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Atrophy
Shrinkage in the size of the cell by loss of cell substance is known as atrophy( 萎
缩).
Physiologic, pathologic
Thymus atrophy after adolescence
Genital system
Senile atrophy
decreased workload
( atrophy of disuse 废用性萎缩)
Loss of innervation
(denervation atrophy 去神经性萎缩): poliomyelitis
Inadequate nutrition
(Dystrophic atrophy 营养不良性萎缩)
Hypertrophy
Hypertrophy ( 肥大 ) refers to an increase in the size of cells and, with such
change, an increase in the size of the organ.
• Compensatory hypertrophy
• Endocrine hypertrophy
• Physiologic hypertrophy
• Pathologic hypertrophy
Metaplasia
Metaplasia(化生) is a reversible change in which one matured cell type (epithelial or
mesenchymal) is replaced by another matured cell type.
columnar squamous
Granulation tissue
After injury, fibroblasts and vascular endothelial cells begin proliferating to form a
specialized type of tissue that is the hallmark of healing, called granulation tissue.
Infarction
An infarct is an area of ischemic necrosis caused by occlusion of either the
arterial supply or the venous drainage in a particular tissue.
99% of all infarcts result from thrombotic or embolic event, and almost all result
from arterial occlusion.
Nutmeg liver
Is the congestive hepatopathy also know as netmeg liverand chronic congestion of
the liver .
Is liver dysfunction due to venous congestion ussually cardiac dystaction right heart
failure or congestive heart failure .
Inflammation
Various exogenous and endogenous stimuli can provoke a complex and protective
reaction in the vascularized connective tissue called inflammation.
Exudation
Exudation is the mark of acute inflammation: The escape of fluid, proteins,
and blood cells from the vascular system into the interstitial tissue or body
cavities is known as exudation(渗出).
Organization
The process of proliferated granulation tissue replacing necrotic tissues or other
foreign bodied is termed organization.
Granulomatous inflammation
Granulomatous inflammation is a distinctive pattern of chronic inflammatory
reaction in which the predominant cell type is an activated macrophage with a
modified epithelial-like (epithelioid) apperence. Hallmark is granuloma
Embolism
An embolus (栓子) is a detached intravascular solid, liquid, or gaseous mass that is
carried by the blood to a site distant from its point of origin.
Atypia
There are various degrees of differences between tumor and its normal origin
in the areas of cell morphology and tissue architecture.
These differences are called atypia.
Precancerous lesions
Refers to the lesions that have the potential to progress to carcinomas such as
Leukoplakia
Chronic cervicitis and cervical erosion
Proliferative fibrocystic change of the breast
Polypous adenoma of colon and rectum
Chronic atrophic gastritis and gastric ulcer
Chronic ulcerative colitis
Chronic skin ulcer
Cirrhosis of the liver
Carcinoma in situ
When dysplastic changes are marked and involve the entire thickness of the
epithelium, still with intact basement membrane, the lesion is called
carcinoma in situ.
Neoplasm
Neoplasm(tumor): a lesion resulting from the autonomous or relatively
autonomous abnormal growth of cells which persists after the initiating
stimulus has been removed.
Borderline tumor
Borderline tumor
--its cellular morphology and biologic behavior lie between benign tumor and
malignant tumor and may progress to malignant tumor
Dysplasia
denotes a loss of architectural organization and a loss of cell uniformity in epithelium
pleomorphism and mitoses are more prominent than in the normal
usually graded: mild, moderate, severe
Dysplasia is a non-neoplastic proliferation.
Mild to moderate dysplasia is potentially reversible.
Dysplasia may or may not progress to cancer.
Teratoma
Teratoma
--contains recognizable mature or immature cells or tissues representative of more
than one germ layer and sometimes all three.
Atheromatous plaque
consist of arised focal lession facilating with the intima having a soft yellow
grumous core of lipid covered by afirm white fibrous cap .
Myocardial infarction
MI refers to a massive myocardial necrosis induced by sustained ischemia of
coronary perfusion zones.
Severe, crushing substernal chest pain can not be relieved by rest or nitroglycerin
significantly.
