Additive Manufacturing Processes

2. Additive Manufacturing Processes

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Michael F. Zäh, Christian Eschey, Imke Nora Kellner, Harald Kraus,

Toni Adam Krol, Michael Ott, Johannes Schilp, Stefan Teufelhart, and Sebastian
Westhäuser

Additive manufacturing processes are based on the fundamental

concept of building up parts layer on layer; that is, the part is built up
additively by generating individual layers. Fabrication of geometries is
performed from amorphous materials (e.g., fluids or powders) or
materials with a neutral form (e.g., strips, wires, paper, or film) using
chemical and/or physical processes directly from the digitally generated
data models via a CAD/CAM link.

2.1. Introduction

Additive manufacturing processes were first presented to the public in 1987 in

the United States; in 1989–1990, the first machines were delivered to Europe. At
that time, this generally involved stereolithography (SLA) machines. Additional
process variants were developed over the next few years, including selective
laser sintering (SLS), electron- and laser-beam melting, and laminated-object
manufacturing (LOM). Based on known processes (→ Section 2.4), new or
modified processes will be developed further in the next few years because
additive manufacturing has not reached its full potential, for example, when it
comes to processing of multiple materials.

The process sequence also can be summarized as follows (→ Section 2.3): Parts
are built up layer on layer through the consolidation of an amorphous or neutrally
shaped feedstock material to which energy is applied layer by layer. All layer
manufacturing processes must meet the following requirements with regard to
data processing (CAD/CAM link):

The starting point for the additive manufacturing of a part is a three-

dimensional (3D) computer-aided design (CAD) model that depicts all
the workpiece data in digital form.

For the construction process, the 3D solids have to be broken down into
individual layers, thus reducing them to two dimensions. These layer
data define a process-specific computer numerical control (CNC)
program.

The subsequent manufacturing process is performed on a numerically

controlled machine that executes the information layer by layer, thus
generating a part.

Comparison with conventional manufacturing processes shows the economic and

technical potential of additive manufacturing: While simple solids can be
produced cost-effectively in large quantities using familiar processes such as
turning, milling, or casting, for smaller quantities and more complex components,
the use of layer manufacturing becomes more economical. Moreover, a few
highly complex components, for example, those with internal geometric features,
can only be produced using additive manufacturing processes.

Workpieces generated by means of additive manufacturing can be used for a

very wide range of functions in various fields of application:

Models:

– Concept models are employed to visualize the dimensions and general

appearance of the new product being developed at the earliest possible
stage.

– Design models are employed to depict the CAD model accurately as

regards shape and dimensions. The surface quality and the position of
individual elements are important.

Prototypes:

– Functional prototypes, which are largely the same as the series-

production sample, are used to verify one or more of the planned functions
of the later-series part.
 – Technical samples, which only differ from the later-series parts in the
manufacturing processes that are employed, are used to verify that the
requirements are met.

Components:

– Tools and molds can be used to create end products in a subsequent

manufacturing process (e.g., injection molding).

– Fully functional customer-specific single parts and series parts with

close to the final contours can be employed.

As this overview of the areas of application shows, additive manufacturing

processes can be used in all phases of product development.

2.2. Definition

Additive manufacturing processes are defined as all processes that are used to
create 3D models, prototypes, and components additively, that is, through the
joining or layering of multiple solid elements. Many other terms can be
encountered in practice and in the literature; these have been brought together
and standardized in VDI Standard 3404, which was introduced in 2010.

For historical reasons, it is a common practice for additive manufacturing

processes to have the word rapid added to them in order to convey that additive
processes are faster (for small and medium quantities) than the conventional
alternatives. Conventional processes generally require tool making. By avoiding
this, additive processes are not only faster but also in most cases provide large
potential cost savings. In short, this is why additive manufacturing processes are
also called rapid technologies.

As described earlier, additive processes can be used economically anywhere in

the product-creation process (Figure 2.1). Rapid technologies can be subdivided
into rapid prototyping, rapid tooling, and rapid manufacturing.
Figure 2.1. Rapid technologies in the product emergence process.

Rapid prototyping is an application of rapid technologies for cost-effective,

quick production of test parts and prototypes. These components generally have
limited or special functions. Their design can be but does not have to be
optimized for series production. With rapid prototyping, it is also not necessary to
use the generally more expensive material that is used for series production. The
term rapid prototyping thus covers only a small subset of additive applications
and therefore should not be used as a synonym for the term additive processes.

