ROCK BREAKING

A METHOD OF ENHANCED ROCK BREAKING BY B L A S T I N G

N. V. M e l ' n i k o v , L . N. M a r c h e n k o ,
I. F. Zharikov. a n d N. P . S e i n o v

In p r e s e n t blasting p r a c t i c e in mining and civil engineering, solid c h a r g e s (completely filled c h a r g e

c h a m b e r s ) a r e used both to break rock when m a x i m u m crushing action is r e q u i r e d and f o r ejection blasting
when the mining effect m u s t be a m a x i m u m ; i.e., two e s s e n t i a l l y different types of operation a r e effected with
the aid of the s a m e c h a r g e s .
The use of p r e s e n t explosives with traditional methods of blasting involves m a r k e d o v e r c r u s h i n g of the
rock in the zone adjacent to the charge, which simultaneously b e c o m e s a region of strong absorption of e n e r g y .
These heavy e n e r g y l o s s e s in the initial stage of the blast cannot be compensated later, because the t r a n s m i s -
sion of e n e r g y in the explosion of a solid c h a r g e is p r a c t i c a l l y instantaneous.
Thus the use of solid charges to c r u s h r o c k is inefficient both f r o m the viewpoint of the m e c h a n i c s of
crushing and f r o m the viewpoint of the o c c u r r e n c e of heavy e n e r g y l o s s e s due to the i r r a t i o n a l m e c h a n i s m of
t r a n s f e r of the e n e r g y of the blast to the surrounding medium.
With the a i m of altering the m e c h a n i s m of action of the blast and the efficient t r a n s f e r of its e n e r g y to
the solid medium, N. V. MeUnikov proposed the idea that the e n e r g y of the blast might be redistributed and a
reduction might be made in the l o s s e s on inefficient f o r m s of work in c r u s h i n g the r o c k s [1].
The e s s e n c e of this idea is that by reducing the initial p r e s s u r e in the detonation products and i n c r e a s i n g
the duration of their action on the rock one might reduce the dissipative l o s s e s in the zone n e a r the charge, thus
reducing the possibility of o v e r c r u s h i n g of the r o c k but i n c r e a s i n g the amount of e n e r g y t r a n s m i t t e d to the m e -
dium. This idea simultaneously involves a change in the actual m e c h a n i s m of f r a c t u r e of the rock by i n c r e a s -
ing the dynamics of the crushing p r o c e s s by using i n t e r f e r e n c e of the shock waves and interaction of the gas
currents.
This is realized in p r a c t i c e by making charges with a i r gaps for r o c k crushing and charges with a i r
cavities for ejection blasting [2]. Thus, f o r the f i r s t time it has been shown that by changing the m e c h a n i s m of
t r a n s f e r of the e n e r g y of the blast to the solid medium we can change the fundamental f o r m of the work which
must be done by the explosion.
Although charges with a i r gaps to i m p r o v e rock crushing and c h a r g e s with a i r cavities to i n c r e a s e the
efficiency of ejection blasting have the c o m m o n idea of redistribution of the e n e r g y of the explosion, we must
note that they differ in principle both in the m e c h a n i s m of action and in the c o n s t r u c t i o n of the c h a r g e s .
For rock crushing it is n e c e s s a r y that the main compression wave have an amplitude exceeding the
strength of the rock. T h e r e f o r e the c h a r g e in the blast hole must be p r e s s e d tightly against the r o c k without
any radial gaps. In this case the p r e s s u r e of the detonation products can be reduced only with the aid of a i r
gaps between s e p a r a t e p a r t s of the charge along its axis. During the f i r s t stage of development of the explosion
these a i r gaps f o r m a kind of e n e r g y a c c u m u l a t o r , which f i r s t s t o r e s and then emits e n e r g y in the f o r m of addi-
tional s t r e s s waves, thus causing multiple loading of the medium. The capability of a i r - g a p charges to prolong
the p r o c e s s of conversion of the e n e r g y of the detonation products into e n e r g y of d e f o r m a t i o n of the r o c k is one
of the principal indices c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the crushing of rock.
On the other hand, to i n c r e a s e the useful work in ejection blasting we need to reduce the crushing of the
rock but maximize its kinetic energy. T h e r e f o r e in this case the explosive m u s t be separated f r o m the walls
of the hole by an a i r gap. However, the p r e s e n c e of an a i r gap between the c h a r g e and the walls of the c h a r g e
c h a m b e r not only reduces the initial p r e s s u r e but, what is m o r e important, a l t e r s the m e c h a n i s m by which the
energy of the explosion is t r a n s f e r r e d to the r o c k o r soil.
The kinetic energy of the rock can be i n c r e a s e d without marked dissipative l o s s e s by means of repeated
pulses, even if they have v e r y low amplitude. By exploding a charge in an a i r cavity, on the one hand, on a e -
IPKON AN SSSR, Moscow. T r a n s l a t e d f r o m Fiziko-Tekhnicheskie P r o b l e m y Razrabotki Poleznykh Isko-
paemykh, No. 6, pp. 32-42, N o v e m b e r - D e c e m b e r , 1979. Original a r t i c l e submitted June 19, 1979.