Concentric hypertrophy
Hypertrophy growth or hollow organ with out over all enlagement in which the
walls thickned it is capacity or volume diminished .
Aschoff body
A granulomatous are nodules found in the hearts of individuals with rheumatic fever
.they result from inflamation in the heart muscle and are characteristics of rheumatic
heart disease .
COPD
A disease state characterized by poorly reversible airflow limitation that is
usually both progressive and associated with an abnormal inflammatory
response of the lungs
airflow limitation that is not fully reversible
pulmonary function tests
post-bronchodilator FEV1<80% of the predicted value,
FEV1/FVC<70%
Pulmonary emphysema
An abnomal condition of lungs marked by decrease respiratory function associated
with smoking or chronic bronchitis or old age .
centroacinar,
The central or proximal parts
of the acini are affected, whereas distal alveoli are normal.
panacinar
The acini are uniformly enlarged from the level of the respiratory bronchiole to the
terminal blind alveoli.
periacinar emphysema
The proximal portion of the acinus is normal, but the distal part is dominantly
involved.
Silicosis
a lung disease caused by inhalation of crystalline silicon dioxide (silica).
the most prevalent chronic occupational disease in the world.
a slowly progressing, nodular, fibrosing pneumoconiosis.
Intestinal metaplasia
Intestinal metaplasia:
(肠上皮化生)
Both antral and body-fundic mucosa may become replaced by goblet cells,
absorptive cells and peneth cells of intestinal morphology, both along the surface
epithelium and in the proliferated glands.
Interface hepatitis
Is the association with a high incidence of late graft fibrosis in a group of tightly
monitored pediatrics orthotopic liver transplantation .
Bridging nerosis
Bridging necrosis: necrosis of contiguous hepatocytes may span adjacent lobules in a
portal to portal, portal to central, or central to central fashion.
pseudolobule
loss of normal hepatic architecture some with pseudo lobule formation .
nephrotic syndrome
it is a clinical complex, usually of acute onset, characterised by hematuria with dysmorphic red
cells and red blood cell casts in the urine, some degree of oliguria and azotemia and
hypertension.
Cellular crescent
The glomeruli show segmental necrosis and GBM breaks, with resulting proliferation of
parietal epithelial cells in response to the exudation of plasma proteins including fibrin into
Bowman’s capsule. These distinctive lesions of proliferation are called crescents due to their
shape as they fill in the bowman’s space.
Ghon complex
Is a lession seen in the lung that is cause by tuberculosis .the lessions consist of
calsified focus of infection and and an associated with lymph node .
Tubercle
Is the swelling that is the characteristics lesion of tuberculosis .
caseous necrosis
A form of biological tissue death ,caseous meaning it has a cheese like appearence
.the dead tissue appear as asoft and white proteinnaceous dead cell mass . caseous
necrosis it deals with tb .
tuberculoma
a non neoplastic mass usually in the
Liquefactive necrosis
is characteristic of the liquid state due to complete enzymatic digestion of the dead
cells
Dry gangrene: distal part of limbs, coagulative necrosis, dry, shrunken, black
Wet gangrene: internal organs, intestine,lung
Gas gangrene:severe open wounds, anaerobic bacteria
Caseous necrosis,
A distinctive form of coagulative necrosis
Tuberculosis
White and cheesy, soft
Amorphous granular debris, the tissue architecture completely disappears
Gangrene,
Gangrene is a result of secondary changes following tissue necrosis. Because of
putrefactive organism infection, massive necrosis exhibit special changes such as
black or dark green color.
Limbs, internal organs
Fibrinoid necrosis,
Collagen fibers of stroma and the walls of small arteries
In allergic diseases
A pile of granular, striped disorganized substances, fibrin
Fat necrosis
Pulmonary congestion
Acute pulmonary congestion: alveolar capillaries engorged with blood
Chronic pulmonary congestion: numerous hemosiderin-laden
macrophages(heart failure cells 心衰竭细胞), septa thickened and fibrotic
Hepatic congestion
Acute hepatic congestion: the central vein and sinusoids are distended with
blood, centrilobular necrosis and hemorrhage
Chronic hepatic congestion: nutmeg liver, cardiac cirrhosis
Exudatative inflammation
1. Serous inflammation
Serous inflammation is marked by the outpouring of a thin fluid .
