RAPID PROTOTYPING

20.13. RAPID PROTOTYPING

by Ali M. Sadegh

In the process of product development in a computer-aided design (CAD)

environment, when a design concept has been tested and a virtual prototype
(solid model) has been created, a physical prototype is needed for testing. This
stage of the process is called alpha prototype testing. The alpha prototype is a
replica of the part showing principal geometric features, such as all the
dimensions, slots, cavities, and surface texture. In the case of a device or a
machine, the interaction between parts of the device or the machine could be
tested with the alpha prototype. The next step in the product development is
beta prototype testing, where limited full-scale parts are made with planned
manufacturing processes and are examined and tested by volunteers or
customers in actual operation condition of the device. In the end, the parts or the
devices are made with the final materials and processes and are tested in an
independent laboratory or limited (selective) market.

Traditional alpha prototype manufacturing utilizes common materials including

metal, woods, clay, ceramics, construction papers, and polymers with machining
and metal forming. This method requires craftsmanship; it is time-consuming,
labor-intensive, and costly.

During the last decade, a class of technologies known as rapid prototyping has
emerged that can automatically construct physical models, the alpha prototype,
from computer-aided design (CAD) data. Rapid prototyping is an alternative
technology that uses computer-controlled equipment to automatically and rapidly
fabricate prototypes. These technologies have dramatically reduced the time
needed for the design and product development.
Rapid prototyping (RP), also referred to as three-dimensional printing, or
3-D printing, allows designers to quickly create tangible prototypes of their
designs. These prototypes are excellent visual aids for communicating ideas with
coworkers or customers and even testing the functionality of devices or
machines. In addition to prototypes, RP techniques can also be used to make
tooling for a manufacturing process (referred to as rapid tooling) and even
production-quality parts (rapid manufacturing). For small production runs and
complicated objects, rapid prototyping is often the best manufacturing process
available.

Clearly the word rapid is a relative term, since most of the 3-D printing machines
take from 1 h to more than 48 h to build, depending on the size and complexity of
the part or the device. There is significant time saving compared to the few days
or few months that is required for traditional prototyping.

The principal operation of a majority of rapid prototyping machines is the layered

manufacturing process. That is, a software package “slices” the CAD model
into a number of thin (about 0.003-in or 0.1-mm) layers, which are then built up
one atop another. Of course, because of the machine dimensions, the size of the
prototype is limited. Part volume is generally limited to 5,000 in 3.

20.13.1. RAPID PROTOTYPE PROCESS

The following steps are required to construct and build a prototype through rapid
prototyping machines.

1. The solid model. Through the use of any computer-aided design software, the
solid model of the object should be created. Then the solid object should be
converted to the STL format, explained next.

2. The STL format. The software format of stereolithography (STL), which was
the first RP technology, has been adopted as the standard of the rapid
prototyping industry.

This format represents a three-dimensional surface as an assembly of planar

triangles. The file contains the coordinates of the vertices and the direction of the
outward normal of each triangle. The CAD file should be transferred to the STL
format with the extension .stl, which is universal for all of the RP machines.
3. Creating layers from STL file. Rapid prototyping machines generally have a
preprocessing program that slices the STL file. Each RP machine has its own solid
modeler, which allows users to alter the scale or some dimensions of the model
as well as place the object in a desired orientation to be built. The preprocessing
software then slices the STL model into a number of layers from 0.01 to 0.7 mm
thick, depending on the RP machine’s precision. In case the solid model has
overhangs, internal cavities, or very thin-walled sections, the program may also
generate an auxiliary structure to support the model during the build. The
materials used for the structural support are generally very fragile and could be
taken out easily through a cleaning process.

4. Construction of the object. Through several techniques (presented below),

each sliced layer will be constructed from different materials such as paper,
plaster, polymer, or powdered metal. Each layer is glued, fused, or sintered to the
previous layer. Finally the object is built when the construction of all the layers
are completed. Almost all the RP machines are autonomous and build the object
without intervention.

5. Cleaning. After the object is built, it is removed from the machine by

detaching any support for the object. Some photosensitive materials need to be
fully cured before use. Prototypes may also require detaching the structural
supports through cleaning and surface treatment. In some cases, sanding,
sealing, and/or painting the model will improve its appearance and durability.

20.13.2. RAPID PROTOTYPING TECHNIQUES

Since the early 1980s, several technologies have been patented and developed.
However, most commercially available rapid prototyping machines use one the
following techniques.

• Stereolithographic apparatus (SLA). The stereolithography technique,

which was first patented in 1986 by 3D Systems of Valencia, CA, revolutionized
the rapid prototyping technology. The commercial machine is called
stereolithographic apparatus (SLA). It uses a high power laser to selectively
solidify a liquid photopolymer, layer by layer, into the shape of the finished
prototype. In essence, the SLA machine is a material additive process in
nature where the polymer solidifies when exposed to ultraviolet laser. The model
is built upon a platform situated just below the surface in a vat of liquid epoxy or
acrylate resin.