0038-5581/79/1506-0565507.50 9 1980 Plenum Publishing Corporation 565

count of expansion of the detonation products the initial p r e s s u r e can be reduced by n e a r l y two o r d e r s of m a g -
nitude; and on the other, by reflection of the shock waves f r o m the walls of the c h a r g e cavity and t h e i r focusing
at the c e n t e r the m e d i u m can r e c e i v e repeated a c c e l e r a t i o n s .
In both methods of blasting the t r a n s f e r of the e n e r g y of the explosion to the s u r r o u n d i n g solid m e d i u m
is effeeted on account of repeated action of the detonation products on the walls of the c h a r g e c h a m b e r . How-
e v e r , w h e r e a s for r o c k crushing the e x t r a s t r e s s waves m u s t be n u m e r o u s and short, t~ i n c r e a s e the volume
of ejected r o c k they can be w e a k e r but longer.
Consider the crushing of r o c k by the explosion of a solid c h a r g e . At first, a f t e r detonation of the c h a r g e
the solid medium is broken at the f r o n t of the shock wave propagating in it. As the amplitude of the shock wave
d e c r e a s e s , f r a c t u r e at the front c e a s e s , and the shock wave d e g e n e r a t e s to a c o m p r e s s i o n wave which can only
s t a r t m i c r o c r a c k s . Despite the p r e s e n c e of a dense network of m i c r o c r a c k s , f r a c t u r e and crushing of the r o c k
cease, because the s t r e s s field around the c h a r g e changes to a q u a s i s t a t i c state. Consequently, to improve the
u n i f o r m i t y of crushing of the rock it is n e c e s s a r y to develop this s y s t e m of m i c r o c r a c k s , i.e., to c r e a t e f a v o r -
able conditions for the growth and branching of c r a c k s . This can be done by p a s s i n g additional s t r e s s waves
through the rock, and they m u s t be generated in the c h a r g e cavity behind the f r o n t of the main c o m p r e s s i o n
wave.
Replacing a single powerful loading of the r o c k b y repeated loading, and thus i n c r e a s i n g the dynamics
of the r o c k f r a c t u r e p r o c e s s , is an a i m which can be realized using a i r - g a p c h a r g e s .
Le us c o n s i d e r the sequence of dynamic p r o c e s s e s which o c c u r within a borehole in explosion of an a i r -
gap charge. Assuming instantaneous detonation of the charge, the initial p r e s s u r e Pi and the velocity of sound
C i a r e given by the e x p r e s s i o n s
] .7

where Pex is the density of the explosive and D is its detonation velocity.
Owing to the high p r e s s u r e of the explosion products, a shock wave will propagate in the medium, and
the explosion products will expand into the region of the a i r gap. Simultaneously with the s t a r t of expansion
of the explosion products, a r a r e f a c t i o n wave which propagates in the explosion products and reduces t h e i r
pressure arises.
The p r e s s u r e in the explosion products is given by the e x p r e s s i o n

J 1--~1 "
At the moment when the r a r e f a c t i o n wave r e a c h e s the bottom of the blast hole, a new reflected r a r e -
faction wave a r i s e s ; its motion will be r e p r e s e n t e d by the general equations of g a s d y n a m i e s . The p r e s s u r e
in the reflected wave is given by
P/Pi = (Hc/Q t)3'

where Hc is the length of the charge.

With continuous expansion of the explosion products, the front of the reflected r a r e f a c t i o n wave and the
front of the explosion products would have a p p r o x i m a t e l y equal velocities. However, the expanding explosion
products will g e n e r a t e ahead of t h e m s e l v e s an a i r shock wave moving along the axis of the borehole with a
p r e s s u r e amplitude of the o r d e r of 10 a k g f / c m 2.
Similar expansion of the explosion products will be o b s e r v e d in the u p p e r p a r t of the charge. When the
shock waves, moving in opposite directions, r e a c h the middle of the a i r gap, they will collide with simultaneous
r e t a r d a t i o n of the gas c u r r e n t s of explosion products.
The m e c h a n i s m of meeting of the shock waves is analogous to the interaction of a shock wave with a
stationary rigid b a r r i e r , and the excess p r e s s u r e A P r f1 at the point of collision of strong shock waves can be
found f r o m the e x p r e s s i o n

'-~Prfl =:: AP~ 37-- 1

"}'-- I '

where A P 1 is the e x c e s s p r e s s u r e at the front of the traveling wave, and y is the adiabatic index.
After interaction of the shock waves and r e t a r d a t i o n of the gas c u r r e n t s at the c e n t e r of the a i r gap a
h i g h - p r e s s u r e s o u r c e is formed f r o m which shock waves begin to spread out on both sides.