Serous effusion: thin fluid from blood serum or secretions of mesothelial cells
2. Fibrinous inflammation
A fibrinous exudate: fibrin
A pink meshwork of fibrin exudate
4. Hemorrhagic inflammation
Inflammatory polyp
Proliferation of epithelium of mucosa, gland and granulation tissue
Nasal polyp, cervical polyp, intestinal polyp
Inflammatory pseudotumor
Inflammatory pseudotumor is a clear boundary tumor-like mass formed by
the inflammatory proliferation of tissues.
Orbit and lung
Granulomatous inflammation
Feature
granuloma
Infectious granuloma: rheumatism, tuberculosis, typhoid, schistosomiasis,
leprosy
Foreign body granuloma: suture
5. Please tell the pathways of metastasis of malignant tumors.
a discontinuous spread of the tumor
Methods of metastasis include: (1) lymphatic spread, (2) hematogenous
spread, and (3) seeding of body cavities.
carcinoma sarcoma
7. Morphology of atherosclerosis in
Arteries ,utility of electron beam tomography to detect non calsified
Heart, the heart in renal failure ,mophological change of the heart morphology of
coronary atherosclerosic lession in patients with chronic renal failure
Kidney,
Atherosclerotic contracted kidney
Brain
Cerebral atrophy, cerebral infarct, cerebral hemorrhage
Leakage of plasma components across vascular endothelium Hyaline degeneration of the wall
Increasing ECM production by smooth muscle cells (SMCs)
Apoptosis of SMCs
Wall
Renal arteriolosclerosis: thickening
homogenous, pink and hyaline deposition within the wall and lumen
narrowing
b. Small muscular arteries
Fibroelastic hyperplasia:
increased collagen and elastic fibrin in the intima, destruction of internal elastic membrane;
medial SMCs proliferation and hypertrophy, increased collagen and elastic fibrin
Heart,
Morphology:
Concentric hypertrophy
thickening of the LV wall, 1.5-2cm;
increased weight, >400 g;
without dilation of the LV
Eccentric hypertrophy
with dilation of the LV
Kidney,
Gross appearance
Benign nephrosclerosis or primary granulo-contracted kidney:
symmetrically contracted; decreased in size and weight; hardened;
fine, leathery granularity of the surface;
on section, cortical narrowing
Brain
① hypertensive encephalopathy
headaches, nausea, vomiting and
visual impairment
hypertensive crisis: loss of consciousness,
convulsions 抽搐
②cerebral softening
microinfarct (lacunar infarct, 腔隙性梗死)
③cerebral hemorrhage
large fatal
microaneurysm
(3) Fibrosis
Aschoff bodies spindle scar
11. Describe the differences between lobar pneumonia and lobular pneumonia
difference name Lobar pneumonia Lobular pneumonia
Site of the lesion alveoli Bronchioles
Distribution Entire lobe or more Lobules, patchy
Nature of Fibrinous inflammation Suppurative
inflammation
Patients Adults Infants and aged
Etiology Streptococcus pneumoniae Staphylococci, streptococci,
(pneumococcus, type 1, 3, 7) pneumococci (type 4, 6, 10)
Characterized by wide-spread fibrinosuppurative An acute suppurative
consolidation of large areas and inflammation characterized by
even hole lobes of the lungs patchy consolidation, which
originates from bronchioles
Pathogenesis Respiratory defense An extension of a preexisting
mechanisms are impaired. bronchitis or bronchiolitis
Some interfering factors: loss Having overt inductive factors
or suppression of the cough Complications of other diseases
reflex.
Injury to
the mucociliary apparatus.
Interferenc
e with the phagocytic or.
bacterici
dal action of macrophages
The resistance of the host is
lowered.