In rapid tooling, additive processes are used to create tools and molds (e.g.,
casting molds, injection molds, and deep-drawing dies) for the production of
prototypes, preseries parts, and series parts. For the most part, selective laser
melting is employed here, allowing not only rapid manufacture but also efficient
use of the shaping options provided by rapid technologies. In order to achieve the
necessary precision and/or the required surface characteristics, conventional
processes such as high-speed cutting (HSC) milling are often implemented to
rework the tools and dies created by means of the additive process. This is called
direct rapid tooling. Indirect rapid tooling is the production of tools by molding
master patterns created using additive processes. Processes in which computer
numerical control (CNC) programming and subsequent HSC milling are used to
create tools from solid stock within a short time are also considered to be rapid
technologies, along with additive manufacturing processes. Because they involve
chip removal, however, they should not be confused with additive processes.
Rapid manufacturing is the additive manufacturing of end products for single-
part or series production. The parts are manufactured in the genuine material
based on the design data and have all the characteristics of the final product.
Besides the ability to produce parts rapidly, building up parts using additive
processes allows the creation of certain product design characteristics (e.g.,
cooling channels that are close to the surface or curved boreholes) that are
difficult or impossible to create using conventional production methods.

This means that with rapid technologies it is possible to expand and master the
various options for the manufacture of new design elements and to move on
directly to the manufacture of end products for single-part or series production.
Besides shortening the time required for product development and product
emergence through the employment of rapid technologies in the creation of
prototypes and tools and for direct manufacture of the final parts, the use of
additive manufacturing processes also facilitates the logical interlinking of order
data processing. Not only the manufacturing time can be described as rapid
compared with conventional processes—the direct CAD/CAM link also simplifies
and speeds up production planning, for example, for generating and converting
the manufacturing data.

For metals, the rapid technologies with the greatest potential for the future are
beam melting (also known as laser forming), selective laser melting (SLM),
LaserCusing, electron-beam melting (EBM) or direct metal laser sintering (DMLS)
(Figure 2.2), and direct metal deposition (DMD). These are suitable both for
prototype production and for repairing or modifying tools and molds. DMD makes
it possible to process spatial surfaces by fusing powdered metal layer on layer in
a laser beam. The amount of heat input into the workpiece is minimal. The two
process variants described earlier both have the following characteristics:
Figure 2.2. Dodecahedron produced by means of beam melting with a
geometrically complex internal structure made of metal, without
mechanical finishing work.

Powdered metal as the feedstock material

Complete melting of the powdered metal by the laser

Mixing and application of various powdered metals to base materials of a

different type

Fully automatic production, with no manual work

Generation of parts directly from the 3D CAD data

Manufacturing close to the final contours with minimal rework on the functional
surfaces

2.3. Process Chain

The generation of models and the process chain follow similar principles for all
process principles in additive manufacturing. This is illustrated in the process
sequence shown in Figure 2.3. The process for generating additive components
can be subdivided into the following areas.
Figure 2.3. Sequence of data processing and the construction process from
the 3D solid to the completed part.

2.3.1. Preparations for the Construction Process

A complete, dimensionally accurate 3D CAD solid is the basis and prerequisite for
all additive manufacturing processes. The CAD program is selected based on the
available options for data export. Formats used with rapid technologies include
STL, Initial Graphics Exchange Specification (IGES), and Standard for the
Exchange of Product Model Data (STEP). The format most often used is STL,
which is based on approximation of the geometry using triangles (triangulation).
This format is also supported by all the commonly used CAD programs. The
triangulation process used here involves approximation of the outer geometric
surface by means of triangles. These triangles are defined via the position of their
three vertices and the associated normal vector pointing away from the solid of
the part. The aggregate of the triangles and normal vectors embodies all the
surface information. Nevertheless, the geometry of the parts always should be
verified after triangulation. As a rule, all the software programs for data
preparation provide repair functions for use in the event of triangulation errors.

The STL data set for the part is the input information for the slice process. This
breaks the part down into individual layers. The thickness of the layers depends
on the process being used and the required surface quality. This means that with
slicing, the geometric information for the construction process is generated for
each layer. Where curvatures, sculptured surfaces, and blunt angles appear, the
layer-by-layer construction means that a "stepped" effect is created. This leads to
lower surface quality. The greater the layer thickness, the greater is the stepped
effect. On the other hand, increasing the layer thickness reduces the construction
time and thus also the cost of the part. It is necessary to find a compromise for
each individual construction process.