566
 ; / r

:- $2 $"
-- i ] ~:

Fig. 1. O s c i l l o g r a p h t r a c e s of v e l o c i t y of m e d i u m . 1)
F r o m e x p l o s i o n of long solid c h a r g e ; 2) f r o m e x p l o s i o n
of a i r - g a p c h a r g e .

The motion of t h e s e shock w a v e s along the a x i s of the b o r e h o l e will p r o d u c e a second s t r e s s wave in

the m e d i u m , and this will p r o p a g a t e behind the m a i n c o m p r e s s i o n wave, A f t e r r e f l e c t i o n of the shock waves
f r o m the b o t t o m of the b o r e h o l e and the s t e m m i n g they w i l l again undergo changes in t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p a -
r a m e t e r s and d i r e c t i o n s . B a c k w a r d m o t i o n of t h e s e waves t o w a r d the c e n t e r of the a i r gap will l e a d to g e n -
e r a t i o n of a new s t r e s s wave in the m e d i u m , p r o p a g a t i n g behind the second c o m p r e s s i o n wave.
The a c t i o n of a i r - g a p c h a r g e s has been i n v e s t i g a t e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y on m o d e l s m a d e of P l e x i g l a s and
s o d i u m t h i o s u l f a t e , The p a r a m e t e r s of the waves w e r e r e c o r d e d using e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c t r a n s d u c e r s fixed in
the m o d e l s , and w e r e c o m p a r e d with a n a l o g o u s p a r a m e t e r s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the e x p l o s i o n of a solid long c h a r g e ,
As a d i m e n s i o n l e s s p a r a m e t e r d e t e r m i n i n g the p r i n c i p l e of g e o m e t r i c a l s i m i l a r i t y , we took the q u a n t i t y
r0

w h e r e r 0 is the r a d i u s of the c h a r g e ; q0, e n e r g y l i b e r a t e d p e r unit length; P0, d e n s i t y of the m e d i u m ; and Co,

v e l o e i t y of sound in the m e d i u m .
In the e x p e r i m e n t s we m e a s u r e d the v e l o c i t y of p r o p a g a t i o n of the f r o n t of the e o m p r e s s i o n wave, the
r a d i a l v e l o c i t y of the m e d i u m , and the r a d i a l s t r e s s e s a c t i n g in the e o m p r e s s i o n wave.

The i n v e s t i g a t i o n s r e v e a l e d t h a t the m a x i m u m s t r e s s e s in the r e g i o n 0,8 < ~0 < 9 v a r y with d i s t a n c e a c -

c o r d i n g to the following l a w s : f o r a i r - g a p c h a r g e s , a r e a x = 97.4" 103~0-l's5 kgf/emZ; f o r s o l i d e h a r g e s , ~max =
48.5 - 10z~0-1"45 k g f / c m 2.