Through a series of servocontrolled mirrors, as shown in Fig. 20.12.1, the laser is

guided and shone on the liquid photosensitive polymers to solidify the top layer,
leaving excess areas liquid. Then, an elevator incrementally lowers the platform
into the liquid polymer. A sweeper recoats the solidified layer with liquid, and the
laser traces the second layer atop the first. This process is repeated until the
prototype is complete. Once the very top layer of the object is completed, the
elevator raises the platform and the part is removed from the vat and rinsed
clean of excess liquid. Supports are broken off and the model is then placed in an
ultraviolet oven for complete curing. Figure 20.12.2 shows samples of final
products.

• Fused deposition modeling (FDM). This is a process that deposits thin

beads of melted (fused) thermoplastic materials (filament), and is generally
extruded from a tip that moves in a horizontal plane. As the material solidifies, a
prototype model is built, layer by layer, typically up to 10 in. by 10 in. in cross
section and up to 16 in. high.

The platform is maintained at a lower temperature, so that the thermoplastic

quickly hardens. After the platform lowers, the extrusion head deposits a second
layer upon the first. Support structures are built along the way. Materials used in
this process are high-strength ABS plastic, standard ABS, elastomers (96
durometer), polycarbonate, and polyphenylsulfone. To remove the supporting
structure, parts are postprocessed by mechanical agitation in a warm water
solution.

• Laminated object manufacturing (LOM). In this method each slice of the

model is cut (from thin layers of paper, polymer, or sheet metal) using a
numerically controlled laser. The slices are bonded together with adhesive
materials to form a prototype. After each layer is put on top of the previous layer,
a heated roller applies pressure to bond the material (paper) to the base. Then,
the platform lowers the object to prepare for the next layer. This process is
repeated as needed to build the part. LOM prototypes can be sanded to reduce
jagged edges; however, they cannot be rigorously tested. This technique was
developed by Helisys of Torrance, CA.

• Selective laser sintering (SLS). This technique employs a laser beam to

selectively sinter together fusible materials such as powdered metal, nylon, and
elastomer. Sintering is the heating and fusing of small particles resulting in a
hard bonded layer of material. The laser beam traces the pattern of the first layer,
sintering it together. Then, the platform is lowered by the height of the next layer
and powder is reapplied, and once again the laser beam traces the next layer,
which is fused to the previous layer. This process continues layer by layer until
the part is complete. The unsintered powder supports the part as the layers are
sintered. The University of Texas first patented this method in 1989.

Figure 20.12.1. Schematic diagram of stereolithography.

Figure 20.12.2. Samples of products built by stereolithography.

• 3-D Inkjet Printing. In this process an inkjet printing head deposits or “prints”
glue-like binder on a thin layer of powdered material. The binder fluid fuses the
powder together in a desired area, to form a layer of the part. As the platform is
lowered, more powder is added and leveled, and the inkjet head prints (despites)
the binder to form another layer of the part. Layer by layer, the part is built.
Unbounded powder remains to support the part. When the part is finished, it is
removed from the container and the unbound (excess) powder is blown off. The
resolution of each layer is about 0.1 mm. This process is relatively fast, and
produces parts that are somewhat fragile, unless the part is coated with wax,
Cyanoacrylate (CA) glue, or other sealants to improve durability and surface
finish. This process was first developed by MIT. The ZCorp 3D printer, produced
by Z Corp., uses two different materials: a starch-based powder (not as strong,
but can be burned out, for investment casting applications) and a ceramic
powder.
20.13.3. APPLICATIONS OF RAPID PROTOTYPING

Because of the time and cost savings, rapid prototyping machines have
revolutionized product development processes in many industries such as
automotive, aerospace, medical, and consumer products. Although the rapid
prototyping applications are vast, almost all fall into one of the following
categories: prototyping, rapid tooling, or rapid manufacturing.

Prototyping Rapid prototyping (RP) plays an important role in quickly making

prototypes for communication and alpha prototyping testing purposes. While
solid modeling of an object in computers and engineering drawings helps one to
understand the function of an object, clearly, touching and feeling the actual
prototype of the object dramatically improve communication among people,
including engineers.

Rapid Tooling Rapid tooling (RT) is a process that employs rapid prototyping
models, directly or indirectly, to create a mold quickly. The mold could be used
for a limited volume of alpha or beta prototypes. Rapid tooling is less expensive
and requires less time than conventional fabrication of tooling. Note that
conventional tooling is one of the slowest and most expensive steps in the
manufacturing process, since it requires a high level of precision. Typically with
RT, the time needed for the fabrication of the first articles is below one-fifth that
of conventional tooling and the cost is about 5 percent that of the conventional
tooling. The disadvantage of rapid tooling is that the tool life is considerably less
than that of a conventional tool.

