27

Mechanical evaluation of asphalt–aggregate

mixtures prepared with fly ash as a filler
replacement
Serkan Tapkn

Abstract: The objective of this study is to investigate the effect of fly ash as a filler replacement on the mechanical prop-
erties of asphalt–aggregate mixtures. Utilization of fly ash, which is the by-product of coal-fired power generation, is of
great importance from an environmental and economical point of view. In this study, a dense bituminous mixture com-
posed of calcareous aggregate was selected as the reference mixture. It was observed that there was a definite increase in
Marshall stability and decrease in flow values, especially when calcareous filler was replaced by Soma-type fly ash, which
was one of the three types of fly ashes used. The mechanical properties, namely elastic strain, elastic modulus, and perma-
nent strain, of the asphalt mixtures were determined by carrying out fatigue tests with a UMATTA tester for three types of
fly ashes, portland cement, lime, and control specimens. The changes in mechanical properties are important in the sense
that they affect the behavior of asphalt concrete pavement under applied loads. This mechanism can be explained basically
by bitumen extension. The fatigue life of fly ash specimens, especially Soma fly ash, was found to be considerably higher
than that of calcareous filler specimens. Based on this study, it is demonstrated that fly ash can be used effectively in a
dense-graded wearing course as a filler replacement.
Key words: fly ash, filler replacement, Marshall method, mechanical properties, fatigue test, performance, bitumen exten-
sion, fatigue life.
Résumé : L’objectif de cette étude était d’examiner l’impact des cendres volantes comme matière de charge de remplace-
ment sur les propriétés mécaniques des mélanges asphalte-granulats. L’utilisation des cendres volantes, le sous-produit des
centrales thermiques alimentées au charbon, est d’une grande importance environnementale et économique. Dans la pré-
sente étude, un mélange bitumineux dense, composé d’agrégat calcaire, a été choisi comme mélange de référence. La stabi-
lité Marshall a définitivement augmentée et une diminution des valeurs d’écrasement a été remarquée, surtout lorsque la
matière de charge calcaire était remplacé par les cendres volantes de type Soma, l’un des trois types de cendres volantes
utilisés. Les propriétés mécaniques, dont la déformation élastique, le module élastique et la déformation plastique des mé-
langes asphaltiques ont été déterminées en effectuant des essais de résistance à la fatigue par un UMATTA pour trois types
de cendres volantes, du ciment Portland, de la chaux et des échantillons témoins. Les changements aux propriétés mécani-
ques sont importants en ce qu’ils ont un impact sur le comportement du revêtement en béton asphaltique sous les charges
qui y sont appliquées. Ce mécanisme peut être expliqué à la base par l’extension du bitume. La longévité à la fatigue des
échantillons de cendres volantes, surtout la cendre de type Soma, s’est avérée considérablement plus élevée que celle des
échantillons comportant des matières de charge calcaires. La présente étude a démontré que les cendres volantes peuvent
être utilisées de manière efficace comme matière de charge dans une couche d’usure de catégorie dense.
Mots-clés : cendres volantes, matière de charge de remplacement, méthode Marshall, propriétés mécaniques, essai de fati-
gue, rendement, extension du bitume, longévité à la fatigue.
[Traduit par la Rédaction]

1. Introduction modified paving materials and use of them in construction

With development of infrastructure and increasing trans-
portation demands, construction of better pavements with
longer service lives is required. The development of new
Received 22 January 2007. Revision accepted 5 June 2007.
Published on the NRC Research Press Web site at cjce.nrc.ca on
30 January 2008.
S. Tapkn. Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of
Engineering and Architecture, İki Eylül Campus, Anadolu
University, 26555 Eskis ehir,Turkey (e-mail: cstapkin@
anadolu.edu.tr).
Written discussion of this article is welcomed and will be
received by the Editor until 31 May 2008.
results in high performance pavements to meet the needs of
the communities. While developing these new modified
paving materials, attention should be paid to using waste
industrial materials effectively in construction to address
environmental and economic concerns.
In the last few decades, research findings have shown that
the use of new paving materials requires more sophisticated
approaches for pavement and material mix design processes.
Pavement design and mix design should be handled together
and performance evaluation techniques should accompany
the classical mix design methods.
The use of modified asphalt–aggregate mixtures in surface-
bound layers creates a demand for evaluation of the per-
formance of those modified mixtures. Asphalt modification

