Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The meditative practices of Judaism, Christianity and Islam are not primarily technical
in focus, but rather thematic, scriptural and devotional. There are even voices in
these traditions that see techniques as a threat to individual faith, personal devotion
and divine grace. Still, Halvor Eifring argues that most of these practices make
heavy use of technical elements. After making a rough classification into recitation,
visualization and unmediated practices, he discusses the technical features involved
in each. He also points out, however, that more purely technical practices, such as
body and breath techniques, awareness practices and non-semantic or aniconic
meditation objects are not part of Judaic, Christian and Islamic traditions, possibly
because they threaten each religion’s claim to exclusive possession of the truth.
thematic, scriptural and devotional focus. Our definition reflects the more technical
orientation of modern popular notions of meditation, which are undoubtedly
influenced both by the popularity of Asian meditative practices and by the growing
body of scientific meditation research, both of which tend to have a technical focus.
Still, this definition does not exclude content-oriented practices, whether under the
name of meditation, prayer or contemplation, as long as they also involve technical
features.
Technical controversies
The technical features of meditation have been, and sometimes still are, at the centre
of controversy.
In 1989, for instance, the Vatican sent a letter to all Catholic bishops comparing
‘impersonal techniques’ like Zen, Transcendental Meditation and Yoga to the
devotional and relational aspects of Christian prayer and meditation. The letter,
which was signed by Cardinal and Prefect Joseph Ratzinger (who later became Pope
Benedict XVI) and approved by Pope John Paul II, makes clear that ‘method[s] of
getting closer to God’ cannot be ‘based on any “technique” in the strict sense of the
word’, and that techniques ‘can create a kind of rut, imprisoning the person praying
in a spiritual privatism which is incapable of a free openness to the transcendental
God’.2
The letter also attacks the ‘experience’ orientation that comes with many technical
practices, and makes clear that the fight against it is not something new. On the
contrary, some ‘false fourth-century charismatics’ within the Church itself are said to
have mistaken ‘the grace of the Holy Spirit with the psychological experience of his
presence in the soul’, thus ‘bring[ing] down to the level of natural psychology what has
been regarded as pure grace, considering it instead as . . . “experience”’.
The Vatican letter represents the culmination of reflections on an issue that
had been around for some time. Many Catholic circles had embraced practices
influenced by Japanese Zen3 and by Transcendental Meditation or other forms of
Indian mantra meditation.4 Though popular, such practices were and still are deeply
controversial and often attacked for their ‘technical’ approach to meditation, prayer
and contemplation: ‘[God] is not one to be manipulated as one can manipulate a
machine or appliance.’5
Protestant churches had also commented critically on new forms of meditation
based on or inspired by ‘eastern’ techniques. In 1979 the bishops of the Norwegian State
Church issued a statement called ‘Modern Meditation Movements and the Church’.6
The letter expressed fear that the new forms of meditation were not ‘neutral, purely
technical methods to a renewal of one’s life’, but represented a ‘direct influence from
foreign religions’. They attacked Transcendental Meditation for its initiation ritual,
personality cult and Hindu-inspired rhetoric, and even the Norwegian organization
Acem, which placed meditation in a secular psychological perspective, was, for
unknown reasons, accused of eventually leading to ‘a pantheistic understanding of
reality’.7
In the Orthodox Church, the technical and experiential aspects of the Jesus
Prayer had created controversies before the modern influx of Asian practices. The
anonymous Russian author of The Way of a Pilgrim quotes a Polish steward who
says:
They tell me . . . that [the Philokalia] contains odd sorts of schemes and tricks
for prayer written down by the Greek monks. It’s like those fanatics in India and
Bokhara [Bukhara in present-day Uzbekistan] who sit down and blow themselves
out trying to get a sort of tickling in their hearts, and in their stupidity take this
bodily feeling for prayer, and look upon it as the gift of God. All that is necessary to
fulfil one’s duty to God is to pray simply, to stand and say the Our Father as Christ
taught us. That puts you right for the whole day; but not to go on over and over
again to the same tune. That, if I may say so, is enough to drive you mad. Besides,
it’s bad for your heart.8
The ‘schemes and tricks’ (strannye fokusy) to which the Polish steward refers are in
effect the technical aspects of this form of prayer, and the repetition of the words
‘over and over again to the same tune’ (besprestanno ladit’ odno i to zhe) is one of
the technical features that he sees as causing both mental and physical illness. The
‘tickling in their hearts’ (shchekotanie v serdtse) and the ‘bodily [lit. natural] feeling’
(natural’noe chuvstvo) is the experience produced by this prayer technique and,
according to the Polish steward, misinterpreted by practitioners as God’s grace.