Changes in the s t r e s s field have the r e s u l t that in the r e g i o n ~0 > 4 the s t r e s s e s due to the c h a r g e s with
a i r g a p s a r e g r e a t e r than t h o s e f r o m e x p l o s i o n of a s o l i d c h a r g e . The m a x i m u m d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e s e
s t r e s s e s in this r e g i o n i s about 25%.
The r e d u c t i o n of the s t r e s s e s in the r e g i o n 40 < 4 r e d u c e s o v e r c r u s h i n g of the r o c k , and thus i m p r o v e s
the u n i f o r m i t y of c r u s h i n g of the r o c k .
The e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s e n a b l e us to c a l c u l a t e the e n e r g y expended on d e f o r m i n g the m e d i u m , The
c a l c u l a t i o n s show that f o r a c h a r g e with an a i r gap equal to one q u a r t e r of i t s length, the e n e r g y expended on
c r u s h i n g the m e d i u m is about 1.5 t i m e s g r e a t e r than that f r o m e x p l o s i o n of a solid c h a r g e ; the i n c r e a s e in
the e n e r g y t r a n s m i t t e d to the solid m e d i u m is m a i n l y due to a s y s t e m of a d d i t i o n a l s t r e s s w a v e s p r o p a g a t e d
behind the f r o n t of the shock wave.
The change in the c h a r a c t e r of the e x p l o s i v e loading p r o c e s s is c l e a r l y s e e n in Fig. 1, which shows
o s c i l l o g r a p h t r a c e s of the v e l o c i t y of the m e d i u m f r o m e x p l o s i o n of a long solid c h a r g e (1) and a long a i r -
gap c h a r g e (2).
As we had supposed, the a c t i o n of the s o l i d long c h a r g e is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by the p a s s a g e of a s i n g l e p o w e r -
ful c o m p r e s s i o n wave through the m e d i u m followed by an o s c i I l a t i n g d a m p e d motion c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a s i n g l e
i m p u l s i v e load.
A quite d i f f e r e n t p i c t u r e of the motion of the solid m e d i u m is o b s e r v e d when we explode a c h a r g e with
an a i r gap; the shock wave is f o r m e d by the action of the expanding e x p l o s i o n p r o d u e t s which g e n e r a t e an a i r
shock wave ahead of t h e m s e l v e s . Its p a r a m e t e r s can be e s t i m a t e d on the assumption~that in a r e a l detonation
the equation of the i s e n t r o p e of the d e t o n a t i o n p r o d u c t s t a k e s the f o r m
P = , i iJz.

567
 If the length of the c h a r g e is l and the coordinate of the f r o n t is x, then when x / l =1, py =780P0, and when
x / l =1.63, P y = 6 8 0 P 0, where P0 is the p r e s s u r e ahead of the wave front.
Thus the shock wave propagated in the borehole has an amplitude approximately c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the
strength of the rock. The m o v e m e n t of the shock waves in the borehole also leads to g e n e r a t i o n of additional
c o m p r e s s i o n waves in the solid medium, which expand and develop the network of m i c r o c r a c k s f o r m e d by the
p r i m a r y c o m p r e s s i o n wave. These m i c r o c r a c k s a r e very sensitive to dynamic action. Cherepanov [3] has
derived an e x p r e s s i o n for the length of the original c r a c k a f t e r p a s s a g e of a s t r e s s pulse through it:

t* = 2 3 / ' P 1 ~ ' c ~ 4 ~ - 1 / ' m (3, ~) dr + S [4 (1 - - ~)l -'/~ [ ~ / ~ - - 1 . 3 2 ] ,

w h e r e P is the intensity of the pulse; C2, t r a n s v e r s e wave velocity; R, a constant c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the m a t e -

rtal; and m = v / C 2, dimensionless velocity.
For a m a t e r i a l with the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s K = 102 kgf" era-3/2, R = 1.6" 103 kgf - c m -3/2 9see -1"2 a= 103 kgf"
c m -2, At = 10 ~s, we find that a c r a c k originally 1 e m long i n c r e a s e s to 95 e m a f t e r p a s s a g e of the pulse.
Naturally, under actual conditions the m e c h a n i s m of crushing and c r a c k branching will be e n o r m o u s l y
m o r e complicated; but we see that by i n c r e a s i n g the dynamie effect we can i n c r e a s e the volume of crushed
medium. As we see f r o m Fig. 1, the use of a i r - g a p c h a r g e s m o r e than doubles the time of the dynamic effect
on account of the additional s t r e s s waves, and a p p r e c i a b l y i m p r o v e s the crushing of the rock.
The idea of redistribution of the explosion e n e r g y by changing the m e c h a n i s m of its t r a n s m i s s i o n to the
solid medium formed the basis for the method of camouflet c h a r g e s with a i r cavities f o r election blasting, in-
eluding pinpoint blasting. Owing to the high explosives consumption, ejection blasting as used in the mining
and construction industries, e s p e c i a l l y hydrotechnical construction, is v e r y costly. The new method of ejection
blasting i n c r e a s e s the efficiency of utilization of the e n e r g y and r e d u c e s the explosives consumption.
Experimental investigations of the three main stages of the ejection p r o c e s s during the action of an a i r -
cavity c h a r g e [4] have revealed that the t r a n s m i s s i o n of the e n e r g y of the explosion to the solid m e d i u m is not
instantaneous, but involves a s e r i e s of pulses extended tn time and space, governed by some p r o c e s s of ex-
pansion of the gaseous detonation products. The initial action on the walls of the cavity is exerted by the air
shock wave, in which the p r e s s u r e is about 102-103 k g f / e m 2. I m m e d i a t e l y behind the a i r shock wave come the
expanding detonation products, which will act on the walls of the c h a r g e hole behind the front of the a i r shock
wave.