Can. J. Civ. Eng. 35: 27–40 (2008) doi:10.1139/L07-082 # 2008 NRC Canada
28
is accomplished by using polymer modifiers in the asphalt–
aggregate mixtures. This modification can be done both by
modifying bitumen with the polymer or by adding the
modifier directly in to the mixture of bitumen and aggre-
gate during mixing process. The first technique needs spe-
cialized equipment and therefore brings additional
expenditure. Asphalt modification by using polymers,
whether bitumen-based or mix-based, is an expensive proc-
ess and needs skilled workmanship and special equipment.
Also, for developing countries, asphalt modification with
polymers means more dependence on developed countries
for the transfer of technology, know-how, and, most impor-
tantly, importation of patented modifiers. The importance
of using waste materials, such as fly ash, in the modifica-
tion of asphalt–aggregate mixtures comes into the scene at
this point. Together with the economic considerations, us-
ing fly ash in asphalt–aggregate mixtures alters the mixture
behavior in a beneficial way (Ali et al. 1996; Churchill
and Amirkhanian 1999; Asi and Assa’ad 2005).
The oldest application of asphalt–aggregate mix modifica-
tion is the replacement of normal filler material by another
suitable material available in nature or easily found on the
market. This process is called filler replacement. In practice,
filler replacement is put into application for cases where
normal filler produced during the crushing process of rocks
from quarries is scarce or aggregate is not clean and inher-
ent mud or clay constituents are present; thus, it becomes
necessary to wash out the aggregate, which causes the total
loss of filler.
There are several materials available on the market and in
nature that may be used in place of normal filler. Fly ash, a
by-product of coal-fired power generation, is an example of
such a material. Because of its origin, there is a rising inter-
est in fly ash among scientists and civil engineers (Sobolev
and Naik 2005). The importance of fly ash as a waste mate-
rial, from the economic point of view, draws major attention
to this material by pavement engineers. The vast amount of
waste material produced daily is one of the major worldwide
problems in waste management. Developing countries like
Turkey produce a considerable amount of fly ash in coal-
fired power plants every year and this huge amount of waste
creates a significant problem with respect to handling and
storage, which are important both from the economic and
environmental point of view. Nations are forced to search
for more suitable ways to recycle these waste materials, the
main reason being primary environmental concerns and a
decreasing number of landfill sites. For a considerable
amount of time, researchers have been investigating the use
of fly ash in the construction industry, to enable better man-
agement of this important waste material and to improve the
properties of construction materials. Fly ash has been used
extensively in concrete production for many years, but there
are limited applications where fly ash has been used in
pavement engineering when compared with concrete appli-
cations. This study aims to provide a suitable means for the
utilization of fly ash in dense bituminous mixtures.
The first aim of this study was to review available litera-
ture on the use of fly ash in asphalt concrete mixtures. Sec-
ond, the possibilities of improving the mechanical properties
of asphalt mixtures by using fly ash as mineral filler was
explored. Finally, the effect of the use of fly ash as a filler
Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 35, 2008
material was evaluated for performance improvement of
asphalt concrete pavements.
2. Historical background and definition of
filler replacement
Normally, stone dust produced during the aggregate
crushing process is used as filler in asphalt–aggregate mix-
tures. It is common practice to use hydrated lime, portland
cement, and some other materials in place of stone dust
when it is not available in the required amounts. The influ-
ence of mineral filler comes from the fact that although
small in weight with respect to the total mix, its surface
area is quite large. In some cases, a reduction in the demand
for bitumen can be accomplished by the addition of mineral
filler because it fills the voids in the aggregate mass. How-
ever, in other cases, due to the increase in surface area, a
larger demand for bitumen may be necessary. In this study,
various filler materials were selected to investigate this
important effect on the characteristics of the mixture.
Paving mixtures are composed of mineral aggregates held
together by an asphalt binder or bitumen. The mineral
aggregates are distributed throughout the mixture in sizes
ranging from coarse to fine. Properly compacted asphalt
mixtures produce a structure whose stability, stiffness, and
wearing properties are dependent on the interlocking of the
aggregate and the cohesiveness of the binder. Based on the
above rationale, mineral filler is defined as finely divided
mineral matter and includes material such as rock dust, slag
dust, portland cement, hydrated lime (used also as an anti-
stripping agent), fly ash, waste glass (Sobolev 2003), and
loess (Anderson et al. 1982). If a more formal definition is
sought to be given, mineral filler is the material passing a
No. 200 (0.074 mm) US standard sieve. In usual practice,
the mineral filler used in asphalt–aggregate mixtures is the
tail-end product obtained during the crushing process of nat-
ural rock that conforms with aggregate specifications. The
use of fly ash, portland cement, or other suitable materials
in place of natural mineral filler is universally accepted.
A controversial and unresolved question regarding filler
materials concerns the mechanisms by which fillers change
the properties or behavior of paving mixtures. Brief consid-
eration of such mechanisms may be helpful for the sake of
completeness of the filler replacement theory.
The mineral filler, whether artificial or natural, can affect
hot-mix asphalt concrete in a number of ways. It may:
. stiffen the asphalt cement
. extend the asphalt cement (it can be called the bitumen
extension)
. alter the moisture resistance of the mix
. affect the aging characteristics of the mix
. affect the workability and compaction characteristics of
the mix (Anderson et al. 1982).
The mineral filler fraction is often referred to as the
amount of material filling the voids between the coarser
sand and aggregate particles. This concept sounds very ele-
gant until an attempt is made to define the size range of the
coarser fraction that creates the voids. Puzinauskas (1983)
arrived at the conclusion that there is no single size that can
# 2008 NRC Canada
Tapkn
be considered as filling the voids or creating the voids. More
appropriately, the filler, the dust or simply the minus No.
200 (US standard sieve) fraction should be considered an
extension of the mineral aggregate framework. It is this min-
eral aggregate framework that is primarily responsible for
the stability and load carrying properties of hot-mix asphalt
concrete (Puzinauskas 1983).
The portion of the filler with particles thicker than the
asphalt film contributes to the interlocking of the aggregate.
The other portion of the filler, with particles smaller than
the thickness of the asphalt film, is suspended in the asphalt
and constitutes the binder in the mixture. The filler may ex-
tend the asphalt, thereby increasing the effective asphalt
content in the mixture (Dukatz and Anderson 1980). Two
types of stiffening effects may result from the portion of the
mineral filler that is suspended in the asphalt:
. a relatively small stiffening resulting from the volume
filling of the filler
. a relatively large stiffening resulting from the physico-
chemical interaction between the asphalt and the surface
of the mineral filler (Puzinauskas 1983).
3. Use of fly ash in asphalt concrete mixtures
The idea of using fly ash as mineral filler in asphalt mix-
tures is not a new concept. Its use in asphalt concrete mix-
tures has been investigated by many scientists and the
research findings that have been obtained by these scientists
can be summarized as follows.
Carpenter (1952) determined that a class F fly ash re-
sulted in an excellent effect on the retained compressive
strength for asphalt concrete specimens immersed in water.
Warden et al. (1952) stated that fly ash was a suitable filler
material in terms of mixing, placing and compaction, stabil-
ity, resistance to water damage, and flexibility. Zimmer
(1970) analyzed the effect of carbon content on fly ash. His
results revealed that specimens that are prepared by using
fly ash had higher retained strength after immersing them in
water.
Of significant difference from Carpenter’s research, Hen-
ning (1974) investigated the effect of a class C fly ash on
asphalt mixture properties. He concluded that the addition
of 4% fly ash resulted in the highest stability and flow, but
ended up with lower air voids. Henning also stated that fly
ash created an improvement in the stability after immersion
in water. Sankaran and Rao (1973) made a comparison of
fly ash with other fillers, such as kaolin clay and crushed
dust. They pointed out that fly ash at 2% filler content pro-
vided the highest stability among the other fillers.
Rosner et al. (1982) used fly ash as mineral filler and
anti-stripping agent for asphalt concrete mixtures. They
showed that the retained strength of the samples increased
as additional fly ash was used in the prepared mixtures. In
most of their cases, the retained strengths of fly ash mixtures
were considerably greater than those using natural filler
material.
In a study carried out by Suheibani (1986), fly ash was
evaluated as an asphalt extender. Suheibani analysed how
fly ash particle size affects the viscosity of the asphalt to
which it was added. He also examined the effect of fly ash
29
as an extender on density measurements, voids, and mechan-
ical properties of asphalt. Indirect tensile strength, creep,
and resilient modulus test results showed that the addition
of class F fly ash provided superior fatigue life, rut depth
resistance, and tensile strength.
Also, Tons et al. (1983) investigated the use of class F fly
ash as a bitumen extender. Bitumen was replaced by various
percentages of different fly ashes. Tests were carried out on
asphalt specimens to determine resistance to moisture dam-
age, thermal cracking, rutting, fatigue life, and asphalt hard-
ening in mixtures. Noticeable improvements were observed
for asphalt hardening, moisture and freeze–thaw damage
resistance, rutting resistance, fatigue life, density, and tensile
strength.
Cabrera and Zoorob (1994) established that, based on a
workability index at various temperatures, the pulverized fly
ash filler hot-mixed asphalt could be mixed and compacted
at temperatures as low as 110 and 85 8C, respectively, with-
out any detrimental effects on engineering and performance
properties. They stated that there might have been consider-
able savings in energy without an additional asphalt cement
requirement.
4. Experimental program
4.1. Material properties
Mixture characteristics are directly dependent on the
properties of the aggregate and bitumen that constitute the
paving mixture. As the filler, in general, is an integral part
of the aggregate used in bituminous mixtures, its character-
istics and amount contained in the mix play an important
role in modifying the mixture characteristics. The optimum
bitumen content and air voids is influenced by the filler
amount and eventually all mechanical mixture characteris-
tics are affected.
In the laboratory test program, a single aggregate grada-
tion was selected to suit the wearing course type 3 gradation
limits set by the General Directorate of Highways of Turkey
(2000). Calcareous aggregates obtained from a native quarry
and 60/70 penetration bitumen obtained from a nearby refin-
ery were used in the preparation of all specimens. The phys-
ical properties of the bitumen are stated in Table 1.
Modified mixtures used three types of fly ash, namely
Soma (F type), Cayirhan (F type), and Kangal (C type) and
two other filler materials, namely lime and portland cement
in place of the calcareous filler. This replacement was made
solely on a weight basis. Some of the major properties of
the coarse aggregates, fine aggregates, and six types of filler
(namely calcareous, three types of fly ash, lime, and port-
land cement) are stated in Tables 2, 3, 4, and 5.
Aggregate gradation for the bituminous mixtures tested in
the laboratory has been selected as an average of the wear-
ing course type 3 gradation limits given by the General
Directorate of Highways of Turkey (2000). The mixture
gradation and gradation limits can be seen in tabulated
form in Table 6. Throughout the study, six different types
of filler were used, namely three types of fly ash, calcare-
ous filler, lime, and portland cement. The fly ash used
throughout the study was obtained from Soma, Cayirhan,
and Kangal thermal power plants located in different re-
gions of Turkey. Soma fly ash and Cayirhan fly ash are F
# 2008 NRC Canada
30 Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 35, 2008