Christian scepticism towards technical approaches is also discussed in several
contributions to this volume, most notably the East Syrian emphasis on developing
a meditative attitude rather than providing clear-cut technical methods and Meister
Eckhart’s ‘pathless path’ and his statement that ‘[w]hoever is seeking God by ways is
finding ways and losing God’.
Like many aspects of Islamic and, in particular, Sufi practice, the recitation of dhikr
has been surrounded by intense controversy. On the one hand, there have been fierce
debates concerning the specific technical features of dhikr, including the use versus
non-use of chanting, music, drums and dancing, the question of silent versus vocal
and individual versus communal practice, the uses of body and breath and the relation
to a master (shaykh).
On the other hand, some general problems of technical practices have also been
pointed out. Techniques may stimulate a certain mechanistic lack of attention, a ‘blind
repetition . . . without understanding its true meaning’,9 which is the opposite of the
‘remembrance’ that is the professed purpose of dhikr. Technical practice has also been
criticized for stimulating a self-serving attitude seeking ‘worldly aims’10 rather than
religious salvation. Finally, and perhaps most seriously, techniques may undermine
the authority of Islamic scripture and law by providing alternative sources of religious
knowledge, in particular ecstatic rapture, revelations and mystical visions, as when
one dhikr-practising Sufi master is said to have had ‘certainty of faith’ though he
‘rarely recited the Qur’ān’,11 or when it was claimed that contravention of Islamic law
is permissible for adepts who have reached higher stages of mystical development.12
One critic admits that dhikr brings the soul ‘closer to the gnosis of God’, but finds it
problematic that similar techniques produce more or less the same effects in Christian,
Hindu and other non-Muslim ascetics.13
In sum, both within Christianity and Islam (and possibly Judaism), some critics
have expressed fear that technical practices may lead the individual believer away from
orthodox teachings, true devotion and divine grace. As we shall see, however, this does
not mean that Judaic, Christian and Islamic practices have been devoid of technical
elements.
practices of Judaism, Christianity and Islam. And while the geometrical figures known
in Indian traditions as yantras are usually rich in symbolic meaning, more advanced
stages of meditation are often seen as relating directly to their aniconic form rather than
their metaphorical content,14 in contrast to the mostly concrete objects of visualization
in Judaic and Christian practices. Even the highly abstract visual representation of
the ten sefirot within Kabbalah depends on a symbolic (and thus meaning-based)
interpretation for its effect.
The thematic, scriptural and devotional focus of most meditative practices in
Judaism, Christianity and Islam has made methods that work purely by virtue of
technical form rather than semantic or symbolic content seem less relevant. Within
these traditions, body and breath techniques, awareness practices and non-semantic
objects of recitation or visualization would make little religious sense, in contrast to
meaning-based recitation and visualization, as well as unmediated practices.
In spite of their thematic, scriptural and devotional focus, I shall argue in the following
sections that even Judaic, Christian and Islamic meditative traditions employ a variety
of technical elements to support and accentuate the devotional content of their
practices.