The last step in the preparation for the construction process is to place the part
virtually in the machine space using the system software. At the same time, the
information for the individual layers is transferred to the control data of the
system. The systems integrator then defines system-specific parameters, such as
the travel speed or the temperature of the working space.

2.3.2. The Construction Process

As a general principle, all additive processes are performed in three process

steps: (1) The material is applied, (2) the layer is consolidated, and (3) the
platform is lowered to allow application of the next layer. On the other hand,
application of the material and the joining process vary depending on the specific
system and manufacturing technology. Moreover, the basic states of the
materials may vary and can include powdered, liquid, and solid materials. The
feedstock material is consolidated through the use of an energy source or by
applying a chemical activator. After the first layer from the preparation for the
construction process has been consolidated, the platform is lowered by the
thickness of one layer, and a new layer of feedstock material is applied. In order
to create as even a base layer as possible, this is generally performed using a
broad application mechanism, such as a roller or a wiper. This is followed by
consolidation of the new layer in accordance with the data specified in the
preparation for the construction process. At the same time, the layer is joined to
the underlying layer. In additive processes, this method leads to anisotropic
properties in the material because the joining of the feedstock material in the X/Y
plane generally is stronger than in the Z direction.

2.3.3. Postprocessing

Even when the stepped effect is not a problem, at present, many additive
processes can provide only relatively low surface qualities. In most cases, the
parts have to be reworked after the construction process. The reason for this is
the stepped effect inherent to the process and the limited dimensional accuracy
of additive manufacturing technologies. For example, fixed points should be
provided during design work as reference points for subsequent rework. This
makes it possible to set up an auxiliary coordinate system as a basis for finishing
operations using a CNC machining center. The design engineer should select
these fixed points so that that they can be produced accurately using the
additive process. Furthermore, the anisotropic properties in the material can be
reduced or eliminated by means of thermal posttreatment processes.

2.4. Classification of Additive Manu-facturing Processes

The additive manufacturing processes in use today can be classified based on

two aspects: the feedstock material and the shaping method.

2.4.1. Classification Based on the Feedstock Material

As shown in Figure 2.4, three types of feedstock materials are used today:

Figure 2.4. Classification of currently known additive manufacturing

processes according to the feedstock material.

Powdered granulates

Liquid synthetic resins

 Solid feedstock materials

In processes where powdered or granulated feedstock material is used,

sintering or bonding processes are employed. Here, targeted laser beams are
used to melt and consolidate materials that are "applied" or fed onto each other
in thin layers. In 3D printing, the consolidation is performed via the targeted
introduction of binding agents, for example, water in plaster.

In the case of liquid materials, for the most part, targeted laser beams or heat
(ultraviolet [UV] beams) are used to consolidate (polymerize) synthetic resins and
join them to the underlying existing layers. However, this process also includes
the use of solid feedstock materials (plastics) to build up the existing model layer
on layer by means of melting followed by rapid cooling. The semiliquid plastic is
sprayed on top of itself layer by layer.

When solid feedstock materials with a neutral form are used, this generally
involves layers of film or paper that are bonded on top of each other layer on
layer and then cut out to the exact contours using a laser or cutting blade. Both
conventional bonding processes and partial polymerization (bonding via heating)
are used here.

2.4.2. Classification Based on the Shaping Method

A distinction is made here between processes that can be used to create 3D

forms directly and processes that generate the final shape layer by layer. Figure
2.5 provides an overview of the various processes.
Figure 2.5. Classification of currently known additive manufacturing
processes according to the shaping method.

All the processes used today function in two dimensions, that is, with individual
layers. Models are built up layer on layer, thus creating a third dimension. This
also applies to processes that generally also would be able to work in three
dimensions directly (e.g., fused deposition manufacturing). The reason for this is
that the 3D software required for this is significantly more complex and therefore
not available at this time.