Table 1. Physical properties of the asphalt cement.

Property Test value Standard

Penetration at 25 8C (1/10 mm) 62.0 ASTM D5–73 (ASTM 1973)
Penetration Index +1.0 —
Ductility at 25 8C (cm) >100 ASTM D 113–79 (ASTM 1979a)
Loss on heating (%) 0.053 ASTM D 6–80 (ASTM 1980)
Specific gravity at 25 8C (kg/m3) 1033 ASTM D70–76 (ASTM 1976b)
Softening point (8C) 57 ASTM D36–76 (ASTM 1976a)
Flash point (8C) 257 ASTM D 92–78 (ASTM 1978)
Fire point (8C) 295 ASTM D 92–78 (ASTM 1978)

Table 2. Physical properties of coarse aggre- Table 4. Chemical composition of fly ash (FA) samples. LoI, loss
gates, tested in accordance with ASTM C127- on ignition.
80 (ASTM 1980b).
Oxide (%)
Property Test value FA Soma FA Cayirhan FA Kangal
Bulk specific gravity (kg/m3) 2754 (class F) (class F) (class C)
Apparent specific gravity (kg/m3) 2821 SiO2 50.48 49.74 27.92
Water absorption (%) 0.26 Al2O3 27.64 14.70 11.96
Fe2O3 4.80 9.04 5.14
Table 3. Physical properties of fine aggregates, SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 82.92 73.48 45.02
tested in accordance with ASTM C128-79 CaO 13.08 13.64 37.86
(ASTM 1979b). MgO 1.30 5.10 2.60
SO3 0.97 3.64 12.10
Property Test value Na2O 0.30 2.10 0.40
Bulk specific gravity (kg/m3) 2741 K2O 2.00 1.20 0.80
Apparent specific gravity (kg/m3) 2766 Na2Oeq 1.62 2.89 0.93
Water absorption (%) 1.43 LoI 1.07 2.44 3.15

