas,
Mike Cox, Greg Godkin, Dave Nichols, Tania Bachus,
Tomaso Gabrieli, Dave Hill, and Raphael Tortosa.
xx Seismic Data Analysis
Thanks also are due to the oil companies and contrac-
tors for supplying data and some figures for which spe-
cific acknowledgment is made in the figure captions. I
express my deep appreciation to: Soraya Brombacher,
Mark Wilson, Wayne Johnson, Mike Jungnickel, and
Pam Jakubowicz for the artwork on most of the figures.
I also extend my appreciation to Meg LaVergne, who
put the final touches on many figures and computer-
drafted the flow diagrams. Thanks also to the mem-
bers of the playback group at Western’s London Dig-
ital Center: Stephen Blick, John Byrne, Mike Byrne,
Chris Godsave, Steven Grace, and Tony Leventis. Sally
Humphreys, Jan Mitchell, and Vivian Millson helped
key the text into the word processor.
I acknowledge with great appreciation the review
work done by Jon Claerbout, Sven Treitel, John Sher-
wood, Fred Hilterman, and Greg Godkin. I also thank
the following individuals who participated in review-
ing parts of the earlier drafts: Ron Chambers, Aftab
Alam, Bruce Cassell, Karl Millahn, Tony Kudrna, Dave
Brown, Darko Tufekcic, Pete Bibby, John Ferguson,
Mark Doyle, Wendell Wiggins, Jeff Resnick, Walt Lynn,
Bill Dragoset, Mai Yang, Patrick Ng, Steve Cole, Larry
Scott, Ken Larner, and Helmut Jakubowicz. Special
thanks are due to Diane Parker, who did an outstanding
job of editing for style, proofreading, and preparing the
camera-ready copy of the book. Thanks to Lynn Grif-
fin for helping to bring the text up to the SEG stan-
dards of publication. Special thanks also are due to my
editor, Steve Doherty, for his excellent and comprehen-
sive review. I also appreciate his valuable recommenda-
tions in revising the text and the help he provided in
bringing clarity to the text. I extend my deepest and
wholehearted appreciation to my wife, Hulya, for her
everlasting encouragement. And finally, thanks are due
to Western Geophysical Company of America for the
support provided to me in writing this textbook.
Öz Yilmaz
London, July, 1987.
 PREFACE
The first edition, entitled Seismic Data Processing, was
published in 1987 by the Society of Exploration Geo-
physicists. Thereafter, I began to work on the second
edition almost immediately. My objective was to cap-
ture continuously the new developments that were tak-
ing place in the seismic industry. The second edition
is the culmination of this continuous update over the
past ten years. The updating process was based on ex-
haustive model- and real-data experiments with the re-
sults of the research and development work of my own
and many others. I have also drawn an extensive and
demonstrative set of real-data examples from the nu-
merous case studies that I conducted during the course
of the update. Another source of update was of course
the prolific literature on exploration seismology.
This second edition embodies the broad scope of
seismic data analysis — processing, inversion, and inter-
pretation of seismic data. I shall give a brief summary of
the most important new developments in seismic data
analysis during the past 15 years. To begin with, the
3-D seismic method took a centrally dominant position
in the exploration and development of oil and gas fields.
Algorithms for 3-D seismic data processing, including
3-D dip-moveout correction, 3-D refraction and residual
statics corrections, and 3-D migration have now become
an integral part of the applications library of the seis-
mic data processing systems in use today. Additionally,
noise attenuation based on prediction filtering is now
applied routinely to seismic data. Techniques for multi-
ple attenuation based on the Radon transform and wave
extrapolation have been successfully demonstrated on
field data.
Shortly after 3-D migration, we also began to image
the subsurface before stacking. Efficient workflows for
3-D prestack time migration are in use today not only
to image the subsurface more accurately in the presence
of conflicting dips with different stacking velocities but
also to generate common-reflection-point gathers that
can be used to perform prestack amplitude inversion
xxi
and thus obtain attributes associated with amplitude
variations with offset. 3-D prestack time migration also
paves the way for estimating a 3-D rms velocity field
that can be used to perform Dix conversion and thus
obtain a 3-D interval velocity field.
