Industry Position Paper - Novel Manufacturing Technologies and

Their Potential Role in Improved Diet & Health

Prepared by: Craig Leadley

Checked by: Philip Richardson, Head of Food Manufacturing Technologies

Confidentiality notice: The information in this document is only intended for the individual or entity to whom it is
addressed. It may contain privileged and confidential information that is exempt from disclosure by law and if you are
not the intended recipient, you must not copy, distribute or take any action in reliance on it. If you have received this
document in error, please notify Campden BRI immediately by telephone.
Background
Trends in the market-place are toward more ‘natural’ foods that are nutritionally
balanced, healthy and convenient. At the same time, these products need to be as
close to ‘fresh’ as possible and yet have sufficient shelf-life to be compatible with
modern shopping habits. In addition, it would be advantageous for food
manufacturers (and consumers) if healthy foods could be manufactured that
contained some additional functionality that aided health and well-being.

A number of socio-political factors are shaping these changes in new product

development, these include initiatives such as the Food Standards Agency salt
reduction targets, the Department of Health responsibility deal, the Scottish obesity
route map and demands from consumers themselves.

The diverse and complex requirements for new products present significant technical
challenges for the food industry. These challenges are likely to be addressed by
multi-factorial approaches. Innovations in ingredients and formulation will play a
critical role but these innovations cannot be considered in isolation of manufacturing
and technological developments.

This paper will outline opportunities from technologies that could improve the
nutritional status, quality and functionality of products. It will do this by briefly
reviewing the current state of the art in thermal processing and by giving examples of
innovations in thermal processing (heating only) and innovations in non-thermal
preservation technologies.

Throughout the paper, the various technologies will be termed ‘emerging’ rather than
‘new’ or ‘novel’ technologies. This is to reflect the fact that many of the technologies
described have been in development for many years (and therefore cannot be
thought of as ‘new’) and also to avoid any ambiguity as to whether a technology is,
or is not, ‘novel’ as defined by the novel food regulations (EC 258/97) which is a
piece of legislation that required pre-market approval for novel foods as defined
within the regulation.

A brief overview of the existing state of the art for thermal

preservation
Conventional thermal preservation technologies can be broadly categorised as
sterilisation or pasteurisation. Some pasteurised products are ambient stable; some
require additional hurdles such as chilled temperature control.

Ambient stable ‘canned’ products have an excellent safety record (when applied
correctly), are generally high throughput and can provide convenient, reasonable
quality foods at a low cost (Mintel 2007). However, such products are sometimes
viewed as ‘old fashioned’ and of poor quality compared with chilled alternatives. For
example, a Mintel market intelligence report noted that there was “Scepticism of
consumers regarding the quality and healthiness of frozen and canned fruit and
vegetables” and that “The frozen and canned fruit and vegetable sectors continue to
be plagued by the long-standing image that they are second best to fresh. Some
43% of consumers mainly buy fresh fruit and vegetables thinking that frozen and
canned are less healthy and of poorer quality”. (Mintel 2007).

The loss of ‘fresh-like’ characteristics in ambient stable processed foods can be

particularly problematic in fruits and vegetables where undesirable changes such as
softening and discoloration can occur. Although there has been reasonable growth
in the canned food market in recent years, this mature market struggles to compete
with the chilled foods market. To take one example, the wet ambient soup market
was valued at £260 million in 2005, up 11% from 2001. The fresh soup market grew
by over 40% in the same time period (Mintel 2007).

Chilled heat processed foods such as cook-chilled ready meals (typically having a
shelf-life of under 10 days) and Refrigerated Pasteurised Foods of Extended
Durability (so called ‘REPFEDs’ typically having a chilled shelf life of 10-30 days)
offer improved quality, in part, due to a much reduced thermal input. For example, a
chilled product with less than 10 days shelf-life is typically subjected to a process
equivalent to 70°C for 2 minutes, in order to bring about a 6 log reduction of Listeria
monocytogenes (Betts & Betts 2009). A REPFED typically receives a process
equivalent to 90°C for 10 minutes in order to bring about a 6 log reduction of
psychrotrophic strains of Clostridium botulinum (Betts & Betts 2009). In either case
the thermal input is significantly lower than the minimum process of 121.1°C for 3
minutes (or equivalent) that is normally applied to low acid canned foods
(Department of Health 1994). Please note that the selection of appropriate
conditions for thermal process safety is a complex subject, the processes mentioned
here are examples only and specialist advice so be sought for process selection.
Although the thermal process is less severe in chilled products as described, the
products still suffer from some quality degradation as a result of thermal damage and
they are restricted to a relatively short shelf-life compared with heat sterilised
products.