Technical features
In the terminology used here, the following elements typically characterize a
technique:
The first point is unproblematic. All the practices discussed in this volume are
deliberately undertaken, unlike many of the everyday social practices typically studied
by sociologists or anthropologists. Furthermore, they all aim at producing some kind
of immediate, short-term or long-term effect. The effects most frequently described are
immediate or short-term, but long-term effects are also mostly understood to follow,
as presupposed by the term ‘inner transformation’ in the definition of meditation cited
at the beginning of this chapter. This definition also requires the practice to be self-
administered, the practitioner him- or herself being the one who feels its effects. In this
volume, the only exceptions are the Sufi music and dance performances known as samā‘
and dhamāl, where the performers aim to draw the audience towards contemplation
of God.
The second point applies in varying degrees to the practices discussed in this
volume. This is not only because our written sources are often less than clear about the
procedures for meditative practice. Traditions also vary in the degree to which they
find clearly specified procedures helpful, as reflected in Meister Eckhart’s statement
that ‘[w]hoever is seeking God by ways is finding ways and losing God’ and in the East
Syrian mystic Isaac of Nineveh’s criticism of an attentiveness to details that leaves no
room for divine activity.15 In most cases, however, the basic outlines of the meditation
methods described are reasonably clear, even if they allow for spontaneous and creative
elements.
The third point also applies in varying degrees. In early Christianity and Islam,
recitative practices sometimes aim at ‘unceasing prayer’ in a literal sense, in which
case they may accompany daily activities, often though not always as a silent, mental
practice.16 Thus, one of the Desert Fathers recites aloud a biblical verse and meditates
on it while weaving ropes; another does so silently while walking to church. More
often, however, both recitative and other meditative activities take place in time slots
specifically set aside for meditation or prayer.
The fourth point applies to most of the practices described in this volume, but not
all. In this context, the term ‘continuous’ refers to the same activity being performed
over a certain time-span, as opposed to sequential practices, where different activities
follow each other in a given sequence, as in many rituals and prayers. Continuous
practices also allow for change, as when a phrase recited or an image visualized
becomes more blurred and/or more intense as the practice proceeds, or when the
practice is interrupted by spontaneous thoughts. The basic volitional activity, however,
remains the same.
When recitative practices are continuous, they are repetitive, the words or phrases
being repeated, vocally or mentally, again and again, as in the Jesus Prayer and in dhikr.
For this to work, the text recited cannot be too long, and East Syrian cases in which the
entire Book of Psalms is recited in a single session can hardly be considered continuous
in this sense. The same may be true of some Early Hebrew practices, though there we
have less information to go by.
When visualization practices are continuous, they are durative, the image produced
being held continually in mind, as when a Sufi focuses on the image of his master or
shaykh, or when an East Syrian mystic keeps his mind on the image of the cross. This
is most obvious in cases where the object of visualization is static; dynamic images
of, say, events from religious narratives may be less obviously durative. There are also
in-between cases, particularly when the image as such is stable, but the attention of
the practitioner moves from one part of the image to another, or from one perspective
to another, as in the ekphrastic exercises practised by Jesuits. The visualization of the
ten sefirot in Kabbalah is even more complex, not only implying the movement of
attention from one sefirah to another but also involving the manipulation of the image
itself, raising one of the sefirot up to the position of another and making the entire
system fall in on itself like the folding of a telescope.
Unmediated practices are also durative by nature, since they consist in continually
directing one’s attention towards God.