2.5. Introduction to the Principal-Layer Manufacturing Processes

2.5.1. Beam Melting

2.5.1.1. PROCESS DESCRIPTION

In additive manufacturing processes that use beam melting, the feedstock

material is in the form of a powder. At the beginning of the process, a layer of
powder is applied to the platform using an application mechanism (e.g., a doctor
blade). At the points where the component is subsequently to be created, this
layer is fused and thus consolidated on the substrate using an electron beam or
laser beam depending on the process method. The part is created layer on layer
by lowering the platform repeatedly, each time applying a new layer and melting
the component volume (Figure 2.6).

Figure 2.6. Process sequence for direct and indirect beam melting
processes.

The effects that appear when the powdered feedstock material is fused locally
are characterized by complete transformation of the feedstock material into the
molten state, which is what differentiates this process from sintering processes.
Instead of a two-stage sintering process (→ "Laser Sintering" next ), a single-stage
beam melting process now has become the established practice in industrial
applications. Various terms are used to describe this process. Whereas EOS
GmbH uses the term direct metal laser sintering (DMLS), other companies prefer
the terms LaserCusing (Concept Laser) or selective laser melting (SLM) (MTT
Technologies). However, the process sequence is the same for all manufacturers:
The feedstock material is always a single-component powdered metal that is
completely fused during the construction process. In this way, it is possible to
create a nearly pore-free component whose material properties are similar to
those of a component created from the same material using conventional
processes (e.g., casting). Unlike with the IMLS process (→ "Laser Sintering" later
in the chapter), no additional processing is necessary. At present, the powdered
feedstock materials that are available and usable include various tool steels,
stainless steels, aluminum and nickel alloys, pure titanium, various titanium
alloys, and gold. The range of materials is constantly being expanded as a result
of numerous research and development (R&D) projects.

The single-stage process can be used to produce usable components for various
applications, in particular when it comes to prototype construction and small-
scale series production. Especially in medical technology and in the tool and die
industry, these technologies are regarded as important, cost-effective
manufacturing alternatives for creating geometrically complex components and
functional elements, for example, cooling channels that are close to the contours.
These processes are also becoming more and more important in other fields, for
example, in the aerospace and automotive industries.

It should be noted, however, that all the laser-based beam melting processes just
described have a disadvantage in that the traversing speed of the laser beam is
limited. There are two main reasons for this:

The mechanical mirror optics used to redirect the laser beam limit the power of
the beam because of the limited thermal load capacity of the mirror system.

The mass moments of inertia in the mirror optics limit the traversing speed of
the laser beam because increased deflection speeds have an adverse effect on
the accuracy of travel.

These disadvantages can be eliminated by using not a laser beam but rather an
electron beam in an electron-beam melting (EBM) process. In this way, it is even
possible to increase the process speed (Figure 2.7).
Figure 2.7. Structure of an EBM system.

In this type of processing, the beam is generated using a so-called electron-beam

cannon, which can be used to apply the beam current, that is, the power of the
electron beam, in a targeted manner. By means of electromagnetic lenses, the
electron beam is shaped to form a circular cross section focused at the focal
point and deflected in the plane. The workspace is in a vacuum chamber—this
prevents scattering of the electron beam. The powder reservoirs, the application
mechanism, and the platform are located there as well.

The higher deflection speeds and power density of electron beams allow higher
process speeds. The high deflection speed also offers a number of options for
improved process control, such as quasi-parallel illumination and freely
configurable beam shaping to control and optimize heat input to the part. Thanks
to these advantages, the EBM process is currently being subjected to further
investigation and development with the goal of establishing it as an industrial
application on a larger scale.

2.5.1.2. ADVANTAGES OF BEAM MELTING

There is great freedom in the choice of geometric shapes.

Thin wall thicknesses can be implemented.

It is possible to create usable functional components.

It is feasible to make internal cooling channels that are close to the contours.

It is possible to process materials that are difficult or impossible to process

using conventional methods owing to their thermal and mechanical properties.

Multimaterial processing and the implementation of graded material properties

are possible.

2.5.1.3. DISADVANTAGES OF BEAM MELTING

Supporting structures are necessary at overhanging areas.

A platform has to be used, which then has to be cut off during postprocessing.

Layer-on-layer construction of the part results in a stepped effect.

There are high production costs for each part with long process times.
 Internal stresses occur in the part owing to high temperature gradients during
cooling of the fused powder.

Rough surfaces are produced in some cases, with the associated need for
rework on functional surfaces.

There is a limited work area and thus limited part sizes (at present 300 × 350
× 300 mm maximum).

