Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 705–718

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

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Natural dyes for dye sensitized solar cell: A review MARK

a a,b,⁎ b c
Geetam Richhariya , Anil Kumar , Perapong Tekasakul , Bhupendra Gupta
a
Department of Energy (Energy Centre), Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, Bhopal 462051, India
b
Energy Technology Research Center, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla
90110, Thailand
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Jabalpur Engineering College, Jabalpur 482011, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T

Keywords: Dye sensitized solar cell converts visible light into electricity using sensitization of the cell. Performances of dye
Dye sensitized solar cell sensitized solar cells are mainly based on dye used as a sensitizer. Now a days study of dyes extracted from
Sensitizer natural resources is the main concern for researchers. Application of natural dyes is a promising development in
Natural dye the field of this technology. Natural dyes are cutting down high cost of metal complex sensitizers and also
Synthetic dye
replacing expensive chemical synthesis process through simple extraction process. Natural dyes are abundant,
Electrolytes
easily extractable, safe material causes no environment threat. These can be extracted from flowers petals,
Performance
leaves, roots and barks in the form of anthocyanin, carotenoid, flavonoid and chlorophyll pigments. This review
discusses development of natural dyes and their effect on various performance parameters of dye sensitized
solar cell.

1. Introduction
The fossil fuels such as oil, natural gas and coal are the main
sources of energy used all over the world. These sources will be
depleted in future due to their ease of application in transport (except
coal). Moreover, the burning of the fossil fuels emits ton of carbon
dioxide that pollute the environment and also change the climatic
conditions. The development of renewable sources of energy may lead
towards clean green technology for a healthy environment. Solar, wind,
hydro, biomass and geothermal are main sources of the renewable
energy, each of them have their merits and demerits also [1]. The solar
energy is the most fundamental renewable energy source accessible
today as it provides energy for all living creatures on earth through the
process of photosynthesis for growth and development. However, it
also varies geographically on the earth. A key advantage of solar energy
is that it can be easily harnessed at domestic and commercial level.
Solar energy not only benefits individual owners, but also the environ-
ment as well. Solar radiation can be directly converted into useful heat
or electricity. Electricity is a form of energy that can be made most
easily available. Hence, scientists and engineers today seek to utilize
solar radiation directly in generating electricity through economic
devices [2].
A photovoltaic cell converts solar radiations directly into electrical
energy. The first generation of solar cell consists of monocrystalline
silicon solar cell as shown in Fig. 1 [3]. Silicon is the best material
employed for fabrication of the crystalline solar cells. It is abundant
material and safe for the environmental. These crystalline solar cells
are fabricated by Czochralski method. These solar cells are made up of
silicon wafers and the efficiency of these solar cells is higher than other
solar cells. However, their fabrication cost is very high which makes
high overall cost of commercially available crystalline solar cell. The
performance of crystalline solar cell is affected by the temperature and
thus affects the efficiency of the cell [4].
The thin film solar cells are referred to second generation of the
solar cell. These are basically amorphous silicon solar cell. The solar
materials used in thin films are in the powder form that makes the cell
more flexible and light in weight. The structure of thin film solar cell is
shown in Fig. 2. The main obstacle in front of thin film solar cell is the
less efficiency. Cadmium telluride (CdTe), Copper indium gallium
selenide (CIGS) and amorphous silicon (a-Si) are the various categories
of thin film solar cells [5].
The generation of dye sensitized solar cell (DSSC) is considered as
the third generation of the solar cell. The efficiency of these solar cells is
more than thin films while less as compared to the crystalline solar
cells. The first dye sensitized solar cell was fabricated by O’Regan and
Gratzel in 1991 [6]. The structure of the DSSC consists of a titanium
dioxide layer (semiconductor) coated photo anode electrode, a counter
electrode used as a cathode, a sensitizer and an electrolyte as shown in

⁎
Corresponding author at: Energy Technology Research Center, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla
90110, Thailand
E-mail address: anilkumar76@gmail.com (A. Kumar).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.198
Received 16 April 2015; Received in revised form 4 November 2016; Accepted 14 November 2016
Available online 25 November 2016
1364-0321/ © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
G. Richhariya et al.
Fig. 1. Structure of monocrystalline solar cell [4].
Fig. 2. Structure of thin film solar cell [5].
Fig. 3. Structure dye sensitized solar cell [7].
Fig. 3 [7, 8].
Intensive research has been done in the development of synthetic/
natural dyes for solar cell in last two decades but there is lack of
compiled information in this field. In this communication, the ad-
vancement in 3rd generation of solar cell is discussed with the detailed
706
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 705–718
comparison of synthetic and natural dye solar cells. Variety of
sensitizer is discussed being key parameter that affects performance
of DSSC. This article also covered the advancement of technology in
natural dyes. Various parameters have been suggested to enhance cell
efficiency in this review. Finally, potential research area of DSSC is also
recommended for future development. This review would be very
fruitful to the researcher, scientist and academician of this area.
Recent developments in NDSSC and their performance with future
scope are discussed in Table 1.
1.1. Performance parameters of DSSCs
The performance of dye solar cell is generally evaluated by the
different parameters of the cell such as open circuit voltage, short
circuit current, fill factor, maximum voltage and maximum current of
the cell. Each parameter is discussed in detail as follows [22,23]:
1.1.1. Open circuit voltage
The open circuit voltage (Voc) of the solar cell is defined at the open
terminals of the cell. As the temperature of the cell increases, the Voc
decreases. The Voc of the cell is expressed as follows:
VOC = VIn{(I
t sc /I o) + 1} (1)
1.1.2. Short circuit current
The short circuit current (ISC) can find at the short circuit terminals
of the cell. The short circuit current increases with increase tempera-
ture. Following expression shows the ISC:
I SC = I + I O {exp(V/V)
t − 1 (2)
1.1.3. Fill factor
The fill factor (FF) of the solar cell can be defined as the ratio of
actual power (product of maximum voltage; Vm and maximum
current; Im) to the dummy power (product of Voc and Isc).
FF = Vm Im /Voc I sc (3)
1.1.4. Efficiency
The efficiency of the solar cell can be defined as the ratio of
electrical power to the optical power incident on the cell. It can be
expressed as follows:
η = FF. Voc . I sc /Incident optical power (4)
where,
Voc – Open-circuit voltage,
Isc – Short-circuit current,
Vm – Maximum value of voltage,
Im – Maximum value of current, and
Vt – Terminal voltage of the cell
η – Efficiency of the cell
1.2. Comparison between synthetic and natural dye
Synthetic and natural sensitizer can be compared on the basis of
various parameters such as cost of cell, environment issues, stability
problem, maximum absorbance, efficiency of the DSSC, availability of
the resources and fabrication method the cell as discussed in Table 2.
The metal complex sensitizer synthesized from complex fabrication
method while natural sensitizers are prepared from flowers, leaves and
roots etc using simple ethanol, methanol or water extraction process
thus less costly as compared to synthetic dyes.
 Table 1
Review of recent research work on DSSCs.