Reduction of the stresses applied to the walls of the air cavity reduces the amplitude of the stress waves
and simultaneously reduces the dissipative energy loss in the compression waves. For an explosion in Plexi-
glas, the dependence of the m a x i m u m velocity of the m e d i u m on the c o r r e c t e d distance traveled by the wave is
r e p r e s e n t e d by the e x p r e s s i o n s
Vm,x = 4.2Ro l'~, 0.(~55 < Ro < 3.6;
Vma~ =6.4R~ "~'3, 0 . 4 < R o < 1 . 7 ,

for solid charges, where R0=r0/C1/3.

For a i r - c a v i t y c h a r g e s the figures are
Vmax == 9 . 1 R o l ' ~ ' m / s e e f o r q := 2;
Vmax = 6.8RgLlm/sec for ~1=: 4

where rj = Rcav/r0, r 0 being the radius of the spherical charge.

A change in the laws of damping redistributes the field of m a s s velocities in such a way that, s t a r t i n g at
a distance R 0 > 0.4, explosion of an a i r - c a v i t y charge (~ =2) i m p a r t s higher velocities to the medium than e x -
plosion of a charge without an a i r cavity.
Calculations of the kinetic e n e r g y and of the energy conveyed by the c o m p r e s s i o n wave have shown that
the e n e r g y t r a n s f e r by the s y s t e m of waves is m o r e rational in explosion of an a i r - c a v i t y c h a r g e . Thanks to
the change in the energy t r a n s f e r mechanism, it was found that the e n e r g y stored in the m e d i u m is approx-
imately 1.7 times g r e a t e r than the energy commuuicated to the m e d i u m by the explosion of a solid charge.
Figure 2 shows oscillograph t r a c e s of the velocity of the r o c k due to a camouflet explosion of a solid
c h a r g e 1 and of a charge with an a i r cavity 2, weighing 8 kg, in l o e s s - type ground. The duration of the positive

568
 3"---_

Fig. 2

o,~L i
~, 5 ,J",7 o,9 7, " :.:
H/C~, m/kgl/s Fragment sizes, mm

Fig. 3 Fig. 4
Fig. 3. C o r r e c t e d volume of ejection c r a t e r vs c o r r e c t e d depth of
setting of c h a r g e . 1) Solid charge; 2) a i r - c a v i t y charge.
Fig. 4. F r a g m e n t - s i z e composition of blasted r o c k f r o m d o l o m i t i z e d
limestones. 1) Broken down using solid c h a r g e s ; 2) using a i r - g a p
charges.

phase of the wave formed by explosion of an a i r - c a v i t y c h a r g e is 1.3 times lower than the c o m p r e s s i o n wave
f r o m a solid charge. The total duration of the dynamic action, allowing for the additional c o m p r e s s i o n waves,
for a i r - c a v i t y charges is about double that f o r solid c h a r g e s .
Consequently, even in the f i r s t stage of development of camouflet cavities in ejection blasting, a i r - c a v i t y
charges a r e energetically m o r e advantageous than solid c h a r g e s . However, the change in the m e c h a n i s m by
which the explosion e n e r g y is t r a n s f e r r e d to the surrounding m e d i u m appears not only in the initial stage of
a c c e l e r a t i o n of the ground but in all the subsequent stages of the blast p r o c e s s .
In the second stage, in which the detonation products expel the rock, the e n e r g y dissipation is mainly
governed by the f o r c e s of friction. In this stage, by adding to the energy of the developing dome, we can in-
c r e a s e the volume of the ejection c r a t e r . In explosion of a i r - c a v i t y charges, the waves reflected in the cavity
give just this additional energy.
In the third stage of development of the ejection p r o c e s s , when the rock executes free flight and f o r m s
a visible ejection c r a t e r , the kinetic e n e r g y f r o m the preceding stages is of p a r t i c u l a r importance, and the
dimensions of the c r a t e r are determined by the kinetic e n e r g y of the rock. The redistribution of the explosion
energy affects the volume of the resulting c r a t e r .
Figure 3 is a plot of the c o r r e c t e d volume of the c r a t e r as a function of the depth of setting. In our ex-
p e r i m e n t s the index of action of the explosion lies in the range 0.5 < n< 1.6 for constant charge weight.
Charges with a i r cavities, which have a m o r e efficient m e c h a n i s m of t r a n s f e r of the e n e r g y of the ex-
plosion to the surrounding medium, r e q u i r e m o r e s e v e r e conditions of operation. Otherwise the e n e r g y ad-
vantages of these charges would not be realized owing to the rapid breakup of the r i s i n g dome of ground and
the unsealing of the cavity. For s u c c e s s f u l realization of the " e x c e s s " e n e r g y of a i r - c a v i t y c h a r g e s in c o m -
p a r i s o n with solid charges, we must either reduce the charge weight o r i n c r e a s e the depth of setting.
An important feature of methods of blasting by c h a r g e s with a i r gaps and cavities is that their principle
of operation is based on changes in the m e c h a n i s m of t r a n s f e r of the energy of the blast to the surrounding
solid medium; hence their action does not depend on the type of explosive used.