Table 5. Apparent specific gravities of

type and Kangal fly ash is C type. The lime and portland filler materials, tested in accordance
cement were obtained from local manufacturers. Calcareous with ASTM D854-83 (ASTM 1983).
filler was the tail-end product of calcareous aggregate that
was obtained from the local quarry. Filler type Test value
The chemical composition of the fly ash was supplied by Calcareous filler (kg/m3) 2632
the research laboratories of the relevant thermal power Soma fly ash (kg/m3) 2105
plants. The compositions are given in Table 4 and the appa- Cayirhan fly ash (kg/m3) 2194
Kangal fly ash (kg/m3) 2525
rent specific gravity values are given in Table 5.
Lime (kg/m3) 2315
Portland cement (kg/m3) 3060
4.2. Hot-mixture design using Marshall test method
To determine the optimum bitumen content, it is required
Table 6. Type 3 wearing course gradation accord-
to perform Marshall tests and carry out some analysis on
ing to the General Directorate of Highways of
these test results. The relevant Marshall test data are stated
Turkey (2000).
in a tabulated manner in Tables 7 through 12. These values
are the average of three different sets of specimens. There- Sieve size Gradation Passing Retained
fore, each table represents the test results of 30 different (mm) limits (%) (%) (%)
specimens. The standard Marshall specimens were prepared 12.7 100 100 0
by applying 50 blows on each face. Also, the optimum bitu- 9.52 87–100 93.5 6.5
men contents obtained for six different types of filler materi- 4.76 66–82 74 19.5
als at the end of the Marshall design are given in Fig. 1. 2.00 47–64 55.5 18.5
Throughout the tests that were carried out, 7% of filler was 0.42 24–36 30 25.5
replaced solely on a weight basis by the three types of fly 0.177 13–22 17.5 12.5
ash, portland cement, and lime. 0.074 4–10 7 10.5
By using results given in Tables 7–12, namely for the Pan — — 7
three different types of fly ash, portland cement, lime, and
calcareous filler, the optimum bitumen contents have been
calculated and presented in a graphical form in Fig. 1. voids filled with asphalt, were found and averaged according
The bitumen contents corresponding to the mixtures with to the limits given by the General Directorate of Highways
maximal stability and unit weight, 4% air voids and 80% of Turkey (2000) to find the optimum value. These optimum
# 2008 NRC Canada
Tapkn 31

Table 7. Marshall test results for calcareous filler. V.M.A., voids in mineral aggregate.

Bitumen V.M.A. Air void Unit weight Stability Flow Marshall

content (%) (%) (%) (kg/m3) (kg) (mm) quotient
2.5 17.875 11.882 2235 1254 2.01 623.9
3.0 17.241 10.546 2298 1496 2.14 699.1
3.5 16.640 9.136 2329 1850 2.28 811.4
4.0 15.474 6.762 2373 2109 2.46 857.3
4.5 14.063 4.084 2424 2396 2.60 921.5
5.0 14.317 3.249 2429 2034 2.75 739.6
5.5 14.234 2.037 2443 1926 3.65 527.7
6.0 14.752 1.516 2439 1574 3.89 404.6
6.5 15.141 0.858 2440 1345 5.11 263.2
7.0 15.905 0.653 2429 1087 6.15 176.7

Table 8. Marshall test results for Soma (class F) fly ash filler. V.M.A., voids in
mineral aggregate.

Bitumen V.M.A. Air void Unit weight Stability Flow Marshall

content (%) (%) (%) (kg/m3) (kg) (mm) quotient
2.5 17.680 12.155 2247 1388 2.27 611.5
3.0 17.573 10.979 2261 1717 2.32 740.1
3.5 17.201 9.512 2282 2207 2.40 919.6
4.0 16.724 7.919 2306 2385 2.31 1032.5
4.5 16.180 6.238 2332 2649 2.16 1226.4
5.0 15.987 4.941 2349 2476 2.41 1027.4
5.5 15.520 3.325 2373 2432 2.40 1013.3
6.0 15.813 2.578 2376 2119 2.68 790.7
6.5 15.982 1.691 2383 1755 3.50 501.4
7.0 16.414 1.121 2381 1358 4.33 313.6

Table 9. Marshall test results for Cayirhan (class F) fly ash filler. V.M.A., voids in
mineral aggregate.

Bitumen V.M.A. Air void Unit weight Stability Flow Marshall

content (%) (%) (%) (kg/m3) (kg) (mm) quotient
2.5 16.080 10.749 2290 1524 2.27 671.4
3.0 15.874 9.447 2307 1834 2.32 790.5
3.5 15.931 8.427 2317 1909 2.40 795.4
4.0 15.430 6.792 2342 2123 2.31 919.0
4.5 14.919 5.134 2367 2062 2.16 954.6
5.0 14.846 3.957 2381 1902 2.41 789.2
5.5 14.227 2.154 2410 2047 2.40 852.9
6.0 14.544 1.416 2412 1597 2.68 595.9
6.5 14.880 0.708 2414 1342 3.50 383.4
7.0 15.686 0.563 2402 1122 4.33 259.1