Author Objective of Result obtained Ref.

research work
G. Richhariya et al.

Swatsitang et al. Swatsitang et al., The dye obtained from purple corn husk extracted by acetone. The ultraviolet–visible (UV–vis) spectroscopy, fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), electrochemical impedance [9]
2016 studied natural dye spectroscopy (EIS) and incident photon-to-current efficiency (IPCE) were employed to characterize the natural dye and the DSSCs.
extracted from husk,
cob and silk of
purple corn, for
photo sensitizers in
DSSCs and
optimized in terms
of solvent extraction.
Ekanayake et al. Ekanayake et al., The DSSC sensitized with Ixora coccinea (RX) gave an efficiency of 0.76%, followed by the cocktail dye (η = 0.40%) and Bougainvilleasp. (BG) (η = 0.21%). The best overall performance [10]
2016 investigated co- of RX was attributed to the charge transport resistance (Rtr = 3.89 Ω), with the highest electron density (ɳs = 9.45 × 1028) and effective diffusion coefficient (Deff = 2.43 × 10− 8 m2/s),
dominant effect of which accounted for high Jsc. The cocktail dye has shown an improved Vocas compared to RX and increased Jsc against BG, suggesting individual influence from both dyes.
selected natural dye
sensitizers in DSSC
performance.
Boschloo et al. Boschloo et al., It was observed that performance of natural dyes in dye-sensitized solar cells is usually worse than that of purpose-built organic dyes. Two natural dyes, carminic acid and santalin, were • [11]
2016 studied carminic selected as potential sensitizers for dye-sensitized solar cells. The power conversion efficiency of natural dyes, about 0.5%, was poor compared to that of LEG4 under identical conditions
acid and santalin (5.6%), due to both lower open circuit potentials and photocurrent densities.
natural dyes in dye-
sensitized solar cells.
Chang et al. 2016 Chang et al. analyzed It was found that cocktail dye extracted with ethanol and rotating speed of spin coating at 1000 rpm can achieve greatest photoelectric conversion efficiency up to 1.85% and DSSC with [12]
extraction of natural thickness of photoelectrode thin film at 21 µm are 5.23 × 10−4 cm2/s.
sensitizer and
different thickness

707
of photo-electrode
thin film on the
photoelectric
conversion efficiency
and electron
transport properties
for the prepared
DSSC.
Eli et al. 2016 Eli et al., evaluated It was observed that Roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa) extract sensitized solar cell gave short circuit current density (Jsc) of 0.180 mAcm−2, open circuit voltage (Voc) of 0.470 V, fill factor [13]
photovoltaic (FF) of 0.552, and overall solar energy conversion efficiency (η) of 0.046%. Also, Pawpaw leaves extract sensitized cell gave Jsc of 0.094 mAcm−2, Voc of 0.433 V, FF of 0.544 yielding a
performance of the conversion efficiency of 0.022%.
DSSCs were
evaluated under
100 mAcm−2 light
intensity.
Prabhu et al. The operation of It was found that dye sensitized solar cell (DSSC) has become topic of significant research in last two decades because of their fundamental and scientific importance in the area of energy [14]
2015 natural dye based conversion. Ease of fabrication with widely available materials coupled with reasonable efficiency has made DSSC a promising candidate in low cost solar cells and its research. The use
DSSC along with the of synthetic dyes as sensitizer in DSSC provide better efficiency and high durability, but suffer from several limitations such as higher cost and usage of toxic materials.
various components
and various plant
pigments present in
the natural products
which were
employed as
sensitizer in DSSC.
Mozaffari 2015 Mozaffari et al., It was found that efficiency and fill factor of DSSC using purified Siahkooti fruit dye were 0.32% and 0.73% respectively and thus shown environmental friendly, low-cost, renewable and [15]
fabricated and clean sources of energy.
analyzed DSSC as
natural sensitizer
(continued on next page)
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 705–718
 Table 1 (continued)

Author Objective of Result obtained Ref.

research work

using Siahkooti fruit

G. Richhariya et al.

with/without
purification by solid
phase extraction
(SPE) technique
used in fabrication
of DSSC as natural
sensitizer.
Talaat et al. 2015 Talaat et al., studied It was observed that liquid form polymer electrolyte with black berry natural dye gave an increase of 111% in short circuit photocurrent density (Jsc), open circuit voltage (Voc) of 17.5%, [16]
the effect of polymer fill factor of 0.57 ± 0.05 and as compared to iodine electrolyte efficiency was three times more i.e. 0.242 ± 0.012%.
electrolyte on the
performance of
natural dye
sensitized solar cells.
Mukherjee et al. Mukherjee et al., Solar energy to electric conversion efficiencies of chlorophyll, betalain and mixed dye based solar cells were obtained as 0.148%, 0.197% and 0.294% respectively. The highest conversion [17]
2015 analyzed visible light efficiency for mixed dye based solar cell was found due to absorption of wider range of solar spectrum.
absorption and
photo-sensitizing
properties of spinach
leaves and beetroot
extracted natural
dyes.
Murugakoothan Murugakoothan The obtained conversion efficiency of DSSC using pre dye treated and conventionally prepared titanium dioxide based photo anodes which showed promising solar light energy to [18]
et al. 2015 et al., performed pre electron of 0.49% and 1.05% respectively. The pre dye treatment is a promising method to achieve enhancement in cell efficiency.
dye treated titanium

708
dioxide nano
particles sensitized
by natural dye
extracts of
Pterocarpus
marsupium for dye
sensitized solar cells.
Shanmugam Shanmugam et al. It was found that among three types of grasses, the DSSC fabricated with extracts of Hierochloe Odorata (HO) shown maximum efficiency. [19]
et al. 2015 investigated the
effect green grasses
as light harvesters in
dye sensitized solar
cells.
Murugakoothan Murugakoothan Pure TiO2 nanoparticles in anatase phase were synthesized by sol–gel technique. The efficiency of DSSC using Caesalpinia sappan heartwood extract was found 1.1%. [20]
2015 et al., analyzed
natural dye
extracted from
Caesalpinia sappan
heartwood to
fabricate NDSSC.
Sugathan et al. Sugathan et al. It was observed graphene sheets of various sizes in working electrode helped to improve efficiency of DSSC significantly, gave a maximum efficiency of 6.62%. The D-A-pi-A indoline [21]
2015 studied recent dyes showed a great improvement in cell efficiency of 6.9%. Pt in counter electrodes and 3D-CE also showed 8.8% of efficiency.
improvements in
dye sensitized solar
cells.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 705–718
G. Richhariya et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 705–718

Table 2
Comparisons between synthetic and natural dye.