569
 Pilot investigations followed by wide industrial adoption of blast-hole charges with air gaps have con-
f i r m e d t h e i r h i g h e f f i c i e n c y in c r u s h i n g r o c k s of v a r i o u s h a r d n e s s e s in o p e n - c u t and u n d e r g r o u n d w o r k i n g s
in o r e , c o a l , and o t h e r d e p o s i t s and a l s o in c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g s t r u c t u r e s [5, 6].
In q u a r r i e s and o p e n - c u t m i n e s s u c h c h a r g e s a r e u s e d in b l a s t h o l e s 110-300 ~ in d i a m e t e r and up to
50 m d e e p ; i n u n d e r g r o u n d m i n e s t h e y a r e u s e d in b l a s t h o l e s 7 0 - 1 0 0 m m i n d i a m e t e r and d r i l l h o l e s 2 8 - 4 0 m m
in d i a m e t e r .
A n i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e of t h e m e t h o d of a i r - g a p c h a r g e s i s t h e m a r k e d i m p r o v e m e n t in the d e g r e e and
u n i f o r m i t y of c r u s h i n g of the r o c k b y the b l a s t , w h i c h p e r m i t s h i g h l y p r o d u c t i v e o p e r a t i o n of e x c a v a t o r s and
t r a n s p o r t e q u i p m e n t . T h i s e f f e c t of b l a s t i n g i s o b t a i n e d w i t h a 10-20% r e d u c t i o n in s p e c i f i c e x p l o s i v e s c o n -
s u m p t i o n , s h o w i n g t h a t t h e r e i s a m a r k e d i n c r e a s e in t h e b l a s t i n g e f f i c i e n c y f r o m t h e new c h a r g e d e s i g n .
It i s i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t w i t h a i r - g a p c h a r g e s t h e r e i s a m a r k e d c h a n g e in the f r a c t i o n a l c o m p o s i t i o n of the
b l a s t e d r o c k - t h e y i e l d of 100-400 m m f r a c t i o n s i s i n c r e a s e d , the y i e l d of o v e r s i z e p i e c e s is reduced, and,
w h a t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t , t h e y i e l d of v e r y s m a l l f r a c t i o n s up to 4 0 - 7 0 m m in s i z e i s r e d u c e d (Fig. 4);
t h e p r e s e n c e of t h e s e f r a c t i o n s in i r o n o r e i n c r e a s e s the c o k e c o n s u m p t i o n of b l a s t - f u r n a c e m e l t i n g and r e -
d u c e s the p r o d u c t i v i t y of the f u r n a c e s .
When t h e l e a s t e a s i l y b l a s t e d h a r d r o c k s w i t h l a r g e - b l o c k s t r u c t u r e in q u a r r i e s and o p e n - c u t m i n e s a r e
c r u s h e d u s i n g a i r - g a p c h a r g e s , t h e y i e l d of f r a c t i o n s m e a s u r i n g l e s s t h a n 400 m m i s i n c r e a s e d b y a f a c t o r
of 1.5, t h e y i e l d of o v e r s i z e f r a g m e n t s ( m e a s u r i n g m o r e t h a n 1200 ram) i s r e d u c e d by a f a c t o r of 5 - 1 0 , and
the d i s t e n t i o n f a c t o r of the r o c k in the e x c a v a t o r b u c k e t i s r e d u c e d f r o m 1.85 to 1.55, s o t h a t t h e t e c h n i c a l
p r o d u c t i v i t y of the e x c a v a t o r i s i n c r e a s e d by a f a c t o r of 1 . 7 - 2 . 0 , t h e w e a r on the b u c k e t t e e t h i s r e d u c e d by
a f a c t o r o f 4 - 5 , and t h e f r e q u e n c y of b r e a k d o w n s of the m a c h i n e i s m u c h d e c r e a s e d . T h e s p e c i f i c e x p l o s i v e s
c o n s u m p t i o n i s r e d u c e d by 10-15%.
in v e r y h a r d and tough r o c k s ( g a b b r o - d i a b a s e s , g a b b r o - d i o r i t e s , and e f f u s i v e d i a b a s e s ) w i t h h a r d n e s s e s
of f - - 1 2 - 1 8 on the P r o t o d ' y a k o n o v s c a l e , w o r k e d in b e n c h e s 1 5 - 2 0 m high w i t h v e r t i c a l and i n c l i n e d b l a s t h o l e s
160, 250, and 300 m m in d i a m e t e r , the u s e of a i r - g a p c h a r g e s i m p r o v e s t h e d e g r e e and u n i f o r m i t y of c r u s h i n g
of the r o c k s ; t h e y i e l d of f r a c t i o n s m e a s u r i n g up to 400 m m i s i n c r e a s e d f r o m 40 to 70%; the y i e l d of o v e r -
s i z e f r a g m e n t s i s r e d u c e d b y a f a c t o r of 2-4; and the s p e c i f i c e x p l o s i v e s c o n s u m p t i o n i s r e d u c e d b y 7-17%.
In the b r e a k i n g down o f s a n d s t o n e s , l i m e s t o n e s , d o l o m i t e s , and g r a n i t e - p o r p h y r i e s the d e g r e e of c r u s h -
i n g 'of the r o c k i s a l s o i m p r o v e d , and the s p e c i f i c e x p l o s i v e s c o n s u m p t i o n i s r e d u c e d by 20-25%. T h e y i e l d of
f r a c t i o n s up to 400 m m is i n c r e a s e d by 94% [7].