A shielding-gas atmosphere or vacuum is necessary (for electron-beam

melting).

2.5.2. Laser Sintering

2.5.2.1. PROCESS DESCRIPTION

Sintering is defined as a consolidation process for crystalline, granular, or

powdered materials through coalescence of the crystallites by means of
appropriate heating. This is done by heating the powder bed, in some cases to
several hundred degrees celsius. This process can be used for both metals and
plastics.

For metals, this involves a two-step process. Indirect metal laser sintering (IMLS)
is used to fuse a plastic binder contained in the powdered metal surrounding the
metal particles. This initially produces a so-called green compact with low
strength. In order to generate an adequate metal part from this green compact, a
subsequent heat-treatment process is required. Here, the plastic binder is
expelled and so-called sinter necks are formed between the metal particles. At
the same time, bronze is infiltrated into the part, thus creating a stable structure
consisting of about 60 percent steel and 40 percent bronze.

Laser sintering (LS) is also known as selective laser sintering (SLS). This process is
based on the powder-bed principle and can be used to produce prototypes and
functional components from plastics in just a few hours (Figure 2.8). The
materials used most often in this case are polyamide and polystyrene. In contrast
to beam melting processes, in which the feedstock material is fused solely by
means of the beam, with LS the feedstock material is first heated to a
temperature just under the melting point via a large-area heat radiator. The
feedstock material then is fused locally using a low-power laser (up to ~30 W).
The laser beam is deflected by the scanner optics. After the iterative production
of the individual layers of the part, the support structure is slowly cooled down to
room temperature. The time required for this cooling process is approximately
the same as the time required to build up the part. If the cooling is too rapid, the
temperature gradients will be too steep, thus resulting in excessive distortion in
the part. After the cooling process come the process steps for unpacking,
cleaning, and postprocessing of the part. The sintered part sits in loose powder,
from which it can be removed. The part then can be cleaned using compressed
air to remove powder residues. Any feedstock material that has not been fused
can be reused. For optimal results, approximately a 1:1 mixture of old and new
powder should be used.

Figure 2.8. Grippers produced via additive manufacturing (Festo).

2.5.2.2. ADVANTAGES OF LASER SINTERING

Short throughtime compared with beam melting processes

Possible to create complex, functionally integrated parts

Usable, functional components with complex geometries can be manufactured.

Wide range of materials

No need for support

2.5.2.3. DISADVANTAGES OF LASER SINTERING

Shrinkage and distortion of large components owing to the thermal

 construction process

Porous surface

Aging owing to the effects of UV light

2.5.3. 3D Printing (Figures 2.9 to 2.11)

Figure 2.9. 3D printer made by voxeljet (voxeljet).

Figure 2.10. Model for a shoe–created with a 3D printer.

Figure 2.11. Model for a gear—unit created with a 3D printer.

2.5.3.1. PROCESS DESCRIPTION

3D printing (3DP) is an additive process in which a liquid binder is applied to a

bed of powder in a targeted manner by means of a print head or nozzle. The part
is created one layer at a time by successively lowering the platform and then
applying a thin layer of powder. By selecting an appropriate combination of
powder and binder, it is possible to work with a wide range of materials, including
plastics, ceramics, sand (for casting molds), and metals. Because the print head
is much less expensive than a laser system, the costs of this process are much
lower relative to LS. To improve the mechanical properties of plastic parts, after
the models are constructed, they are posttreated using infiltration (e.g., with
epoxy resin or wax). When processing powdered metal, the material is fused by
means of a binder substance and consolidated to form a green compact. This is
then heat treated in a similar manner to IMLS and infiltrated with bronze.

2.5.3.2. ADVANTAGES OF 3D PRINTING

High construction speed

Many different materials can be used.

Large work areas are possible.

A considerable number of system manufacturers (Figure 2.9)

Colored parts can be created.

 Economical process

2.5.3.3. DISADVANTAGES OF 3D PRINTING

Low surface quality

Mediocre mechanical properties owing to low density

2.5.4. Fused Deposition Modeling (Figures 2.12 and 2.13)

Figure 2.12. Component quality via FDM.

Figure 2.13. Various components–created with FDM.