S. No. Parameter Sensitizer

Synthetic dye Natural dye

1 Cost Complex material formed Locally available

by different chemical resource, extracted
reaction therefore results from plants, flowers,
in high cost [25,26]. fruits and roots. This
results low cost [6].
2 Environmental Bad effects on the Less effects on the
Effects environmental due to its environmental due
chemical nature [13]. being its natural
occurrence [13].
3 Stability Slowly degrade in the Degradation of natural Fig. 4. Working of dye solar cell [6].
presence of sunlight dye in the presence of
therefore long life of sunlight radiation
The working electrode is coated with the titanium dioxide layer
DSSC [27]. results stability
problems in DSSC [7]. surrounding by a sensitizing dye. The coating of titanium dioxide layer
4 Absorption on N3 dye has absorption The dyes have shown on working electrode make it porous thus more sunlight can penetrate
Solar Spectrum upto 800 nm [26,27] absorption in broad into the semiconductor layer. Basically, the titanium dioxide semicon-
range of the visible
ductor material is not sensitive for visible light therefore, a sensitizing
region (400–700 nm)
of the solar spectrum
material is required to enhance its visible light absorbance [34]. The
[6]. zinc oxide has similar band gap, transport properties and electron
5 Efficiency DSSC based on synthetic The efficiency of injection efficiency, is an alternative of the titanium dioxide. However,
dyes have shown higher NDSSC is low due to by using different dyes and electrolytes, it is difficult to observe the
efficiency as compared to degradation of natural
behavior of zinc oxide [34–36].
NDSSC. dye [7].
6 Availability Noble material thus no Natural thus 100% The function of the counter electrode is to complete the internal
long term availability availability [27]. electrical circuit by injecting electrons into the electrolyte as shown in
[28,29] Fig. 4. The working electrode and counter electrode are separated from
7 Fabrication Requires multi Requires simple and
an electrolyte solution. The electrolyte facilitates the charge transport
Process procedures, which direct chemical
involves a variety of procedures, making
between these electrodes [6] (Fig. 5).
solvents and time natural dye production
consuming purification less expensive [31] 3. Constructional parameters of the DSSC
processes, making
synthetic dye production
The substrate, semiconductor, sensitizer, electrolyte and counter
very expensive [30]
cathode are the various constructional parameters that effecting the
performance of the dye solar cell. These are discussed as follows:
The natural dyes are environmental friendly. However, stability
problem results less efficiency. The ruthenium complexes have shown 3.1. Substrate
maximum absorbance in visible region. Thus, these sensitizers provide
great electrical output than natural dyes. On the other hand, natural The most common substrate used for dye solar cell is transparent
occurrence and non toxic effect are the benefits of natural dyes [24– conductive oxide (TCO). The high efficiency and high transparency of
34]. the TCO makes it a common choice for the researchers. However, these
are not suitable for roll to roll technique due to its rigidity [37]. The
metal sheets and plastic foil are the alternatives of the TCOs those are
2. Working of DSSC favorable for roll to roll technique thus can make flexible solar cells.
The metal substrates are not transparent [38,39] thus affects the
When the sunlight strikes on the surface of the DSSC, the dye performance of the cell. Similarly, the plastic foil shows the stability
molecules collect photons and produce the excited electrons. The
sensitizer injects excited electron into the conduction band of nano-
porous semiconductor film. The dye molecules that lost electrons are
then oxidized. The injected electron travels through the nono-porous
TiO2 thin film toward the transparent conductive electrode (working
electrode), and reaches to a load where work is performed and
delivered in the form of electrical energy. The electrons now travel
back through an external load and reach the counter electrode and thus
complete the whole circuit [32].
A dye sensitized solar cell consists of two electrodes, an anode or
photo or working electrode and a cathode or counter electrode,
generally made up of specially designed transparent conductive glass
coated with transparent conductive oxide i.e. indium or fluorine doped
tin oxide. The transmittance of the indium doped tin oxide (ITO) is
higher than that of the fluorine doped tin oxide (FTO) while the sheet
resistance of the FTO is less than that of the ITO. The sheet resistance
of the ITO increases drastically on raising the temperature during the
sintering process on the other hand the sheet resistance of the FTO is Fig. 5. Absorption spectra of the mangosteen pericarp (A) and photocurrent action
remaining same during the sintering process [33]. spectrum of a solar cell (B) [74].