T A B L E 1. T e c h n i c o e c o n o m i c I n d i c e s of U s e o f A i r - G a p C h a r g e s
in Q u a r r i e s and O p e n - C u t M i n e s
Blastabili~ rock
difficult moderate easy

Index

Hardness of rock on Protod' yakonov 10--1 0--I I0--1 6--8 6 - - 8 4--6 4--5
scale
Length of blast holes, m e t e r s 15 61.55 15 20 29 20 20
Cell size of blast-hole network, m x m 6.',5 . 6~<~ 6x5 6 / 5 7/6 97~8
Length of one air gap or gap with 1,5 1,5 -- 2,O 3,0
stemming material
Number of gaps 2 2 2 I
Ratio of mass of bottom part of 0,4 0,4 0,4 0,7
charge to mass of entire charge
Specific explosives consumption, 0 q5 0.9( 0.8( 0,7(' 0,6( 0.3(' 0.21
kg/m ~
Yield of oversize fragments, % 12 8 3 7 2 0 0
Productivity of excavator, mS/shift (;70 700 950 85(3 ngO I000 I000
Total cost of drilling, blasting, and 39.~) 38,6 34,0 2~)9 25,9 19,0 15,8
excavation, kopecks/ms

570
 Table 1 lists the m o s t typical c o m p a r a t i v e technicoeconomic indices of the use of b l a s t - h o l e c h a r g e s
with a i r gaps, with inert gaps, and solid. The r e s u l t s , obtained in v e r y complex conditions, show that a i r -
gap c h a r g e s are m o r e economical than solid c h a r g e s and also m o r e economical then c h a r g e s divided by s t e m -
ming material.
Explosion of a i r - g a p c h a r g e s c r e a t e s a g a s d y n a m i c seal in the blast hole which r e d u c e s the density and
velocity of the detonation products toward the mouth of the hole, p e r m i t t i n g the use of s h o r t e r stemming. The
use of an a i r gap between the top end of the c h a r g e and the shortened s t e m m i n g and the placing of a small ex-
plosive charge (5-10 kg) in the s t e m m i n g m a t e r i a l i n c r e a s e d the s e a l - b r e a k i n g time of the blast hole by a
f a c t o r of about 1.5 and halved the m a n - h o u r s required f o r s t e m m i n g operations.
There is another valuable advantage in the use of a i r - g a p c h a r g e s : They r e d u c e the s e i s m i c action of
the blast on the n e a r b y surface s t r u c t u r e s by a f a c t o r of 1.3-1.6. To c r e a t e a i r gaps in b l a s t - h o l e c h a r g e s in
open-cut mines in the Kuzbass, very simple, reliable, and cheap polythene devices are used which open under
the influence of the top p a r t of the charge. In some mines the f o r m a t i o n of a i r gaps in the c h a r g e s is effected
by means of foam polystyrene in the f o r m of a i r - f i l l e d beads 10-20 m m in d i a m e t e r with a density of 0.02 g /
cm 3. Wooden bobbins, cardboard cylinders, and o t h e r means a r e also used to f o r m a i r gaps.
The effectiveness of a i r - g a p c h a r g e s is g r e a t e s t for c e r t a i n optimal c h a r g e and a i r - g a p p a r a m e t e r s which
depend on the p r o p e r t i e s of the rock and the d i a m e t e r of the blast holes.
According to data f r o m c e r t a i n undertakings, the total length of the a i r gaps La.g, the length of one a i r
gap /a.g, and the n u m b e r of gaps n can be calculated f r o m the following e x p r e s s i o n s :