bitumen contents are represented in Fig. 1. Voids in mineral
aggregate (V.M.A.) must be greater than 12%–13% accord-
ing to the same criteria set forth by this agency. The V.M.A.
results tabulated in Tables 7–12 confirm this fact.
The particle size distribution graphs of six different filler
specimens, which are grouped into two parts as fly ashes
and the others, are given in Figs. 2 and 3. The particle size
distribution analyses of filler materials were carried out by
Malvern Mastersizer (Malvern Instruments Ltd. 1997) work-
ing in a dry basis. All of the tests were carried at the same
laboratory with the same test conditions. Figure 2 shows the
particle size distribution of three types of fly ashes. It can
be observed that the finest of these three samples is Kan-
gal fly ash (class C) and the Soma fly ash (class F) is the
coarsest. The values of specific surface areas are stated in
Table 13. These fly ash samples had approximately equal
specific surface area values (Table 13). Kangal fly ash has
the highest specific surface area, therefore, resulting in the
highest optimum bitumen content (highest bitumen absorp-
tion capacity). The research results confirm this assump-
tion. As can be seen in Fig. 1, the optimum bitumen
content of Kangal fly ash is 6.28%, which is the largest
amount of all fillers. Soma fly ash has a specific gravity
of 2105 kg/m3. It is the lightest among the fillers and it
can affect some of the mixture properties. The amount and
the characteristics of the filler material can considerably al-
ter the behavior of bituminous mixtures (Puzinauskas 1983;
Dukatz and Anderson 1980; Carpenter 1952; Warden et al.
# 2008 NRC Canada
32 Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 35, 2008

Table 10. Marshall test results for Kangal (class C) fly ash filler. V.M.A., voids in
mineral aggregate.

Bitumen V.M.A. Air void Unit weight Stability Flow Marshall

Content (%) (%) (%) (kg/m3) (kg) (mm) quotient
2.5 18.240 12.991 2257 1499 3.15 475.9
3.0 18.277 11.966 2267 1815 2.97 611.1
3.5 18.577 11.207 2270 1930 2.85 677.2
4.0 18.242 9.801 2290 2091 2.37 882.3
4.5 18.849 9.413 2283 1989 2.60 765.0
5.0 18.339 7.782 2309 2073 2.67 776.4
5.5 17.330 5.566 2348 2219 2.83 784.1
6.0 16.889 3.980 2372 2268 2.74 827.7
6.5 16.251 2.153 2402 2231 3.53 632.0
7.0 16.867 1.791 2395 1863 3.46 538.4

Table 11. Marshall test results for lime filler. V.M.A., voids in mineral aggregate.

Bitumen V.M.A. Air void Unit weight Stability Flow Marshall

content (%) (%) (%) (kg/m3) (kg) (mm) quotient
2.5 17.933 12.597 2252 1225 2.88 425.3
3.0 17.825 11.417 2266 1577 2.84 555.3
3.5 18.417 10.999 2261 1687 2.20 766.8
4.0 17.434 8.859 2299 2065 2.04 1012.3
4.5 17.609 7.985 2305 1889 2.21 854.8
5.0 16.999 6.230 2334 1824 2.12 860.4
5.5 16.474 4.556 2360 1774 2.44 727.0
6.0 16.295 3.267 2376 1675 2.51 667.3
6.5 16.105 1.962 2392 1579 3.38 467.2
7.0 16.528 1.376 2392 1329 4.57 290.8

Table 12. Marshall test results for portland cement filler. V.M.A., voids in mineral
aggregate.

Bitumen V.M.A. Air void Unit weight Stability Flow Marshall

content (%) (%) (%) (kg/m3) (kg) (mm) quotient
2.5 17.681 12.285 2303 1722 2.71 635.4
3.0 17.082 10.552 2331 2014 2.70 745.9
3.5 15.945 8.217 2375 2232 2.57 868.5
4.0 15.681 6.817 2394 2151 2.25 956.0
4.5 14.777 4.692 2431 2280 2.43 938.3
5.0 14.171 2.882 2460 2420 2.37 1021.1
5.5 14.308 1.907 2468 2162 2.97 727.9
6.0 14.741 1.278 2467 1860 3.97 468.5
6.5 15.391 0.914 2460 1549 4.25 364.5
7.0 16.092 0.627 2451 1327 4.58 289.7