Concurrent with prestack imaging, we began to im-
age the subsurface also in depth to account for strong
lateral velocity variations. During the last decade, years
of effort in research and development conducted in pre-
vious decades have led to practical inversion methods
for earth modeling and imaging in depth. Using appro-
priate inversion methods, we derive a seismic represen-
tation of an earth model in depth, described by two sets
of parameters — layer velocities and reflector geome-
tries, for low-relief, complex, and complex overburden
structures. The power of 3-D visualization has given us
the ability to create an earth model in depth with the
accuracy needed to image in depth, and that within an
efficient work schedule. Additionally, the rapid growth
in computer power has enabled us to generate an earth
image in depth from 3-D prestack depth migration of
large data volumes, again within acceptable work sched-
ules.
To get the most out of the image volumes derived
from 3-D prestack time and depth migrations, we now
make extensive use of 3-D visualization in seismic in-
terpretation. Using a volume-based interpretation strat-
egy, not only do we pick time or depth horizons to de-
lineate the structural model of the subsurface, but we
also make use of the seismic amplitudes to infer the
depositional model of the subsurface.
The road ahead for exploration seismology includes
three main topics — 4-D seismic method, 4-C seismic
method, and anisotropy, all aimed at seismic character-
ization of oil and gas reservoirs and eventually moni-
toring their depletions. By recording 3-D seismic data
over the field that is being developed and produced at
appropriate time intervals, we may detect changes in
the reservoir conditions, such as fluid saturation and
xxii Seismic Data Analysis
pore pressure. Such changes may be related to changes
in the seismic amplitudes from one 3-D survey to the
next. Time-lapse 3-D seismic monitoring of reservoirs
is referred to as the 4-D seismic method. The fourth
dimension represents the calendar time over which the
reservoir is being monitored. Potential applications of
the 4-D seismic method include monitoring the spatial
extent of the steam front following in-situ combustion
or steam injection used for thermal recovery, monitoring
the spatial extent of the injected water front used for
secondary recovery, imaging bypassed oil, determining
flow properties of sealing or leaking faults, and detect-
ing changes in oil-water contact.
Some reservoirs can be identified and monitored
better by using shear-wave data. For instance, acoustic
impedance contrast at the top-reservoir boundary may
be too small to detect, whereas shear-wave impedance
contrast may be sufficiently large to detect. By record-
ing multicomponent data at the ocean bottom, P -wave
and S-wave images can be derived. Commonly, four
data components are recorded — the pressure wave-field
and inline, crossline, and vertical components of par-
ticle velocity. Thus, the multicomponent seismic data
recording and analysis is often referred to as the 4-
C seismic method. Potential applications of the 4-C
seismic method include imaging beneath gas plumes,
salt domes, and basalts, delineating reservoir bound-
aries with a higher S-wave impedance contrast than
P -wave impedance contrast, differentiating sand from
shale, detection of fluid phase change from oil-bearing to
water-bearing sands, detection of vertical fracture orien-
tation, mapping hydrocarbon saturation, and mapping
oil-water contact.
Until recently, exploration seismology at large has
been based on the assumption of an isotropic medium,
albeit we have been cognizant of anisotropic behavior
of reservoir rocks. Seismic anisotropy often is associated
with directional variations in velocities. For instance, in
a vertically fractured limestone reservoir, velocity in the
fracture direction is lower than velocity in the direction
perpendicular to the plane of fracturing, giving rise to
azimuthal anisotropy. Another directional variation of
velocities involves horizontal layering and fracturing of
rocks parallel to the layering. In this case, velocity in the
horizontal direction is higher than the vertical direction,
giving rise to transverse isotropy.
In addition to a continuing effort to improve the
existing 3-D time- and depth-domain applications, cur-
rent research and development in seismic data analysis
is focused on time- and depth-domain analysis of 4-D
and 4-C seismic data while accounting for anisotropy.
Topics in this book are organized to reflect the in-
creasing degree of complexity in the data analysis and
the progress made in exploration seismology. Volume
I is devoted to 2-D conventional processing based on
the three principle processes — deconvolution, stack-
ing, and migration. Volume I is devoted to topics be-
yond 2-D conventional processing — 3-D seismic explo-
ration, seismic inversion for earth modeling and imag-
ing in depth, 4-D seismic method, 4-C seismic method,
and anisotropy. Each chapter is accompanied by an ap-
pendix that includes a mathematical treatise of selected
topics from the chapter itself. As such, practical aspects
of seismic data analysis are treated within the chapters
themselves without the burden of the theoretical details.
When used as a textbook in a university, I recom-
mend Volume I for a first-semester senior-level course
and Volume II for a second-semester senior-level course
or a first-year graduate course. Optionally, you may con-
sider an additional one-semester senior- or graduate-
level course on the applied theory of exploration seis-
mology based on primarily the appendixes.