709
G. Richhariya et al.
problems [40].
3.2. Semiconductor
A semiconductor should have high surface area, high porous and its
characteristic should match the sensitizer thus increases the efficiency
of the DSSC [41,42]. Titanium dioxide is the main choice for the
fabrication of dye solar cell as discussed previously. The zinc oxide, tin
oxide, MgO, Al2O3 is also suitable semiconductors for dye solar cell [6].
3.3. Sensitizer
The sensitizer absorbs solar radiations thus enhances the conduc-
tivity of the cell. A sensitizer should have carboxyl and hydroxyl group
that is required for good binding with the semiconductor, shows
maximum absorbance from visible to near infra red region of solar
radiations and not degrade fast [43]. The metal complex sensitizer,
metal free organic sensitizer and natural sensitizer are the three kinds
of sensitizers. The metal complex sensitizers are costly, rare and toxic
in nature [44]. Although, shown highest efficiency of the cell [45]. The
metal free organic sensitizers have shown less efficiency and compli-
cated synthetic route are the basic problems associated with these dyes.
The natural dyes extracted from flowers, fruits, plants, leaves and roots
in the form betalains, carotenoids, anthocyanins and chlorophyll
pigments [46,47]. The efficiency of natural dye sensitized solar cell
(NDSSC) is less as compared to the metal complex and metal free
organic sensitizer however employs simple extraction process and
more environmental friendly and thus becomes latest research in the
field of DSSC.
3.4. Electrolyte
The main function of the electrolyte is to regenerates the dye. The
electrolyte should have low viscosity, negligible vapor pressure, high
boiling point and high dielectric properties [48]. Mostly three types of
electrolytes are used namely, I–/I3– inorganic solvents, inorganic ionic
liquids and solid electrolyte. I–/I3–(iodine) electrolyte is the most
common electrolyte that provide high efficiency of DSSC [49].
However, it has limited long term stability. Same problem arises in
case of inorganic ionic electrolyte, its efficiency decreases after a long
time. Leakage free nature of solid electrolyte provides an excellent
characteristic among all the electrolytes [50]. Copper iodide is the best
p-type solid material having high band gap, transparent and less
expensive [51]. Although causes instability problems.
3.5. Counter cathode
The counter cathode regenerates the electrolyte. The platinum is
best catalyst material for counter cathode results high efficiency of the
cell although high cost increases overall cost of the cell. On the other
hand, carbon is less costly and abundant material used as catalytic [52–
54].
4. Literature review of natural resources for NDSSC
Kashyout et al. fabricated zinc films using colloidal method from
zinc oxide. It has been observed that the grain size was inversely
proportional to the centrifugal speed. It decreased from 150 nm to
50 nm by increasing centrifugal speed from 6,000 to 15,000 rpm. The
cell was sensitized from artificial and natural dye both. Natural dye has
shown high open circuit voltage of 0.6 V [55].
Iha and Polo extract blue anthocyanin from various fruits for
making natural sensitizer for a dye solar cell. The jaboticaba showed
a current density, fill factor, open circuit voltage and maximum power
of 9.0 mA/cm2,0.54, 0.59 and 1.9 mW/cm2, respectively. While
Calafate used as a sensitizer, the current density, fill factor (FF), open
710
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 705–718
circuit voltage and maximum power were observed less than that of
jaboticaba and these were 6.2 mA/cm2, 0.36, 0.47 and 1.1 mW/cm2
respectively [56].
Wu et al. fabricated dye solar cell using natural dyes as sensitizer.
The natural dyes extracted from black rice, capsicum, Erythrina
variegata flower, Rosa xanthina, and kelp. The blue rice extracts and
provides best results among all dyes. The current density, open circuit
voltage, fill factor and power of DSSC using blue rice extracts were
found as 1.142 mA, 551 mV, 0.52 and 327 µW respectively [57].
Sirimanne et al. extracted juice from pomegranate fruits containing
cyanine (flavylium) utilized as natural dye sensitizer. The solid-state
TiO2 (n type semiconductor)/pomegranate piment (natural dye)/CuI
(p type) solar cell has shown maximum absorbance at the wavelength
of 570 nm that caused highest efficiency of the cell as compared to
other natural pigments (cyanidin, tannin, santalin and vitamin C) [58].
Kumara et al. used shisonin, chlorophyll and mixer of both
pigments extracted from shiso leaves used as the dye for a solid state
DSSC using p-CuI as hole conductor. The highest efficiency achieved by
cocktail dye (shisonin and chlorophyll) was 1.31%. The shisonin and
chlorophyll based DSSC showed efficiency of 1.01% and 0.59%
respectively. The open circuit voltage (mV), current density (mA/
cm2), FF and efficiency (%) using shisonin are 550, 0.59, 0.51 and
1.01while with chlorophyll are 432, 3.52, 0.39 and 0.59. and the mixed
dye solar cell showed highest efficiency as 1.31% [59].
Yamazaki et al. used carotenoid, crocetin and crocin as natural
sensitizer. It was observed that carotenoid and crocetin that contain
carboxylic group could adsorb effectively on semiconductor thus
resulting best performance of the cell. While crocin showed less
efficiency due to the absence of carboxylic group. The various perfor-
mance parameters of DSSC using crocetin and crocin extracts are
shown in Table 3 [60].
Wongcharee et al. extracted dye from rosella, blue pea and mixed
extract in water used as a solvent at 100 °C. The highest efficiency of
0.37% was achieved by rosella extract. The dye solar cell based on blue
pea and mixed dyes showed 0.05% and 0.15% efficiency respectively. It
has been found that when extracting temperature was decreased to
50 °C and pH of the dye was changed from 3.2 to 1.0 the efficiency
using rosella has been improved and recorded as 0.70%. Thus, the
temperature and pH value of solvent affects cell performance [61].
Senadeera et al. extracted different natural pigments from tropical
flowers (Sesbania grandiflora scarlet, hibiscus rosainensis, hibiscus
surattensis, Nerium oleander, Ixora macrothyrsa and rhododendron
arboretum zeylanicum). The overall efficiency varied from 0.2% to
1.1% with current densities ranging from 1.1 to 5.4 mAcm−1. Hibiscus
surattensis showed highest efficiency of 1.14% [62].
Teoh et al. used gold nano-particles on working electrode (TiO2),
where water based electrolyte with Ce4+/3+ was used and sensitized
with extracts of rhoeo spathacea stream. That modified technique
showed best results with cell efficiency of 1.49% [63].
McHale et al. fabricated natural dye solar cells using betalain
pigments from red beet roots. The current density and open circuit
voltage observed as 2.42 mA/cm2 and 0.44 V respectively. The betanin
(I), betanidin (II), indicaxanthin and betalamin derivatives of betanin
pigments showed maximum absorbance at wavelength of 535 nm,
542 nm, 482 nm and 424 nm respectively [64].
Girtu et al. synthesized DSSCs using anthocyanin extracted from
red cabbage and red onion extracts with different solvent and reported
highest efficiency of 0.173% with red cabbage using water as solvent
Table 3
Performances of DSSCs using natural dyes [60].
Dye JSC (mA/cm2) VOC (V) FF Efficiency (%)
Crocetin 2.84 0.43 0.46 0.56
Crocin 0.45 0.58 0.60 0.16
G. Richhariya et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 705–718

while with red onion extract using MeOH extract DSSC provided an
efficiency of 0.141% [65].
Furukawa et al. assembled two different dye solar cells using
polythene glysol (PEG) of different molecular weight added into oxide
paste. Dye was prepared using red cabbage and curcumin. The
efficiency of cell having PEG of 2,000,000 molecular weight was
recorded high (0.99%) as compared to the cell having molecular weight
of 50,000 (0.42%) [66].
Luo et al. extracted natural sensitizer from Canna indica L, Salvia
splendens, cowberry and Solanum nigrum L. The high resistance of
27,902 Ω using cowberry dye at TiO2/dye/electrolyte interface showed
poor efficiency of the cell. While Canna indica L extract has shown
highest cell efficiency of 0.29% due to less interfacial resistance [67].
Iha et al. investigated the efficiency and stability of dye solar cells
made from mulberry, blueberry and jaboticaba's skin as natural
sensitizers. The mulberry extract showed best stability and efficiency
of the cell rather than other extracts. Only small variations have been Fig. 6. Spectra of the extracts with different solvents from mangosteen pericarp: (A)
seen in open circuit voltage and short circuit current (for 14 weeks) in solution B, (B) part of ethyl acetate, (C) part of n butanol, (D) part of chloroform, and (E)
case of mulberry sensitized dye solar cell that results good stability of water layer [74].

the dye [68].