Chronic hepatitis
symptomatic, biochemical, or serologic evidence of continuing or relapsing viral
hepatitis for more than 6 months, with histologically documented inflammation and
necrosis, mainly transformed from HBV and HCV hepatitis
3 subtypes:
①mild chronic hepatitis:
chronic inflammatory infiltration and fibrous proliferation within portal tracts,
widening of portal tracts;
focal necrosis, mild piecemeal necrosis ;
well preserved lobular architecture
②moderate chronic hepatitis
moderate piecemeal necrosis and characteristic bridging necrosis;
formation of fibrous bands within lobules;
most lobular architecture preserved
③severe chronic hepatitis
severe piecemeal necrosis and extensive bridging necrosis;
hepatocyte irregular regeneration;
hepatic lobules subdivided by fibrous septa
Severe hepatitis
1 acute several hepatitis
- Massive necrosis with out hepatocytes regeneration
- Hyperemia hemorrhage
- Kupffer cell hyperplasia and hypetrophy
2 sub acute severe hepatitis (both necrosis and regeneration)
-submassive necrosis with nodular regeneration
- over inflamatory infiltration
- bile duct proliferation and cholestasis .
15. Cirrhosis: definition, morphology, clinical features
definition
Chronic liver disease characterized by diffuse parenchymal injury, bridging fibrous
septa and nodular regeneration of hepatocytes, that result in disruption and
reorganization of the architecture of the entire liver.
Morphology
1. Portal Cirrhosis
Etiology: chronic viral hepatitis
Morphology
Histologic features:
Disruption of the normal architecture of hepatic lobules, pseudolobule
formation
regular, uniformly sized
delicate fibrous septa
few infiltrates within the septa
mild proliferation and cholestasis of the small bile ducts
Gross view: shrunken, lightened, hardened,
Surface finely granular/micronodular, uniform-sized
Cut surface each nodule is surrounded by delicate fibrous septa.
Color yellow, yellow green
2. Postnecrotic Cirrhosis
Etiology: subacute severe hepatitis
Morphology
Gross view: shrunken, lightened, hardened
Surface coarse nodules with variable sizes
Cut surface variable but most broad septa
Color yellow green or yellow brown
Histologic features:
Disruption of the normal architecture of hepatic lobules, pseudolobule
formation
Irregular, variably sized
Focal or zonal necrosis, even involved the entire lobules
Broad fibrous septa
Large amount infiltrates within septa
Overt proliferation of small bile ducts
Clinical features
Portal hypertension
1. Ascites
2. Portosystemic shunts
3. Splenomegaly
Hepatic dysfunction
1. hypogonadism, gynecomastia
2. spider angioma, palmar erythema
3. Bleeding tendency
4. Jaundice
5. Hepatic encephalopathy
16 the major features of acute diffuse proliferative GN, rapidly progressive GN,
membranous glomerulopathy, minimal change disease, membranoproliferative GN,
mesangioproliferative GN, IgA nephropathy and diffuse sclerosing GN Acute diffuse
proliferative Glomerulonephritis (GN)
Is characterized by diffuse proliferation of glomerular cells, associated with influx of
leukocyte
Diffuse endocapapillary proliferative glomerulonephritis (morphology)
Or poststreptococcal, postiniferative glomerulonephritis (etiology)
Children 6 to 10 years of age frequently affected
Acute nephritic syndrome
Membranous Glomerulonephritis
Most common in adult
Also named membranous nephropathy
Is characterized by diffuse thickening of the glomerulacapillary wall and the accumulation of
electron-dence, immunologlobulin-containing deposits along the subeithelial side of the
basement membrane
Membranoproliferative Glomerulonephritis
Is manifested histologycally by altenation in the basement membrane and proliferation of
the mesangial cells
Also named mesangiocapillary glomerulonephritis
Mesangioproliferative Glomerulonephritis
Proliferation of mesangial cells and increased matrix
Common in young adults
Asymptomatic hematuria, nephritic syndrome
IgA Nephropathy
Mesangial deposition of IgA
Clinical manifestations:
- Presinusoidal portal hypertension
- Sever congestive splenomegaly
- Esophageal varices and ascites.