Improvements in both eating quality and nutritional quality can be achieved through
thermal process optimisation and through an understanding of the underlying
kinetics of quality and nutrient degradation. Although an old document, a review of
the kinetics of quality and nutrient degradation by Holdsworth ( 1997) remains an
excellent resource for this topic.

High-temperature-short-time processing is a particularly promising area for thermal

processing product improvement because quality and nutrient degradation are
minimised without compromising on microbiological safety. The novel heating
methods described in this paper utilise these benefits of rapid heating.

Emerging methods for food preservation

A number of emerging preservation technologies have attracted research interest
because such technologies may provide products having improved nutritional and
sensorial quality over those made using conventional thermal preservation and some
offer the potential to preserve or improve product functionality. All of the
technologies described are already in commercial use but some are available on a
relatively limited scale. The technologies described are not an exhaustive list of
emerging preservation technologies but they serve to illustrate the potential of this
exciting field.

Emerging thermal methods

Ohmic heating

Ohmic heating is an emerging thermal process where heat is generated by the

passage of alternating electrical current (AC) through a body such as food. Ohmic
heating is far from new, several processes were patented for the use of electrical
currents to heat pumpable liquids in the 19th Century and it was used for milk
pasteurisation in the early 20th Century (De Alwis & Fryer 1990;Ruan, Ye, & Chen
2004). Other names for this technology include resistance heating, direct resistance
heating, Joule heating and ElectroheatingTM (Christian & Leadley 2006).

Ohmic heating relies upon the electrical resistance of the food to generate heat,
therefore if the electrical resistances of all components of the product are constant
then the product heats uniformly. Particulate products can therefore be heated
uniformly, overcoming the limitations of heat transfer in conventional HTST systems
such as plate, tubular or scraped surface heat exchangers. Products such as fruit
juices and concentrates, shelf-stable milk, puddings, soups and liquid egg products
can be heated rapidly, uniformly, and with reduced impact on the organoleptic
properties of the product (Christian & Leadley 2006). The process can be difficult to
operate without closely matching the physical properties of the different phases
within the food. It is growing in commercial use; the Italian Company Emmepiemme
has installed at least 30 industrial ohmic heating plants worldwide. Applications
include low and high acid products and even large particulate products such as
peach halves (Municinó 2007).

Leizerson & Shimoni ( 2005) reported that their sensory studies “showed no
difference between fresh and ohmic-heated orange juices” but that vitamin C was
reduced by around 15% as a result of the treatment. Vikram et al ( 2005) compared
quality and nutritional changes in orange juice treated by ohmic, conventional
heating and other rapid heating methods and concluded that the lowest level of
vitamin C degradation was achieved in ohmically heated samples. However Mercali
et al ( 2012) noted that when high voltage gradients were used in processing a fruit
juice it resulted in greater vitamin C reduction than conventional heating so clearly
care needs to be taken with respect to process optimisation.

Dielectric heating methods

Microwave and radio frequency heating are well-established thermal processing

technologies that have found application in many process sectors. Commercial
installations are common in the plastics, textiles, paper and board and wood
(Decareau & Peterson 1986) and applications in the food industry are now
increasingly common (Sumnu, Sahin, & Sevimli 2005). Radio frequency has found
wide-spread use as a post-baking drying process for biscuits and snack foods, an
application that began in the 1980s (Marra, Zhang, & Lyng 2009). Microwave
processing has many applications where pasteurisation or sterilisation is not
necessarily the key objective, these include cooking, thawing, freeze drying,
tempering, rendering, frying, blanching and drying (Sumnu, Sahin, & Sevimli 2005).
Food applications for preservation using microwave or radio-frequency heating are
not yet however in widespread use.

The major advantage of microwave/RF heating is, as for ohmic heating, the rapid
and volumetric temperature rise that can be achieved in foods. This results from two
primary heating mechanisms, a dielectric effect and an ionic heating effect (IFT
2000). Dielectric heating occurs when the water molecule, the principal constituent
in most food materials, oscillates at the very high frequency of the microwave/RF
field; such oscillations produce rapid heating. Ionic heating occurs when the
oscillatory motion of ions in the food, under the influence of the microwave/RF fields,
produces a heating effect.