Oskam et al. used extracts of achiote seed and synthesized with
TiO2 and ZnO nanostructured mesoporous films. Bixin extract of
achiote seed gave maximum efficiency of 0.37% sensitized with TiO2.
While with ZnO substrate had shown efficiency of 0.01% [69].
Calogero et al. fabricated NDSSCs using bougainvillea flowers, red
turnip and purple wild sicilian prickly pear fruit juice as natural
sensitizers. Betalain pigments were compared with the N719 ruthe-
nium complex dye. The efficiency using natural extracts was recorded
less (1.26%) as compared to metal complex dyes [70].
Chang et al. extracted natural dye from spinach and ipomoea
extracts. Maximum absorbance found by ipomoea and spinach at
wavelength 410 nm and 437 nm respectively. The highest efficiency
of 0.278% was achieved from ipomoea extract. It has been also
observed that raise in temperature affect the performance of DSSC
remarkably [71].
Chang et al. observed various performance parameters using
chlorophyll pigment from pomegranate and anthocyanin pigment from
mulberry fruit and combination of the two. It was noticed that
maximum efficiency of 0.722% was occurred from mixture of chlor-
ophyll and anthocyanin. The efficiency of DSSC using pomegranate Fig. 7. Image of TiO2 film [80].
leaves and mulberry fruit was 0.597% and 0.548% respectively [72].
Narayan et al. made dye sensitized solar cells using allamanda electric conversion efficiency of 1.17% (without purification).
cathartic, Bougainvillea spectabilis and Cosmos sulphureus. The max- Absorption spectra of mangosteen pericarp are shown in Fig. 6 while
imum absorbance found at 383 and 542 nm wavelength in case of Fig. 7 shows spectra of the extracts with different solvents from
bougainvillea. Current density, open circuit voltage, fill factor and mangosteen pericarp [74].
efficiency using bougainvillea were observed as 0.898 mA/cm2, Muthukumarasamy et al. studied performance characteristics of
0.359 V, 0.52% and 0.38% respectively shown in Table 4. The efficiency natural dyes extracted from Delonix regia and eugenia jambolana with
using golden trumpet and cosmos as natural dye were recorded as 0.40 two different electrolytes (liquid and quasi solid polymer). The Eugenia
and 0.54 respectively. It was noticed that the bougainvillea showed best jambolana gave highest efficiency of 0.5% using liquid electrolyte. This
results as compared to golden trumpet and comos [73]. efficiency was low for commercialization purposes [75].
Tingli et al. studied twenty natural dyes extracted from naturally Thambidurai et al. made DSSC based on ZnO nanorod glass
available materials such as flowers, fruits, leaves, beverages traditional substrate sensitized from Ixora coccinea, mulberry and beetroot as
and chinese medicines used as sensitizers for the fabrication of dye- natural extracts. The mulberry extract showed highest efficiency among
sensitized solar cells. The results shown that the open circuit voltage them. The efficiency using mulberry, Ixora coccinea and beetroot
(Voc) ranged from 0.337 to 0.689 V, and short circuit photocurrent recorded as 0.41%, 0.33% and 0.28% respectively [76].
density (Jsc) varied from 0.14 to 2.69 mAcm−2. The mangosteen Rodriguez et al. researched on red Bougainvillea glabra, violet
pericarp sensitizer has shown higher Voc of 0.686 V and photo-to- Bougainvillea glabra, red Bougainvillea spectabilis, violet Bougainvillea
spectabilis, and purified red Bougainvillea glabra. The most prominent
Table 4
performance characteristic has been shown using red Bougainvillea
Performance parameter of different natural dyes [73]. spectabilis with an efficiency of 0.48% [77].
McHale et al. purified betanin from beet root using medium
Dye Jsc (mAcm–2) Voc (V) FF Efficiency (%) pressure liquid chromatography and found drastic improvement in
cell efficiency of 2.7%. Anthocyanin and chlorophyll pigments showed
Bougainvillea 0.898 0.359 0.52 0.38
Golden trumpet 0.878 0.405 0.54 0.40 less efficiency using simple extraction process but betanin pigment
Cosmos 1.041 0.447 0.52 0.54 provided drastic improvement in cell efficiency using modified extrac-

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Table 5 Table 6
Different parameters of the photovoltaic cell with different dye sensitizers [80]. DSSC Performances with natural sensitizers [84].

Sensitizer Open Current Fill Efficiency Natural Current Open Fill factor Efficiency (%)
circuit density factor (η) % sensitizers density circuit
voltage (mA/cm2) (FF) (mA/cm2) voltage
(Voc) (mV)

Bahraini henna 0.426 0.368 24.6 0.128 Lawsonia 0.38 336 0.57 0.7
(80 g) inermis
Yemeni henna 0.306 0.407 28.1 0.117 leaves
(87 g) Sumac/Rhus 0.93 394 0.41 1.5
Cherries (97 g) 0.305 0.466 38.3 0.181 fruits
Cherries (97 g) + 0.301 0.463 28.8 0.134 Curcuma longa 0.20 280 0.65 0.36
1% HCL roots
Pomegranate 0.395 1.700 48.1 1.076
juice (100 g)
Raspberries 0.360 0.566 45.5 0.309
Table 7
(32 g)
Calculated parameters of the DSSCs based on TiO2 and ZnO electrodes [85].

Electrode Jsc Voc (V) Jm Vm (V) Pm (mW) FF (%)

tion process. Although less open circuit voltage of DSSC was observed
that need further improvements [78].
Magaraphan et al. compared performance parameters of two
different DSSC using pure TiO2 and TiO2/Clay as semiconductor
sensitized with red cabbage, rosella and blue pea as natural sensitizers.
The red cabbage with pure TiO2 semiconductor has shown highest
efficiency of 0.13%. However, less efficiency was recorded [79].
Jasim et al. observed optical and electrical characterization of
natural dye sensitized solar cells using local dyes extracted from
bahraini henna, raspberries, cherries and pomegranate. Bahraini
henna dye extracts achieved a high level of absorbance in UV, visible
and NIR regions of the solar spectrum. The pomegranate and bahraini
raspberries also showed similar behavior (Table 5). Animage of TiO2
film is shown in Fig. 7[80].
Kim et al. prepared natural dye extracted from Kerria japonica/rosa
chinesisflower and analyzed with/without sugar molecule. It was
observed that with addition of sugar the carotenoid dye extracted from
Kerria japonica showed increment in efficiency from 0.22% to 0.29%.
While few decrement seen in case of anthocyanin of Rosa chinensis
extract [81].
Girtu et al. studied experimental and theoretical aspects of betalain
natural dyes. The density functional theory calculations provided
various electronic features of betalain. While experimental results
showed increment in short circuit current and efficiency through
purification [82].
Taya et al. synthesized ZnO nanopartical based DSSC using extracts
of walnuts, rhubarb and pomegranate. The extract of walnut showed
highest power and open circuit voltage of 10.14 μW and 0.304 V
respectively. While highest short circuit current of 82.65 μA was found
from the extract of rhubarb [83].
Souad et al. constructed a dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC) by using
Lawsonia inermis leaves, sumac/rhus fruits and Curcuma longa roots
as natural sensitizers. The solid state thin film electrolyte composed of
a blend of 50 wt% chitosan and 50 wt% polyethylene oxide. The
polymer blend complex with ammonium iodide (NH4I) and some
iodine crystals were mixed to the polymer NH4I solution for obtaining
I-/I3-redox couple. At room temperature ionic conductivity of polymer
electrolyte was found 1.18×10−5 S cm−1. The maximum efficiency, open
circuit voltage, current density and fill factor were recorded as 1.5%,
394 mV, 0.93 mA/cm2 and 0.41 respectively with red purple sumac/
rhus extract (Table 6) [84].
Taya et al. found dyes extracted from both fresh and dried raw
materials. Leaves of five different plants were used as sensitizer. The
best performance found from spinach oleracea extract. Two different
DSSCs were assembled using TiO2 and ZnO nanostructured mesopor-
ous films and the performance parameters are observed shown in
Table 7. Spinach oleracea extract showed highest efficiency of 0.29%
[85].
(mA/ (mA/
cm2) cm2)
TiO2 1.11 0.583 0.775 0.387 0.301 46
ZnO 0.123 0.226 0.065 0.101 0.008 20
Ozuomba et al. employed anthocyanin extract of Hibiscus sabdar-
iffa as a sensitizer. The performance evaluated for dyed cell (antho-
cyanin dyed cell) and un-dyed (plain cell). The overall efficiency of
anthocyanin-dyed cell and un-dyed cells was 0.58% and 0.03%
respectively. Anthocyanin-dyed TiO2 electrode also showed absorbance
beyond ultraviolet region. Figs. 8 and 9 shows the I–V curve using
anthocyanin and for plain cell respectively [86].
Hemmatzadeh and Mohammadi reported various ways to enhance
absorptivity of extracted dyes using different extraction approaches. It
has been found that performance of DSSC could be enhanced by
choosing proper mixture of ethanol, water and acidity as a dye solution
(Table 8). The DSSC were fabricated using Pastinaca sativa and Beta
vulgaris extracts. The acidity of dye extracted from B. vulgaris and P.
sativa caused an increment in DSSC performance. A small variation
was occurred in open circuit voltage while current density varied
significantly. Figs. 10 and 11 show the chemical formula of betalain
and Beta vulgaris respectively. The nature of solvent causes various
changes on the performance of DSSCs [87].
Srivastava et al. worked on four natural pigments extracted from
leaves of teak (Tectona grandis), tamarind (Tamarindus indica),
eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus), and the flower of crimson bottle
brush (Callistemon citrinus) that were used as sensitizer for DSSC. The
leaves of teak (Tectona grandis) showed best photosensitization effects
(Table 9). The extract from leaves of teak (Tectona grandis) has shown
absorption in broad range of the visible region (470–662 nm) of the
Fig. 8. I–V curve using anthocyanin extract as a dye [86].