1952). During the mixing process at high temperatures, the
bitumen and filler come together to form a paste. The ulti-
mate physical and chemical characteristics of this paste
determine the mixture behavior. Bitumen extension and
stiffening effect controlled by the filler content and its
characteristics are two phenomenons that are frequently
mentioned in published literature (Puzinauskas 1983;
Dukatz and Anderson 1980; Carpenter 1952; Warden et al.
1952). Although the experimental results provide ade-
quate guidance for the mix design process, to further clar-
ify filler–bitumen interaction, more complete studies are
needed.
The effect of filler replacement with fly ash, lime, and
portland cement is given in Tables 14 and 15. The most im-
pressive and interesting observation is the increase in the
Marshall stability values and decrease of flow values for
Soma fly ash specimens (versus control specimens with cal-
careous filler).
Table 14 reports the maximum stability values obtained
from each data set of different fillers. It can be seen that
the average stabilities of Soma fly ash specimens are app-
roximately 11% higher and the average flow values are
approximately 17% lower than that of calcareous filler
(control) specimens (Table 14). Also, the average air void
values of Soma fly ash specimens are approximately 53%
higher than that of the control specimens. Finally, the aver-
age specific gravity values of Soma fly ash specimens are
approximately 4% lower than that of calcareous filler
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Tapkn
Fig. 1. Optimum bitumen content for different filler materials.
Fig. 2. Particle size distributions of fly ash.
Fig. 3. Particle size distribution of portland cement, lime, and calcareous filler.
specimens. The reasons why Soma fly ash specimens per-
form better than the other two types of fly ashes can be
stated as follows:
(1) Soma fly ash (class F) is the coarsest of the three types
of fly ashes (Fig. 2). Therefore, the stiffening effect aris-
33
ing from the filler–bitumen interaction is realized in the
asphalt concrete specimens prepared with Soma fly ash.
(2) The aluminium oxide (Al2O3) percentage of Soma fly
ash specimens is 27.64%, which is more than twice that
of the other types of fly ash. The aluminium oxide por-
tion of fly ash can be considered to be responsible for
# 2008 NRC Canada
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Table 13. Specific surface areas of dif-
ferent types of filler materials, tested in
accordance with ASTM C204-00
(ASTM 2000).
Filler type (m2/kg) Test value
Calcareous filler 322.9
Soma fly ash 249.4
Cayirhan fly ash 242.7
Kangal fly ash 277.0
Lime 582.2
Portland cement 265.3
the bond with bitumen and, therefore, for the higher
strength and stiffness of the Marshall specimens.
(3) The apparent specific gravity of Soma fly ash is
2105 kg/m3, which is the smallest of the three types of
fly ashes. Also, this value is much smaller than the
specific gravity of the calcareous filler. Therefore, it
can be concluded that the filler–bitumen paste of Soma
fly ash specimens shows better bitumen extension when
compared with the specimens prepared with other types
of fillers.
These results conform well with the results obtained by
Tons et al. (1983) in the sense that class F fly ash acts as a
superior bitumen extender. Two other fly ash materials and
lime did not show superior properties versus calcareous
filler, with respect to stability. But, on the other hand, lime
has an average flow value of approximately 22% lower than
calcareous filler. This interesting behavior of lime comes
from the fact that it has the highest specific surface area of
582.2 m2/kg. However, lime filler specimens also have the
smallest average stability values. Another major drawback
is related to the behavior of the portland cement specimens
(Table 14). As can be seen, these samples also show supe-
rior properties because of the high specific gravity of port-
land cement. The highest average Marshall quotient value,
which gives important information about the stiffness modu-
lus of the mixture, was obtained for Soma fly ash speci-
mens. This gives an important indication for fatigue life
prediction of these types of specimens (i.e., the higher the
stiffness of the specimens, the longer the fatigue life is).
The fatigue life of Soma fly ash specimens is the highest
among all specimens. The minor variations in the specific
gravity values of the Marshall specimens can be explained
by the changes in the specific gravity values of filler ma-
terials.
From the point of view of economics, the aim of the de-
signer is to minimize the cost of the bitumen that is being
used in the design. In the case where fly ash or other waste
material is used as filler material, there is no extra cost to
pay for the replacement operation. The most important point
that has to be emphasized is that ‘‘fly ash replacement pro-
vides real economy.’’ This is the major difference from the
polymer modification option. The optimum bitumen content
for calcareous filler is approximately 5%. Comparisons be-
tween calcareous filler and the other filler materials are
Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 35, 2008
shown in Table 15. In this table, the stability values are
taken as the reference point as these are important mechani-
cal parameters of asphalt. Also, the stability values act as a
dominant figure in the design process of asphalt–aggregate
mixtures. Therefore, the bitumen content values that produce
a stability value similar to that of the control specimens
(with calcareous filler) have to be represented. The maxi-
mum stability values obtained for different types of fly ash
are greater than those of the control specimens. A represen-
tative bitumen content value that gives approximately equal
stability values to the optimum bitumen content of 5%, as it
was defined for the control specimens, is accepted as the
‘‘adjusted bitumen content’’ of the different fillers. These
values are presented in Table 15.
The Marshall quotient values in Table 15 are presented in
Fig. 4. This figure shows the favourable behavior of fly ash
specimens when compared with a calcareous type of filler.
The fatigue life of fly ash specimens is relatively higher
when compared with the fatigue life of the control mix.
4.3. Experimental methods
4.3.1. Fatigue life analysis of Marshall specimens
Fatigue can be defined as the ‘‘phenomenon of fracture
under repeated or fluctuating stress having a maximum
value generally less than the tensile strength of the material’’
(Austin and Gilchrist 1996). Another definition for fatigue is
that ‘‘it is a process of progressive localized permanent
structural change occurring in a material subjected to condi-
tions that produce fluctuating stresses and strains at some
point or points and which may culminate in cracks or com-
plete fracture at a sufficient number of fluctuations’’ (ASTM
1963). Fatigue in asphalt pavement surfaces is caused by the
repetitive application of vehicular loads, which induce fluc-
tuating stresses and strains in the bituminous surface layer.
Under traffic loading, the layers of a flexible pavement
structure are subjected to continuous flexing. The distress,
which is caused by the fatigue phenomenon, begins with
cracking that shows up as map or alligator cracking patterns
on the surface.
4.3.2. Repeated load indirect tensile test
The repeated load indirect tensile test is a commonly used
tensile test for stabilized materials. Most of the early re-
ported tests have been reported for concrete or mortar; how-
ever, this test is currently applied to cement-treated gravel,
lime-soil mixtures, and asphalt-stabilized materials. This
test involves loading a cylindrical specimen with a compres-
sive load along two opposite sides, which results in a rela-
tively uniform tensile stress acting perpendicular to and
along the diametral plane of the applied load. Finally, a
splitting failure generally occurs along the diametral plane
(Austin and Gilchrist 1996).
Under the applied force, perpendicular and horizontal
stresses, elastic modulus and strain values can be easily cal-
culated. The fatigue life can be determined from the reduc-
tion of the elastic modulus value to a limiting value, defined
as a fraction of the initial value (generally 50%) or as a
number of load repetitions that cause the first crack to arise
in the specimen (Brown 1990).
# 2008 NRC Canada
Tapkn 35

Table 14. Volumetric mix properties of mixtures with maximum stability based on
different types of filler materials.