Unlike in conventional heating, it is less straight forward to predict the time-

temperature history of different regions of a food product being heated in a
microwave or radio-frequency field (Fellows 2009). As a food heats in a microwave
field, the rate of microwave absorption increases leading to higher temperatures
leading to greater absorption and so forth. This can, in some instances, lead to a
phenomenon called ‘runaway heating’ (Fellows 2009). Whilst this phenomenon in
itself can lead to practical challenges it is also more difficult to measure temperatures
in a microwave or radio frequency field because conventional thermocouples cannot
be used.

There have been a number of interesting recent developments in microwave

processing. For example, Microwave Assisted Thermal Sterilisation (MATS) is a
process in which microwave heating is combined with water immersion in order to
reduce overall process times and therefore improve quality. Advance Microwave
Technologies, based in Scotland, has developed a continuous flow microwave
process for the treatment of pumpable products. Again, rapid heating should result
in improved product quality. AMT claims that mashed vegetables and purees can be
produced using this method with improved “retention of colour, flavour and
micronutrients, and an extended shelf-life”.

Shaka Process

In conventional retorting for in-container heat processed foods, products are heated
to sterilisation temperatures via a heating medium contacting the outside of the
container. Heat is transferred through the product through convection or conduction,
depending on the characteristics of the product. Systems are available to improve
the heat transfer within the container by either axial or end-over-end rotation, but the
beneficial effects on heat transfer of these systems are limited to relatively low
viscosity products. The Shaka™ process is designed to improve product mixing and
hence heat transfer within the container. This is achieved by oscillating the
containers horizontally along their longest axis at accelerations of up to three times
gravity. This aims to reduce both the heating and cooling time of the product, leading
to significant reductions in processing time and associated improvements in product
quality. The idea of using shaking as an alternative to rotation was first developed
by engineers working at Carnaud Metalbox, in the mid 1990’s. Although the process
was patented and several food manufacturers showed an interest in the technique,
the work was not commercialised. Interest in the Shaka process was re-ignited when
Zinetec Ltd bought the patent rights to the process and installed the retort at
Campden BRI. Commercial products are now on sale and Zinetec claims Shaka
sterilised products can approach the quality of pasteurised products and have better
nutritional properties. This latter claim appears to be made quite cautiously as they
claim “Better nutritional qualities, according to currently available evidence”

Emerging non-thermal processing methods

High Pressure Processing (HPP)

HPP is a non-thermal pasteurisation process in which a food is subjected to

pressures in the region of 150 MPa to around 600 MPa (1500 to 6000 bar) and held
at pressure for a time, generally under 5 minutes. The extremely high pressures
used for HPP can inactivate vegetative microorganisms, yeasts, moulds and certain
enzymes (Simpson & Gilmour 1997) and a wealth of data are available to
demonstrate its efficacy for this purpose in a wide range of food products. See, for
example, (Patterson, Linton, & Doona 2007;Rendueles et al. 2011).

Because the process often does not involve significant heating, the sensory and
nutritional quality of products can, in the right circumstances, be very similar to their
unprocessed counterparts. The non-thermal nature of high-pressure pasteurisation
makes it an excellent candidate process for preserving the ‘fresh-like’ characteristics
of foods. Products that are currently on the market tend to be chilled and/or contain
additional preservation hurdles such as pH or water activity control or other
combinations of factors that have been demonstrated to prevent the growth of
psychrotophic strains of Clostridium botulinum.

The first commercially HPP products appeared in Japan in the 1990’s (Leadley &
Williams 1996) and a wide range of commercial products are now available. Details
on currently available commercial HPP products can be obtained from equipment
suppliers such as NC Hiperbaric and Avure or from ‘crowd-sourced’ information
resources such as high pressure subject interest groups on the business networking
site www.linkedin.com

As of 2010 there were around 145 full-scale units in operation worldwide with around
half of these being located in the USA and around a quarter being in Europe. Of the
145 vessels, 12% were in use for juice and beverage production, 35% for vegetable
products, 31% for meat products and 14% for shellfish production, the balance being
other speciality applications (personal communication with NC Hyperbaric, 2010).