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Table 10
Properties of the DSSCs sensitized by various natural dyes using zinc oxide [89].

Dye Jsc Voc Jm Vm (volt) Pmax FF (%) η (%)

(mA/ (volt) (mA/ (mW)
cm2) cm2)

Ocimum 0.41 0.34 0.18 0.14 0.02 18 0.02

basili-
cum
Eruca 0.83 0.35 0.45 0.14 0.06 22 0.06
sativa
Radish 1.05 0.36 0.49 0.18 0.09 23 0.09

Table 11
Fig. 9. I–V curve for plain cell [86]. Performances of DSSCs using natural dyes for outdoor analysis [90].

Sample ISC (mA/cm2) Voc (V) FF (%) Η (%)

Table 8
Different characteristic of the different extracted solutions [87]. Bourganvillae flower 0.73 17.5 0.56 0.15
Cordea sebestena flower 0.15 27.2 0.85 0.074
Plant Solvent Diluted Name Talinium triangulare flower 0.14 22 0.9 0.059

Pastinaca sativa 0.1 N HCl Water A

Pastinaca sativa 1 N HCl Ethanol B
Table 12
Pastinaca sativa 0.1 N HCl Ethanol C
Performances of DSSCs using natural dyes for indoor analysis [90].
Pastinaca sativa 0.1 N HCl Mixture of water and ethanol E
Beta vulgaris 0.1 N HCl Ethanol F
Sample ISC (mA/cm2) Voc (V) FF η%
Beta vulgaris 1 N HCl Ethanol G

Bourganvillae flower 0.2 2.4 0.54 0.06

Cordea-sebestena flower 0.18 4.6 0.47 0.0083
Talinium-triangulare flower 0.15 10.2 0.51 0.017

The validity of these dyes were compared with the two different
semiconductors (i.e TiO2 and ZnO) and finally observed their photo-
voltaic properties (Table 10). The highest conversion efficiency found
by eruca sativa extracts using LiI/I−3 as an electrolyte. TiO2 showed
best results in photoelectric conversion of light instead of ZnO [89].
Adenike et al. analyzed outdoor and indoor performance of the
Fig. 10. General chemical formula of Betalain [87]. DSSC using bougainvillea, cordea sebestina and talinium triangulare
flower. Bougainvillea showed highest efficiency of 0.15% and 0.06% for
outdoor and indoor measurements as shown in the Tables 11, 12[90].
Prabh et al. synthesized working electrode using ZnO doped TiO2
nanoparticles using sol gel method. The dye from puntia prickly pear
extracted from three different mediums; methanol, ethanol and water.
The extraction through methanol showed broad range of absorbance as
Fig. 11. General chemical formula of Beta vulgaris [87]. compared to others. The dye using methanol showed small band gap in
visible region of solar spectrum. The maximum absorbance has been
Table 9 found at wavelength of 411 nm and 465 nm [91].
IPFC and current density of DSSC extracting from different natural dyes [88]. Murugakoothan et al. fabricated DSSCs using traditional method
(pure titanium dioxide) and modified method (pre dye treated titanium
Natural Peak Jsc Voc IPFC (%) Pmax FF (%) dioxide). In case of modified method titanium dioxide was mixed with
extract wavelength (mA/ (mV) (mW/
(nm) cm2) cm2)
the extract of lawsone intermis seed. On comparison, the highest
efficiency was achieved by pre dye treated titanium dioxide based
Teak (Tectona 470, 662 0.29 460 37 0.105 79 DSSC. The efficiency of conventional DSSC was 1% and that of
grandis) modified DSSC was measured as 1.47% [92].
Tamarin 410,663 0.18 610 33 0.061 56
(Tamarin-
Susanti et al. sensitized DSSC using tamarillo extract. When
dus indica) conductive FTO glass was calcined at 650 °C for 60 h the DSSC showed
Eucalyptus 472,663 0.15 500 12 0.070 93 open circuit voltage as 542.5 mV, short circuit current density as
(Eucalypt- 0.356 mAcm−2 and efficiency as 0.043% [93].
us
Lee et al. used gardenia yellow and cochineal extracts for assem-
globulus)
Bottle brush 450 0.11 430 34 0.030 63 bling DSSC. The gardenia extract showed maximum absorption at
(Callistem- wavelength of 441 nm while the cochineal extracts showed good results
on as maximum absorption observed at the wavelength of 515 and 544 nm
citrinus) [94].
Mozaffaria et al. used siahkooti fruit with and without purification
using solid phase extraction technique. The best results were found
solar spectrum [88].
using purified siahkooti fruit as the efficiency was obtained as 0.32%
Taya et al. analyzed the performance of dye-sensitized solar cells
while the fill factor was 0.73% [95].
(DSSCs) based on natural dyes extracted from ten different plant seeds.

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Table 13
Photoelectrochemical parameters of natural dyes based DSSC.