Air void Unit weight Stabilitymax Flow Marshall

Filler type (%) (kg/m3) (kg) (mm) quotient
Calcareous filler 4.084 2424 2396 2.60 921.5
Soma fly ash 6.238 2332 2649 2.16 1226.4
Cayirhan fly ash 6.792 2342 2123 2.31 919.0
Kangal fly ash 3.980 2372 2268 2.74 827.7
Lime 8.859 2299 2065 2.04 1021.3
Portland cement 2.882 2460 2420 2.37 1021.1

Table 15. Mixture properties and the ‘‘adjusted bitumen content’’ values.

Adjusted Stability Flow Marshall Gain in

Filler type bitumen content (kg) (mm) quotient bitumen (%)
Calcareous filler 5.0 2034 2.75 739.6 0
Soma fly ash 3.5 2207 2.40 919.6 +30
Cayirhan fly ash 4.0 2123 2.31 919.0 +20
Kangal fly ash 4.0 2091 2.37 882.3 +20
Lime 4.0 2065 2.04 1012.3 +20
Portland cement 3.0 2014 2.70 745.9 +40

Fig. 4. Marshall quotient values for different filler specimens.

4.3.3. Elasticity modulus, permanent and elastic
deformations
The UMATTA tester (ELE-UMATTA 1994) is a testing
system that is used to find both the elastic modulus and the
permanent and elastic deformations of the previously pre-
pared Marshall specimens (Wallace and Monismith 1980).
The system operates automatically and is controlled with
the help of a personal computer and software called UMAT
(ELE-UMATTA 1994). The parameters, such as applied
load level, load repetition, and time to reach maximum load-
ing level, are given as an input before starting the test.
While the test is being carried out, with predefined intervals,
the elastic and plastic deformations are recorded and tensile
stress, resilient strain, and elastic modulus values are calcu-
lated. The experiment is conducted in a temperature-
controlled unit and the interior and surface temperature of
the specimen is continuously recorded.
Based on these experiment results, the fatigue life of
asphalt pavements have been modelled in laboratory condi-
tions and extensive tests have been conducted to investi-
gate the effect of fly ash replacement on mixture
properties. These tests were carried out with a UMATTA
# 2008 NRC Canada
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Fig. 5. Elastic strain versus pulse count of specimens prepared with different fillers.
tester (ELE-UMATTA 1994). The aim of these experi-
ments was to model the fatigue or alligator cracking on
the pavement structure.
In this study, repeated indirect loadings were applied on
Marshall specimens and lateral deformations were measured.
The experiment was terminated when visible cracks started
to occur on the specimen surface.
5. Test results and discussion
The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of dif-
ferent types of fillers on properties of dense bituminous
mixes. For the calcareous aggregate, calcareous type of
filler, and 60/70 penetration bitumen used throughout the
entire study, the optimum bitumen content was found to be
approximately 5.0%. The six sets of specimens, each com-
posed of three different samples, were prepared using the
5.0% bitumen content (the optimum bitumen content for
calcareous filler specimens). Although the air void contents
of the Marshall specimens prepared with Kangal fly ash
and lime are above 6%, these specimens were tested to
determine their fatigue lives. These types of mixes per-
formed very well in the fatigue tests when compared with
control specimens. The fatigue tests were carried out in a
temperature-controlled unit. The test temperature was
40 8C to resemble the in situ conditions that initiate fati-
gue cracking. The Poisson’s ratio was taken as 0.35 and
the pulse period was selected as 500 ms. Loading time
was 100 ms, the rest period was 400 ms, and the applied
load was 1000 N. All of the tests were carried out with
these testing parameters and the test results presented in
Figs. 5, 6, and 7 are the average values of the three sets
of asphalt concrete specimens. Figure 5 represents the elas-
tic strain versus pulse count of six different types of speci-
mens prepared with different fillers. Figure 6 represents the
elastic modulus versus pulse count of the same specimens.
Figure 7 represents the permanent strain versus pulse count
of these specimens.
Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 35, 2008
It can be observed that different types of specimens show
quite different patterns with respect to their fatigue lives. As
can be seen from the graphs in these figures, Soma fly ash
specimens have the longest fatigue life and calcareous filler
specimens have the shortest. When these graphs are ana-
lysed, it can be seen that there are some peak points in the
elastic strain versus pulse count graphs. After these points
are reached, if the test is continued, a strain-hardening por-
tion with a second peak value can be observed (Tapkn
1998). In this study, the tests were terminated at the point
where the first visible crack was seen on the specimen sur-
face. Therefore, the fatigue lives were calculated on this
basis. Initial strain values, maximum strain values, final
strain values, and the pulse counts corresponding to these
final strain values are presented in Table 16.
There are various approaches for the determination of
fatigue life of dense bituminous mixtures in published litera-
ture (Tapkn 1998). In this study, the first visible crack ap-
proach was used. According to this, an average fatigue life
of the Soma fly ash specimens is approximately 36.8%
higher than that of the control specimens.
The average initial resilient strains of the Soma fly ash
specimens are 97.4% lower than that of calcareous filler
specimens. This is a clear indicator for the anticipated lon-
ger fatigue life of this material. The average maximum resil-
ient strain of Soma fly ash specimens is 26.8% less than that
of the control specimens. This means that Soma fly ash
specimens are exposed to a considerably lower amount of
resilient strain and, therefore, such materials would have
longer fatigue lives. The final average resilient strain of the
Soma fly ash specimens is 5.6% less than the reference
specimen. This is shown in the strain hardening portion of
the graphs in Fig. 5, which comes after the first peaks. With
this redistribution of the load in the specimen body, the
Soma fly ash specimens show longer fatigue lives.
The elastic modulus versus pulse count of six different
types of filler specimens are presented in Fig. 6. The mini-
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Tapkn 37

Fig. 6. Elastic modulus versus pulse count of specimens prepared with different fillers.