Indirect Tooling RP parts are also used as patterns for making molds and dies.
RP models can be indirectly used in a number of manufacturing processes:

Vacuum casting. This is the simplest and oldest rapid tooling technique. A RP
positive pattern is suspended in a vat of liquid silicone or room temperature
vulcanizing (RTV) rubber. Specifically, silicone liquid is cast around a master
model that is typically made by a rapid prototyping machine (preferably SLAs). A
partial vacuum is applied to avoid air bubbles that may be trapped in between
the master and silicone. After curing, the mold is cut open and the master (SLA) is
removed, leaving a cavity to make copies. The flexibility of the silicone allows
limited undercuts, which might avoid slides or additional parting planes. Vacuum
casting is a copying technique typically used for the production of small series
(10 to 20) of functional plastic prototypes. An alternative approach, known as the
Keltool powder metal sintering process, uses rubber molds to produce metal
tools. When the binder cures, the “green” metal tool is removed from the rubber
mold and then sintered. At this stage the metal is only 70 percent dense, so it is
infiltrated with copper to bring it close to its theoretical maximum density. Note
that vacuum molding is a different process where, through suction, a sheet of
plastic or metal is forced to conform to a preset shaped mold.

Injection molding. To prepare a mold for an injection-molding machine, first a

stereolithography machine is used to make a matchplate positive pattern of the
desired molding. To form the mold, the SLA pattern is plated with nickel, which is
then reinforced with a stiff ceramic material. The two mold halves are separated
to remove the pattern, leaving a matched die set that can produce tens of
thousands of injection moldings.

Other methods such as casting, including sand casting, may be employed for
rapid tooling. In casting, an RP model is used as the positive pattern around
which the sand mold is built.

Direct Tooling This technique, developed at Sandia National Laboratories and

Stanford University, can create metal tools from CAD data. As in the rapid
prototyping process, a laser beam melts the top layer of the part in areas where
material is to be added. Powder metal is injected into the molten pool, which then
solidifies. This process is repeated layer by layer until the part is built. Unlike
traditional powder metal processing, this method produces fully dense parts,
since the metal is melted, and not merely sintered. The resulting parts have
exceptional mechanical properties. This method is appropriate for parts with
simple geometry or a more uniform cross section.

In a different process, an RP machine selectively sinters polymer-coated steel

pellets together to produce a metal mold. The mold is then placed in a furnace
where the polymer binder is burned off and the part is infiltrated with copper.

Rapid Manufacturing When a limited number of products is needed, rapid

manufacturing (RM) is much cheaper, since it does not require tooling. RM is also
ideal for producing custom parts tailored to the user’s exact specifications. Rapid
manufacturing is a natural extension of rapid prototyping. RM will never
completely replace other manufacturing techniques, especially in large
production runs where mass production is more economical. However, when an
object cannot be made by subtractive (machining, grinding) or compressive
(forging, etc.) processes, such as internal voids or complex structures, rapid
manufacturing is the solution.
20.13.3.1. Conclusion

Rapid prototyping has changed product development processes and the way
companies design and build products. The most attractive feature of RP is the
short prototyping time, which saves tremendous cost during product
development.

As a result of the advent of computers, RP technology is constantly improving.

For example the accuracy of the surface finish is improving and the laser optics
and motor control (used in RP) have increased their accuracy in all three
directions. In addition, RP companies are developing new polymers that will be
less prone to curing and temperature-induced warpage.

RP machines using nonpolymeric materials, such as metals, ceramics, and

composites, produce functional parts that could be used for testing. These
machines expand the range of products that can be made by rapid
manufacturing. Much of the RP research is focused on the development of new
materials for the RP machines that make functional parts.

20.13.3.2. REFERENCES

[29.] Ashley, Steven, From CAD Art to Rapid Metal Tools, Mechanical Engineering,
March 1997, p. 82.

[29.] Ashley, Steven, Rapid Prototyping Is Coming of Age, Mechanical

Engineering, July 1995, p. 63.

[29.] Eggert, Rudolph, “Engineering Design,” Prentice Hall, 2005.

[29.] Griffith, Michelle, and Lamancusa, John S., Rapid Prototyping Technologies,
Rapid Prototyping , 1998.

[29.] Hartwig, Glenn, Rapid 3D Modelers, DE, March 1997, pp. 38–39.

[29.] Hilton, Peter, Making the Leap to Rapid Tool Making, Mechanical
Engineering, July 1995, p. 75.

[29.] Langdon, Ray, A Decade of Rapid Prototyping, Automotive Engineer, May

1997, pp. 44–45.

[29.] Otto, Kevin, and Wood, Kristin, “Product Design,” Prentice Hall, 2001.

[29.] Waterman, Pamela J., Rapid Prototyping, DE March 1997, p. 30.

Citation
EXPORT
Eugene A. Avallone; Theodore Baumeister III; Ali Sadegh: Marks’ Standard
Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, Eleventh Edition. RAPID PROTOTYPING,
Chapter (McGraw-Hill Professional, 2007), AccessEngineering

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