Quality attributes like colour and texture can be very well maintained with HPP. For
example, the storage stability (at 4, 20 and 30°C) of anthocyanins in raspberries,
strawberries and blackcurrants was similar to fresh juice when processed at 800MPa
for 15min (Zabetakis et al., 2000). Similarly Chlorophylls have been reported to have
a high stability to pressure but not to temperatures higher than 50°C even if only
treated for a short time (tested with broccoli juice in Van Loey et al. 1998 and
Weemaes et al. 1999). It was found that HPP better preserved the texture of carrot
and red radish compared with thermal processing alone (Nguyen et al. 2010).

Pulsed Electric Field processing (PEF)

Pulsed electric field processing is a technique in which a food is pumped between

paired electrodes and exposed to a pulsed high voltage field (typically 20-80 kV/cm
for anti-microbial purposes) (IFT 2000). Treatment times are of the order of less
than 1 second for pasteurisation applications. This process reduces levels of
microorganisms whilst minimising undesirable changes in the sensory properties of
the food. Pasteurisation using PEF is ideally suited to pumpable homogenous
products. Pasteurisation of foods having large particulates is not feasible because of
the physical restrictions relating to the gap between electrodes. Products having a
high salt content are also unsuitable for PEF treatment because their higher
electrical conductivity reduces the resistance of the chamber and more energy is
therefore required to reach the required electrical field strength for pasteurisation
(IFT 2000). Example or potential pasteurisation applications include the non-thermal
treatment of various products such as fruit juices, liquid dairy products, beers and
wines, egg products and tomato products (Floury et al. 2006;Hodgins, Mittal, &
Griffiths 2002;Jin & Zhang 1999;Kui et al. 2005;Martin et al. 1997;McDonald et al.
2000;Michalac et al. 2003;Min et al. 2003;Min, Jin, & Zhang 2003;Min & Zhang
2003;Wu, Mittal, & Griffiths 2005;Zhang & Mittal 2005).

Large-scale equipment is now available and can be built to specification by

companies such as Diversified Technologies Inc. (USA, www.divtecs.com ), DIL
(Germany, www.dil-ev.de) and PurePulse (Netherlands, www.purepulse.eu).

A number of studies have demonstrated good retention of product quality using PEF.
For example, PEF treatment did not significantly influence the colour of orange juice
(Cortés, 2007; Cserhalmi et al. 2006), blueberry juice (Barba et al., 2010), apple
juice (Charles-Rodriguez, 2007), cranberry juice (Jin and Zhang 1999), carrot juice
(Quitão-Teixeira et al. 2007) lemon or grapefruit juice (Cserhalmi et al. 2006).
Similiarly, studies have shown that carotenoids increased in concentration in an
orange-carrot juice. When intensities lower than 30kV/cm were applied, vitamin A
content was higher than in thermally pasteurised juices (Torregrosa et al, 2005). In
paprika juice, the carotene amount was higher than in enzyme treated juice (60% vs
44%) (Ade-Omowaye, 2001).
Conclusions and future perspectives
Innovation is critical to the success of any food business. Many of the emerging
technologies outlined in this short review offer opportunities for food manufacturers
to develop products that have a unique point of difference from the competition
whether this be radically improved product quality or nutritional status.

At the current point in time, it seems unlikely that any emerging technology will
become a complete replacement for a conventional preservation process. What is
more likely is that specific technologies will find niche applications where they
provide a perfect solution to a particular problem.

Despite the many advantages of emerging food preservation technologies, adopting

these relatively new methods is not without commercial risks (greater in some cases
than in others). There is a balance to be struck between being stealing a march on
the competition, and investing too quickly in a technology that turns out to be
unsuitable for your business.

It is important that these emerging technologies are not rejected too hastily after only
superficial assessment. A frequently observed issue is that companies wish to
evaluate a technology using their existing product formulations and packaging. When
a technology trial yields a negative result, the assumption is made that the
technology is unsuitable for a product. By investing time in product design and
packaging modification, the technology could give radically improved results.
Committing sufficient resource to evaluate a technology at a good level of detail is an
essential component of reaching a balanced decision about its suitability for the
intended application.

A number of technical centres can offer support to help companies through the
technology selection process. Campden BRI can assist but there are also a number
of centres in Scotland with food safety and preservation expertise that can help,
these include Queen Margaret University, the University of Edinburgh, the University
of Strathclyde, the University of Glasgow and Robert Gordon University.
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