2.5.4.1. PROCESS DESCRIPTION

In extrusion processes, a liquid or softened material is applied to a platform via

one or more nozzles. The subsequent cooling process gives the part its strength.
Fused deposition modeling (FDM), also known as fused layer modeling (FLM), is
the most notable process that makes use of only one material. A subcategory of
this process is multijet or polyjet modeling, which can be used to create parts
with graded properties. Here, the nozzle generally has two degrees of freedom (in
the X and Y directions), whereas the entire platform can be moved in the Z
direction. Thus 3D parts can be manufactured in this way. The adhesive bond
between the extruded beads is formed during the cooling process. The bead
structure results in a relatively low surface quality, as can be seen in Figure 2.12.

2.5.4.2. ADVANTAGES OF FUSED DEPOSITION MODELING

Good mechanical properties

Compact system

Can be used as an office system

Possible to work with ABS

With multiple-nozzle systems, multimaterial parts are easy to implement.

Large number of system manufacturers

Build-it-yourself systems are available.

2.5.4.3. DISADVANTAGES OF FUSED DEPOSITION MODELING

Low surface quality

Overhangs are hard to implement because no supporting material is present.

Considerable work is required to remove the supports.

2.5.5. Stereolithography

2.5.5.1. PROCESS DESCRIPTION

Stereolithography is the oldest of the additive manufacturing technologies. In this

process, plastic parts are created by means of selective 3D polymerization of a
photosensitive resin. Polymerization generally is performed using a UV laser in
which the critical energy required to cure the part is reached only at the focal
point of the laser beam. By lowering the platform, a new layer of liquid resin can
be deposited on top of the already cured layer. By means of successive lowering
and curing, a 3D part thus can be created.

Polymerization is defined here as a chain reaction in which unsaturated

molecules are bonded to form macromolecules. This can be broken down into
four steps:

Chain initiation, or the primary reaction

Chain propagation

Chain termination

Chain transfer (branching of a molecule chain)

The materials used in stereolithography have to respond to UV radiation and

reach chain termination very quickly so that the resin is cured only in the
illuminated areas. In order to give the parts their final strength, the construction
process itself is often followed by a curing process in a UV cabinet.

Stereolithography parts are used above all as concept models or functional

models during the product-emergence process. Another area of application for
stereolithography is the creation of master patterns for casting under vacuum
and investment casting.

One further development of stereolithography is microstereolithography, which

can be used to produce very complex geometries that at the same time also have
fine details. In this process, the resin is not cured point by point using a laser, but
rather an entire layer is cured over its whole area by means of a digital light
processing (DLP) chip.

2.5.5.2. ADVANTAGES OF STEREOLITHOGRAPHY

Easy to produce complex, thin-walled structures

Practically no thermal stress, thanks to the low laser power (generally <1 W)

High-precision parts can be produced.

2.5.5.3. DISADVANTAGES OF STEREOLITHOGRAPHY

Relatively quick aging process of the materials owing to the UV component of

natural daylight
 Changing resins is complex, time-consuming, and expensive.

Overhanging areas of parts require support structures (Figure 2.14).

Figure 2.14. Component created using stereolithography with supporting

structures.

Figure 2.15. Principle of mask sintering (Sinter Mask).

2.5.6. Other Processes

2.5.6.1. MASK SINTERING

Mask sintering (MS) is very similar to SLS. Here too, energy is applied to a
powdered feedstock material in order to fuse it. Unlike with laser sintering, mask
sintering does not involve a single laser beam that is deflected by means of a
scanner but rather illumination of a layer over a large area via a mask. The mask
is printed for each layer in such a way that the energy emitted by a UV source is
reflected onto the powder in the areas that are to be consolidated. The mask
consists of a mirror that is printed with ceramic powder for each layer.
Illuminating a complete layer over a large area greatly reduces the construction
time per layer.

2.5.6.2. DIGITAL LIGHT PROCESSING

Digital light processing (DLP) uses a similar process sequence to that of

stereolithography, but through the use of a special chip, it is possible to
illuminate and consolidate an entire layer at a time. The DLP projector is
controlled by converting the construction data into a bitmap format and
projecting them onto the construction plane as a mask via the mirror unit. As in
conventional stereolithography, construction in a fluid means that support
structures are necessary. This process is especially used in the additive
manufacturing of microcomponents.