The fifth point is most complex, and brings us partly beyond the limits of cultural
history in a narrow sense. We can envisage at least three types of explanations for the
effects of meditative practice:
An example of the first type is Herbert Benson’s relaxation response, which he claims
is automatically triggered by the gentle repetition of a word or a non-semantic
mantra.17 An example of the second type is Livia Kohn’s explanation of visions of
specific deities as resulting from the suggestive impact of visualization techniques, in
a kind of autohypnosis.18 Many meditative cultures are more likely to use the third
type of explanation, referring to supernatural factors such as God’s grace or, in some
cases, magic. Even within the traditions, however, the effects of meditative practice
are sometimes discussed in more naturalistic terms, either referring to general
mechanisms or to the impact of semantic meaning. In the following, we shall look
away from supernatural factors and consider the first two points above.
of hearing the words recited, not just seeing them written or thinking about their
meaning. The fixedness of a given phrase is also a technical feature, which in the
case of the Jesus Prayer emerges gradually over the centuries. Sufi dhikr goes one step
further in fixedness, not allowing translation of the phrases recited (as in the case of
Sanskrit mantras). In some cases, the understanding of the meaning is not even seen
as necessary, as when a Desert brother complains that he does not understand the
words of the prayer he is reciting, but is told to keep on, since ‘the demons listen in fear
and flee’ (they presumably understand). In Sufi dhikr, semantic speech is sometimes
reduced to what sounds like meaningless sounds or syllables, such as an exhaled
‘grunt’ standing for Hu, meaning ‘He’ (referring to God). Even strongly meaning-based
recitative practices, therefore, sometimes come close to ribbing their words of semantic
(and at times even phonetic) content.
Now consider the contrast between vocal/audible and mental/silent recitation. Both
often co-occur in the same traditions. Mental recitation is seen as more advanced than
vocal recitation both in the melétē of the Desert Fathers and the dhikr of the Sufis, and
such mentalization may be seen as another technical feature. Some Sufi masters see
silent dhikr as helping the practitioner to reach the inner heart, to develop the inner
senses, to obtain inner light and to open the door to the unseen, eventually reaching
God, whereas vocal and audible dhikr comes in the way of these effects. In other
cases, however, silent recitation is preferred for moral rather than technical reasons,
since vocal recitation may stimulate ostentation, showmanship and vainglory and is
therefore seen as unlawful by some Sufi schools.
Finally, consider the length of the text recited. The idea of monologistos (one-phrased)
prayer lies behind the development of the Jesus Prayer. Brevity facilitates repetition,
which again helps to keep the mind focused. The fourteenth-century English work The
Cloud of Unknowing goes one step further and suggests that prayer should consist of ‘a
short word, preferably of one syllable’, ‘a word like “god” or “love”’ (or, on the negative
side, ‘sin’). This is partly to express, in a near-semantic way, the urgency of the prayer,
like a person threatened by fire calling out ‘Fire!’ or ‘Help!’ But it is also in order to
internalize the prayer and make it ever-present: ‘. . . fix this word fast to your heart, so
that it is always there come what may.’ And again, the brevity of the prayer will make it
suitable to counter distraction and keep the mind focused: ‘[w]ith this word you will
suppress all thought under the cloud of forgetting,’ and ‘it is prayed with a full heart,
in the height and depth and length and breadth of the spirit of him that prays it.’ Such
a prayer ‘pierces the ears of Almighty God more quickly than any long psalm churned
out unthinkingly’.20
Similar considerations apply to visualization. In Jesuit ekphrasis, for instance,
visualization is used suggestively to increase the sense of identification with scenes from
Christian scripture or history. However, there is also a specific interest in the technique
of mental ‘gazing’ and the instrumentalization of mental processes. Similarly, the Sufi
visualization of a master or shaykh is used suggestively to create a spiritual bond to
him, but would hardly have had this power if it were not for a more general impact
such visualization has in leaving behind mental traces in the mind. This mechanism is
at work even in practices focusing on non-semantic visual impressions, such as certain
forms of Indian trāṭaka.
I have mentioned the supportive role of breath and body above, and these
may have both technical and symbolic (and hence semantic) functions. In early
Christianity, as in Late Antique medicine, the breath is seen as a technical element
providing a link to the physical (and thereby presumably also the spiritual) heart.