Fig. 7. Permanent strain versus pulse count of specimens prepared with different fillers.

Table 16. Resilient strains of specimens with different fil- Table 17. Resilient modulus of specimens with
lers. different fillers.

eo emaximum efinal Pulse Eo Emin Pulse

Specimen (e) (e) (e) count Specimen (MPa) (MPa) count
Calcareous filler 300 766 540 48 222 Calcareous filler 350.1 101.1 48 222
Soma fly ash 152 561 510 65 947 Soma fly ash 580.0 321.4 65 947
Cayirhan fly ash 254 711 560 51 336 Cayirhan fly ash 401.9 137.5 51 336
Kangal fly ash 174 641 601 58 520 Kangal fly ash 466.2 263.3 58 520
Lime 289 742 587 50 558 Lime 372.8 115.8 50 558
Portland cement 201 674 604 54 223 Portland cement 433.3 174.5 54 223

mum value of the resilient modulus values is the point that
is believed to be the end of the fatigue life. From this point
of view, Table 17 shows the behavior difference between
the six different types of specimens.
As can be seen from Table 17, Soma fly ash specimens
have the highest initial resilient modulus (Eo). On the other
hand, the calcareous filler specimens have the lowest initial
resilient modulus. The initial resilient modulus of Soma fly
# 2008 NRC Canada
38
Fig. 8. Region of crack initiation for permanent strain versus pulse count (Tapkin 1998).
ash specimens was 65.7% higher than the control specimens
and the minimum resilient modulus (Emin) was 217.9%
higher than the control specimens. This represents the signif-
icant behavioral difference between these two types of
specimens with respect to their mechanical performance.
Therefore, it is also clear from Table 17 and Fig. 6 that the
Soma fly ash specimens will have the longest fatigue life.
This supports the results of the resilient strain analysis.
Figure 7 shows the permanent strain versus pulse count of
six different types of filler specimens. Permanent strains
recorded during the tests show that as the number of load
repetitions increase, permanent strains also increase. At the
initial stages of the test, this increase is gradual and nearly
linear. When Fig. 7 is examined, it can be observed that,
after a number of load repetitions, the rate of increase in
permanent strains gets higher and, at later stages, again
drops. Before visible cracks are observed on the samples,
the increase in permanent strains with load repetitions again
becomes nearly linear. Crack initiation, which is not visible
and not easily detectable, most probably will occur in be-
tween the two linear portions of permanent strain plots
(Tapkn 1998). This is shown in Fig. 8 for the permanent
strain versus pulse count relation.
It is believed that crack initiation starts before pulse count
reaches the point where the rate of increase in permanent
strain is at its maximum. From each permanent strain –
pulse count plot, these points are determined by a single
procedure. To each permanent strain – pulse count relation,
a regression curve is fitted and the pulse counts at which
rate of increase in permanent strains start to change abruptly
are determined. According to these discussions, the fatigue
lives of specimens can be thought of as the number of load
repetitions at which the rate of increase in permanent strains
is highest (Tapkn 1998). These critical pulse counts are
shown in Fig. 9 for the entire series of specimens tested.
When the values of these six sets of specimens are exam-
ined (which change between 38 325 and 50 344 pulse
counts), it can be seen that the difference between the fati-
gue lives of the calcareous filler and Soma fly ash filler
specimens with respect to permanent strain measurements is
31.4%. This value conforms well with the fatigue life differ-
Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 35, 2008
ence value of 36.8% obtained from the analysis of elastic
strain and elastic modulus graphs of Fig. 5 and Fig. 6.
6. Conclusions and recommendations
Filler replacement with fly ash provides a considerable
economy of bitumen in asphalt–aggregate mixtures designed
for the equivalent stability. From the physical interaction
of fly ash and bitumen paste, a more preferable asphalt–
aggregate mixture behavior is obtained. This asphalt–aggregate
mixture behavior was investigated from the point of view
of rheological properties of the mixtures, namely by carry-
ing out fatigue tests. The fatigue life of fly ash specimens,
especially Soma fly ash, was found to be considerably
higher than that of the control specimens. This is a very
promising result that can be explained mainly by the stiff-
ening and void-filling effects of the fly ash filler acting as
a bitumen extender in the asphalt–aggregate mixture. Soma
fly ash is the coarsest among the investigated types of fly
ash — it has the highest Al2O3 content and has the lowest
specific gravity — therefore, the specimens prepared with
Soma fly ash had the longest fatigue lives.
Fly ash filler replacement will draw the interest of pave-
ment engineers as utilization of fly ash is an important prob-
lem both from an economic and environmental point of
view. Also, another alternative, polymer modification, is a
more expensive process that brings additional cost to the
overall design. Fly ash can be obtained easily with little
cost and the addition of fly ash to the asphalt–aggregate
mixtures does not need any specialized equipment or skilled
workmanship.
The physico-chemical interaction between fly ash and the
bitumen should be studied with the help of techniques used
in materials science. The use of scanning electron micro-
scopy can resolve many questions about the interaction of
fly ash and bitumen paste. Also, fatigue tests were carried
out using the 5% optimum bitumen content, which was the
calculated value for calcareous filler specimens. The same
tests can be carried out with the adjusted bitumen contents
obtained for the different types of fillers, to validate eco-
nomic considerations with respect to the use of these fillers.
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Tapkn
Fig. 9. Fatigue lives of specimens prepared with different fillers according to permanent strain records.
These recommendations are beyond the scope of this study,
but they form a good basis for further research.
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