2.5.6.3. LAMINATED-OBJECT MANUFACTURING

In laminated-object manufacturing (LOM), also called laminated-layer

manufacturing (LLM), the feedstock is in the form of sheets of material, for
example, plastic films or sheets of paper. These are applied to each other layer
on layer, bonded, and then cut along the component contours. Both laser systems
and conventional cutting tools such as rollers are used for this. The completed
block is removed from the system, and the sections that are not part of the
component are removed. It is also possible to work with metallic materials.
Thanks to the thinness of each individual layer, high surface quality can be
achieved.

2.5.6.4. LASER CLADDING

In laser cladding, a laser beam is used to create a localized weld pool on the
surface of a metallic workpiece. The metallic feedstock material (generally in the
form of a powder or wire) is applied to this weld pool by means of a feeder unit.
By moving the weld pool over the surface of the material, it is possible to create a
bead-shaped line. To protect the fused material against oxidation, the process
generally takes place in an inert atmosphere. Thus 3D material solids can be built
up by superimposing a number of individual layers. Components built up using
this additive process have a comparable density to that of components created
from the same material using conventional processes. Components created using
laser cladding generally have a relatively rough structure that is very similar to
the structure of a casting. Furthermore, as yet only low surface quality can be
obtained using this process.

2.6. Summary

Additive manufacturing processes can be used to produce prototypes, casting

molds, and end products. In all cases, the part being produced has to be available
as a 3D CAD model. Depending on the part's intended purpose, a wide range of
different layer manufacturing processes can be employed. In addition to the
processes mentioned, a number of others exist that differ only slightly from the
ones already described.

Current R&D work in the field of additive manufacturing processes is focused on

a wide range of aspects. These include speeding up the production process, for
example, through higher laser powers and thus faster deposition rates. In
addition, further postprocessing steps have to be performed after the additive
manufacturing process in order to achieve adequate component quality. This
means that R&D work is centering on both the robustness of the process and
ensuring component quality. The constant expansion of the range of materials
that can be processed means that more and more areas of application are being
opened up using additive manufacturing processes.

2.7. Additive Manufacturing Processes

Important points to remember:

1. Rapid technologies include both additive and subtractive manufacturing

processes. Their goal is to produce parts or tools quickly.

2. Additive manufacturing processes join amorphous materials or materials

with a neutral form layer on layer to form a physical workpiece directly from
the 3D CAD data.

3. In order to implement additive manufacturing processes, the following

requirements must be met:
a. Data models for the parts being produced must be available on 3D CAD
 systems.

b. During process planning, the solid/surface model must be broken down into
individual layers.

c. A process-specific NC program has to be generated.

4. Parts created using additive processes differ greatly as to their consistency,

precision, and surface depending on the specific process used.

5. A large number of additive processes are used in industry today. The product-
emergence process phase plays an important role here.

6. The additive manufacturing processes in use today can be classified based on

two aspects:
a. According to the feedstock material—powdered granulates, liquid-plastic
resins, or solid materials

b. According to the shaping method—directly 3D or by superimposing 2D

individual layers

7. While the first process to be employed industrially was stereolithography,

today a large number of additional commercial processes exist.

8. All currently used commercial processes operate two-dimensionally.

9. The five most important processes at present are

a. Beam melting of fully functional metallic parts and prototypes.

b. Laser sintering of both powdered plastics and single/double-component

metals.

c. 3D printing, that is, the powdered feedstock material is consolidated via

the targeted introduction of a binder liquid.

d. Fused deposition modeling, which heats thermoplastic wires in a nozzle

and fuses the material in the shape of a bead.

e. Stereolithography, that is, layer-by-layer polymerization of liquid resin.

10. Rapid prototyping is defined as the quick production of illustrative objects or

models that provide only limited functions compared with the subsequent
component.

11. Rapid tooling brings together processes that can be used to create tools
 (e.g., for casting) in order to produce components in the genuine material.

12. Rapid manufacturing is used to describe manufacturing processes that allow

the direct production of fully functional parts (end products).

Citation
EXPORT
Hans B. Kief; Helmut A. Roschiwal: CNC Handbook. Additive Manufacturing
Processes, Chapter (McGraw-Hill Professional, 2012), AccessEngineering

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Global Education Holdings, LLC. All rights reserved.

Any use is subject to the Terms of Use. Privacy.

For further information about this site, contact us.

Designed and built using Scolaris by Semantico.

This product incorporates part of the open source Protégé system. Protégé is
available at http://protege.stanford.edu//