At the same time, the breath is also used metaphorically to denote anything that we
cannot live without.21 Most of the body movements accompanying meditative prayer
in Judaism, Christianity and Islam, including stretched hands (sometimes crossed
above the head), beating of breast, raised eyes, repeated prostrations, swaying back
and forth, stamping of feet, dancing and whirling, etc., have symbolic meaning. But
when a dhikr practitioner is said to move his head back and forth only because his
master has told him to, without understanding why, we are closer to a technical
element. And when the phrase recited in dhikr is moved from above the navel to the
right side of the breast and then over to the left side and to the physical heart, this is
understood as a technique for directing the energy of the word Allāh to the physical
heart in order to burn all its desires and enter the spiritual heart and its light of
faith. Though couched in culture-specific terms, this may also be seen as a technical
effect resulting from the movement of the meditation object between different body
parts. The pressing of the tongue up against the palate is also primarily a technical
element.
Unmediated practices may be understood either as suggestive ways of entering
into the very core of the meaning universe of each individual religion, or as non-
suggestive ways of reaching beyond all linguistic and symbolic meaning, towards an
ineffable divine reality that happens to be referred to as ‘God’ (with all the cultural
implications of that term) in Judaism, Christianity and Islam, but which may have
different designations (with different implications) in other contexts. In the latter
case, we possibly have to do with techniques, though unmediated practices are often
surrounded by a strong scepticism towards techniques, as in the case of Meister
Eckhart.
In addition to recitative, visual and ‘unmediated’ meditation objects, technical
elements also include mental attitudes and concentrative versus more free-floating
uses of attention. Some traditions, like East Syrian Christianity, emphasize this aspect
of meditative practice more strongly than other details of technique.
The transition from early Greco-Roman practices to the prayers and meditations
of the Desert Fathers may illustrate the contrast between the technical form and
devotional content of meditative practices. To a large extent, the Desert Fathers
inherited the form of the Greco-Roman practices, but filled it with the content of their
Christian religion.
Conclusion
In sum, most Judaic, Christian and Islamic forms of meditation have a thematic,
scriptural or devotional focus, but still make use of technical elements.
It might be tempting to link this fact to some of the features shared by the so-called
Abrahamic religions. Thematic and scriptural meditation might be linked to the
Chapter 1
1 See Eifring, MS a. Thanks are due to Shahzad Bashir, Augustine Casiday and Ole
Gjems-Onstad for comments on an earlier version of this manuscript.
2 Letter to the Bishops of the Catholic Church on Some Aspects of Christian
Meditation. Issued by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith on October 15
1989.
3 See Merton, 1968; Johnston, 1971.
4 The Benedictine monk John Main (1926–82) advocated meditation on the Aramaic
prayer maranatha (which he called a mantra), and the Trappist monks William
Meninger, Basil Pennington (1931–2005) and Thomas Keating (1923–) developed
Centering Prayer, partly inspired by Transcendental Meditation.
5 DuBay, 2002, p. 155.
6 Bispemøtet, 1979.
7 Acem protested that the Church had lost out on modern psychology, and devoted a
whole issue of its periodical Dyade to a discussion of the relation between religion
and psychology, see Grøndahl, 1980.
8 French, 1965, p. 60.
9 DeWeese, 1999, p. 504.
10 de Jong, 1999, p. 313.
11 Bowen, 1993, p. 42.
12 Madelung, 1999, p. 133.
13 Homerin, 1999, p. 236.
14 See Khanna, MS.
15 Ambiguous attitudes towards techniques are also widespread in Asian meditative
traditions, as in Tibetan Rdzogs chen and Chinese Zen.
16 Similar ideals are found in Zen meditation, see Schlütter, MS.
17 Benson, 2000.
18 Kohn, 2008.
19 See Eifring, MS b.
20 Wolters, 1978, ch. 7, pp. 69–70, and ch. 37–8, pp. 104–5.
21 In Asian traditions, the breath is understood as an expression of the transience of
existence in certain Buddhist contexts, or as a link to cosmic energy in Daoist and
Yogic contexts.
Chapter 2
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