Natural Resource Materials Electrolyte Voc Isc (mA/ FF Ƞ (%) Pmax Ref. No
(Volt) cm2) (mW/cm2)

Fruits: Calafate (Blue TiO2 76 mg of I2 (Merck) & 0.40 g of LiI in 10 ml of a 90:10 0.47 6.2 0.36 – 1.1 [56]
anthocyanin) mixture of acetonitile & 3-methyl−2-oxazolidinone
Jaboticaba 0.59 9 0.54 – 1.9

Shisonin TiO2 – 0.55 0.59 0.51 1.01 – [59]

Chlorophyll 0.43 3.52 0.39 0.59 –
Shisonin + 0.53 4.80 0.51 1.31 –
Chlorophyll

Crocetin (Gardenia TiO2 0.03 M I2 & 0.5 M KI in ethylene carbonate/acetonitrile 0.43 2.84 0.46 0.56 – [60]
fruit) (80:20)
Crocin (Gardenia 0.58 0.58 0.60 0.16 –
fruit)

Rosella TiO2 0.5 M Potassium iodide mixed with 0.05 M iodine in 0.40 1.63 0.57 0.37 – [61]
(Anthocyanin) water free ethylene glycol
Blue pea 0.37 0.37 0.33 0.05 –
Mixed dyes 0.38 0.82 0.47 0.15 –

Bougainvillea TiO2 Iodolyte AN–50 (Solaronix) 0.35 0.898 0.52 0.38 – [73]
Golden trumpet 0.40 0.878 0.54 0.40 –
Cosmos 0.44 1.041 0.52 0.54 –
Mangosteen pericarp TiO2 0.03 M I2, 0.06 M LiI, 0.6 M 1,2-dimehtyl−3- 0.68 2.69 0.63 1.17 – [74]
(Anthocyanin) propylimidozolium iodine, 0.1 M guanidinium
thiocyanate & 0.5 M 4-tert-butylpyridine in acetonitrile

Pomegranate juice TiO2 – 0.39 1.70 0.48 1.076 – [80]

(100 g)
Raspberries (32 g) 0.36 0.56 0.45 0.309 –
Walnut ZnO 0.30 73.3 (μA) 0.39 0.014 10.14 μW [83]

Lawsonia inermis TiO2 polyethylene oxide 0.33 0.38 0.57 0.7 – [84]
leaves
Sumac/Rhus fruits 0.39 0.93 0.41 1.5 –
Curcuma longa roots 0.28 0.20 0.65 0.36 –

Spinach oleracea TiO2 2 ml acetonitrile (ACN), 8 ml propylene carbonate (p- 0.58 1.11 0.46 0.29 0.301 [85]
ZnO carbonate), 0.668 g (LiI), and 0.0634 g (I2) 0.22 0.123 0.20 0.008 0.008
Hibiscus sabdariffa TiO2 (Iodolyte R−150) 0.33 2.60 0.68 0.58 – [86]
(Anthocyanin)

Teak (Tectona TiO2 Anhydrous lithium iodide and iodine 0.46 0.29 0.79 – 0.105 [88]
grandis)
Tamarin 0.61 0.18 0.56 – 0.061
(Tamarindus
indica)
Eucalyptus 0.50 0.15 0.93 – 0.070
(Eucalyptus
globulus)
Bottle brush 0.43 0.11 0.63 – 0.030
(Callistemon
citrinus)

Ocimum basilicum ZnO 2 ml acetonitrile (ACN), 8 ml propylene carbonate (p- 0.34 0.41 0.18 0.02 – [89]
Eruca sativa carbonate), 0.668 g potassium iodide, KI, and 0.0634 g 0.35 0.83 0.22 0.06 –
Radish iodine, I2 0.36 1.05 0.23 0.09 –

Bourganvillae flower TiO2 Potassium Iodide 0.17 0.73 0.56 0.15 – [90]
Cordea sebestena 0.27 0.15 0.85 0.074 –
flower
Talinium triangulare 0.22 0.14 0.9 0.059 –
flower
Opuntia prickly pear TiO2: ZnO (9:1) Idolyte TG 50 0.45 3.2 mA/ 0.36 0.539 – [91]
dye cm2
Lawsone intermis TiO2 – 0.48 1.6 0.64 1 – [92]
seed
Tamarillo extract TiO2 0.8 g KI 0.5 M into 10 ml acetonitrile and added by 0.54 0.35 – 0.043 – [93]
0.127 g I2

Gardenia TiO2 0.3 M 1,2-dimethyl−3-propylimidazolium iodide, 0.5 M 0.56 1.29 0.48 0.35 – [94]
Cochineal LiI, 0.05 M I2 & 0.5 M 4-tert-butylpyridine & 3- 0.51 0.78 0.25 0.10 –
methoxypropionitrile as a solvent

(continued on next page)

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Table 13 (continued)

Natural Resource Materials Electrolyte Voc Isc (mA/ FF Ƞ (%) Pmax Ref. No
(Volt) cm2) (mW/cm2)

Raphanus TiO2 2 ml acetonitrile (ACN), 8 ml propylene carbonate (p- 0.57 0.13 0.45 0.05 – [96]
raphanistrum carbonate), 0.663 g (LiI)
Lepidium sativum 0.51 0.11 0.40 0.03 –
Dianthus barbatus 0.58 0.35 0.48 0.15 –

Zizyphus leaves TiO2 2 ml acetonitrile (ACN), 8 ml propylene carbonate (p- 0.68 0.43 0.40 0.40 – [97]
Lycium shawii leaves carbonate), 0.668 mg potassiumiodide (KI), and 0.62 0.39 0.43 0.32 –
0.0634 mg iodine (I2)
N719 Graphene content TiO2 Lithium iodide and iodine ( 0.01 M LiI, 0.001 M I2 and 0.704 19.92 0.48 6.86 – [99]
0.1 M LiClO4)
Red cabbage in TiO2 with graphene 0.6 M N-butylN-methyl imidiazolium iodide (BMII), – 1.63 0.515 0.516 – [100]
addition with 0.04 M iodine, 0.05 M guanidinium thiocyanate and
graphene 0.28 M t-butyl pyridine in 15/85 (v/v) mixture of
valeronitrile and acetonitrile.
Y123 FTO Coated with Co(bpy)33+/Co(bpy)32+ 0.895 2.92 0.69 6.9% – [101]
graphene oxide (GO)
N719 graphene-based CE EL-HPE (Dyesol) 4.9 15.2 38.8 3.5% – [102]
N719 TiO2, Fe2O3/ 0.05MI2,0.1 MLiI,0.1 M guanidinium thiocyanate, 0.6 M 0.728 15.05 0.68 7.45% – [103]
GFs(Graphene 1-butyl−3-methylimidazolium iodide and 0.5 M 4-tert-
Framworks) as CE butyl pyridine in acetonitrile.
N719 TiO2, Reduced 1-Butyl−3-methylimi dazoliumiodide (BMII), iodine (I2), 0.64 9.08 42.97 2.52% [104]
Graphene oxide Lithiumiodine (LiI), 4-tert butylpyridine (TBP) and
Cathode Substrate anhydrous acetonitrile.
N719 TiO2, NH3/hydrazine – 0.72 12.43 0.52 4.72% – [105]
hydrate (N-rGO) based
CE
N719 TiO2 Commercial electrolyte 0.62 12.5 42 3.29 – [106]