If you are a seismic analyst using this book as a
reference, you can study the practical aspects of seis-
mic data analysis in relation to the projects you are
conducting to get helpful hints on the algorithms and
workflows. If you are a research geophysicist using this
book as a reference, you can study the practical aspects
of a specific application of interest to get helpful hints
on what assumptions can be made in relation to that
application. Also, you can study the appendixes to initi-
ate yourself into the basic theory on the subject of your
interest.
I have a passion for the seismic method that I have
maintained throughout my career. While the source of
this passion is indisputably my teacher and life-long
friend, Jon Claerbout, I have been very fortunate to
have worked with some of the most talented individu-
als who have fueled my enthusiasm for exploration seis-
mology. Most appropriately, I wish to express here my
heartful gratitudes to each of these individuals.
To begin with, I am deeply grateful to Steve Do-
herty, my technical editor and life-long friend, for his
incisive, meticulous, and prompt editing of this entire
work. Steve’s editing brought clarity and precision to
the text. He was also the editor of the first edition; on
that occasion and now, he gracefully shared the experi-
ence with me. Thank you, Steve, for your dedication and
effort. As part of the technical editing, I also received
great assistance from Zhiming Li, who edited Appen-
dices A through J, Joe Stefani who edited Appendix
L, and John Toldi who edited Chapter 11. I thank all
of you wholeheartedly for your careful editing of the
text, debugging the equations, and introducing clarity
to derivations.
Next, I wish to express my sincere gratitude to
Judy Hastings, my technical copy editor, for her im-
pressively consistent editing of the entire manuscript
 Preface
and her diligence in keeping me on schedule. Thank you,
Judy, also for your graceful handling of my frustrations
with thes and as. I wish to extend my thanks to Ted
Bakamjian, Publications Manager of SEG, for his sup-
port and excellent coordination of the tasks involved in
the publication process.
Now I wish to extend my special thanks to Cyril
Gregory, Irfan Tanritanir, Ferudun Kilic, Orhan Yil-
maz, Fugen Zhou, Ma Xae Ling, and Huseyin Ozdemir,
who helped me with several of the case studies, and
model- and real-data experiments. Specifically, Cyril
helped me create the case studies for my 1996 SEG Dis-
tinguished Lecture Tour; these case studies are included
in Chapter 10. Cyril has been involved in many of the
projects over the past ten years associated with this
work. Irfan, Ferudun, and Fugen all worked with me on
several case studies which are also included in Chapter
10. Orhan did the processing of the 4-C data presented
in Chapter 11. I feel very fortunate to have had such
exceptionally talented individuals helping me to bear
the burden.
I wish to extend my special thanks to David Lum-
ley, 4th Wave Imaging, and Chevron for contributing
examples to the section on 4-D seismic method. I wish
to express my sincere appreciation to Moshe Reshef for
creating some of the synthetic data sets I used in my
experiments described in Chapters 3 and 8. Likewise, I
extend my sincere gratitude to Evgeny Landa for cre-
xxiii
ating the synthetic data sets I used in my experiments
described in Chapter 9. Extending the list, I express my
thanks to Ed Crase, Chris Taylor, Dave Nichols, Du-
ane Dopkin, Gerald Kidd, Rob Bond, Cerys Biancardi,
Davud Babayev, and Lee Bell for providing examples
or helping me create them. I am sure that I am unable
to recall many of the names associated with the update
going back ten years; I thank all of you most sincerely.
I am very grateful to Chevron, Mobil, Britannia,
Talisman, Husky Oil, BP-Amoco, Shell, AGIP, Total,
BHP, Gulf Canada, ONGC, Shengli Oil Field of CNPC,
Saudi Aramco, and many other companies who may or
may not have preferred to be anonymous for providing
field data that enabled me to conduct my experiments.
I wish to sincerely thank Damir Skerl and West-
ern Geophysical, Rutt Bridges and Landmark, Schlum-
berger Geco-Prakla, Walt Lynn and PGS, and espe-
cially Eldad Weiss and Paradigm Geophysical for their
most invaluable support and encouragement in my
quest to complete this work.
And now the last word, but a special tribute to
my wife, Hulya, and my son, Esen. I am wholeheartedly
grateful to you both for your enduring love and support.
This work undoubtedly demanded sacrifice; and it was
definitely a sacrifice on your part. You demanded very
little of me, and you gave the whole of your love to me.
I shall cherish it all my life.
Öz Yilmaz
London, May, 2000.