Taya et al. used seeds of three plants; Raphanus raphanistrum,
Lepidium sativum and Dianthus barbatus as natural dyes. The highest
fill factor and efficiency found from Dianthus barbatus that was 0.48
and 0.15 respectively. The seeds of Raphanus raphanistrum and
Lepidium sativum showed fill factor as 0.45 and 0.40 respectively
and the efficiency was recorded as 0.05% and 0.03% respectively [96].
Latif et al. fabricated dye solar cell using eleven natural dyes taken
from tree different trees. The sensitizer extracted from flowers, leaves,
barks and roots of the three trees. The DSSC using zizyphus leaves as a
dye had maximum efficiency of 0.40% among all sources [97].
Alwani et al. extracted natural dyes from Cordyline fruticosa,
pandannus amaryllifolius and hylocereus polyrhizus using nine solvent
namely, n-hexane, ethanol, acetonitrile, chloroform, ethyl-ether, ethyl-
acetate, petroleum ether, n-butyl alcohol, and methanol. The highest
adsorption of Cordyline fruticosa and Pandannus amaryllifolius onto
the TiO2 was achieved at ratio 3:1 of methanol: water and at ratio 2:1 of
ethanol: water respectively. Among the all, h. polyrhizus dye showed
highest adsorption [98].
In the above discussion it has been concluded that the natural
DSSCs are more economical and environment friendly due to natural
dye materials. However, it has also been found that still the efficiency of
NDSSC is less for commercial purposes. Research is remaining in the
field of various parameters that how to improve the efficiency.
Although, Enriquez et al. showed enhancement in cell efficiency
through the application of graphene in TiO2 and natural dye. Thus by
changing the properties of the functional parameters the efficiency can
be improved.
4.1. Summary of natural resources for NDSSC
In the past, many researchers have been done work on natural dye
solar cell and its efficiency enhancement. It has been observed that the
efficiency of DSSC vary with constructional parameters. The anthocya-
nin pigment based dye showed highest efficiency. Ma T et al. used
mangosteen pericarp (anthocyanin pigment) extract with cell efficiency
of 1.17%. The pomegranate juice (anthocyanin pigment) was synthe-
sized with titanium dioxide which have efficiency of 1.076% [74]. Also,
TiO2 showed higher efficiency DSSC. Absorption of dye on TiO2 was
much better than ZnO. Kumara et al. used different technology of
mixed dye made up of shisonin and chlorophyll combination and
achieved maximum conversion efficiency of 1.31% [59].
Application of graphene in dye enhances the efficiency of dye solar
cell. Chen et al. used graphene on working electrode using spin coating
at room temperature that made it porous in nature thus increased the
dye adsorption. The efficiency of cell was increased from 5.98% to
6.86% [99]. Enriquez et al. enhanced the efficiency of natural dyes by
mixing graphene into TiO2 and anthocyanin dye extracted from red
cabbage. The efficiency achieved using graphene mixed natural dye was
0.51% [100].
The performance parameters of the DSSC using different natural
dyes (as above mentioned) are summarized in the Table 13.
5. Problem associated with DSSC and their remedy
Many researches have been done in NDSSC for enhancing the
efficiency and stability of the cell. However still the efficiency of the
NDSSC is less as compared to synthetic DSSC because of following
reasons discussed:
i. The efficiency of DSSC is low as compared with silicon crystalline
solar cell. It can be enhanced with proper selection materials such
as substrate, dye and electrolyte. Now days, the application of
graphene in DSSC enhances the efficiency of the cell.
ii. Degradation of dye in the presence of sunlight radiation causes
stability problems in DSSC. This problem can be solved by proper
selection of sensitizers that show stability at variable temperatures.
The synthetic dyes i.e ruthenium complexes show greater stability
than natural dyes because of less degradation in presence of
sunlight. Mixed dyes may show greater efficiency of the cell.
iii. The use of liquid electrolyte results temperature stability problem.
The electrolyte freezes at low temperature and expand at high
temperature, can cause serious damage of the cell. Therefore, solid
electrolyte based DSSC are in research now days. However, results
low efficiency of the cell.

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G. Richhariya et al.
iv. As compared to silicon solar cell the DSSC has poor absorption in
red part of the solar spectrum leads to limited current generation
through DSSC. This problem of dye solar cell can be filtered out by
developments of sensitizers. Natural dyes show poorer absorption
than synthetic dyes.
The above discussed problems prevent mass production and wide
application of DSSC technology. In development cycle, the dye
sensitized solar cells are still in early stages and need improvements
to enhance performance in terms of efficiency.
6. Conclusions
This article summarizes performance affecting parameters of the
DSSC with critical review. The high cost, complex synthesis, noble
material and environmental unfriendly are various obstacles for metal
complex sensitizers for dye solar cell. On the other hand, less costly,
simple extractable, abundant and environmental friendly are the key
points of natural dye sensitizers. The efficiency and stability of DSSC
using metal complexes is considerably higher than natural dyes. This
encourages further research on natural dyes to enhance stability and
efficiency of DSSC.
Various natural dyes can be combined in appropriate proportions to
form "cocktail dye sensitizer". This might be an alternative to increase
the band absorption and as a result to improve efficiency of the DSSC.
Thus, economically viable option is cocktail natural dye. A cocktail dye,
mixing of chlorophyll dye and anthocyanin dye in five different volume
ratios have shown conversion efficiency of 1.95%. The mixing of
different pigments present in the natural dyes can also give better
results.
The sensitizer is the heart of dye solar cell and should not degrade
fast which leads in increasing the life of the cell. It should have high
extinction coefficient. There should be good electronic binding between
sensitizer and semiconductor. Hence, the dye should have a carboxyl
and hydroxyl group. Hence, mass production of the DSSC can be done
by ensuring all the above properties of sensitizer.
Natural and synthetic sensitizers are required to enhance the
absorbance of solar radiation from visible to NIR region of the solar
spectrum. Therefore, more solar radiations can able penetrate into the
dye and which increasing flow of electrons in the semiconductor.
Graphene play important role in the field of dye sensitized solar cell.
The addition of graphene in semiconductor and in dye showed higher
efficiency. Also, the graphene has been used in the form of counter
electrode in the place of carbon and showed better results. However, in
NDSSC research has not been done in the field of graphene. Also,
makes uneconomical results. In future, graphene may be added in
titanium dioxide or extract of natural dye for improving the efficiency
of the NDSSC.
This review would be very helpful to the researchers and scientists
who are working on increasing the efficiency of DSSC.
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