La.g = (0,15--0,35)/chg. la.g= (8--12)dchg n ~ L a . g / l a g ,

where Lchg is the length of the charge in the blast hole in m e t e r s , dchg is the d i a m e t e r of the c h a r g e in m i l l i -
meters.
The ratios L a . g / L c h g and /a.g/dchg d e c r e a s e with i n c r e a s i n g h a r d n e s s and blastability of the rock.
A i r - g a p c h a r g e s have been s u c c e s s f u l l y used in o v e r 10 ore and coal m i n e s and q u a r r i e s ; they i n c r e a s e d
the productivity of the e x c a v a t o r s by 20-40~0, reduced the specific explosives consumption by o v e r 10-20%,
and improved o t h e r indices of the mining operations. The relative economic saving was 30,000-40,000 rubles
p e r million cubic m e t e r s of blasted rock.
In underground ore mining, the use of a i r - g a p c h a r g e s not only i m p r o v e s the d e g r e e and uniformity of
crushing of the r o c k and reduces the specific explosives consumption and the s e i s m i c effects of blasting, but
also reduces the dilution of the ore; this is p a r t i c u l a r l y important in the blasting of hard ore in thin veins.
The adoption of a i r - g a p c h a r g e s to blast c o p p e r ore (f= 12-17) reduces the amount of o v e r s i z e f r a g m e n t s
by a f a c t o r of four, giving a 25-50% i n c r e a s e in the output of the m i n e r s occupied in o r e d i s c h a r g e . The ex-
pense of p r i m a r y and secondary ore crushing was reduced by 30~
In underground mining of f e r r o u s o r e s , the r e s u l t s obtained in mines in the Krivoi Rog field a r e v e r y
instructive. The o r e (f=4-6) was broken down by fans of blast holes with a vertical compensation slit. The
depth of the blast holes was 20-40 m and their d i a m e t e r 100 mm. The c h a r g e s were divided into 5-8 p a r t s
by a i r gaps 1.0-1.5 m long. The specific explosives consumption was reduced by 41-46%; the amount of v e r y
fine fractions less than 50 m m in size was halved; and the output per m a n - s h i f t of the s c r a p e r o p e r a t o r s was
increased by 15%. On account of the m o r e u n i f o r m crushing of the rock, c a s e s of p r e s s i n g of fine wet o r e
into cakes were eliminated, increasing ore d i s c h a r g e by 30-35%. The reduction in the s e i s m i c action of the
blasts permitted the size of the l a r g e - s c a l e blasts to be increased by a factor of 1.5 on account of the condi-
tions of s e i s m i c stability of the i n t e r r o o m pillars, and reduced the e n e r g y of the a i r shock waves by a f a c t o r
of 1.5-2.

It is of g r e a t importance that as a r e s u l t of the use of a i r - g a p c h a r g e s the possibility of ignition of a

m e t h a n e - a i r mixture is reduced on account of a reduction in the time of unsealing the charge c h a m b e r by a
f a c t o r of 1.4-1.6 and a reduction in the t e m p e r a t u r e of the detonation products at the m o m e n t of contact with
the mine a t m o s p h e r e .
The r i s e in the protective p r o p e r t i e s of b l a s t - h o l e charges with a i r gaps is accompanied by an i n c r e a s e
in the blasting efficiency, and this is important in mines with gas and dust h a z a r d . In Karaganda mines there
has been a 20-50c/0 reduction in the frequency of ignition of the m e t h a n e - a i r mixture and a consequent im-
p r o v e m e n t in safety. Blast-hole charges 100 m m in d i a m e t e r with axial a i r cavities 40 m m in d i a m e t e r have

571
been t e s t e d in the mines. These c h a r g e s reduce the explo sives consumption by 15% and the amount of s e c o n d a r y
crushing by 50if0.
A i r - c a v i t y c h a r g e s have been found very effective in shaping r e s e r v o i r s , canals, and o t h e r s t r u c t u r e s
in dense and viscous clays and loams. F o r the f i r s t time in w o r l d - w i d e blasting p r a c t i c e these c h a r g e s e n -
abled us to obtain a visible ejection c r a t e r with a depth equal to the depth of setting of the c h a r g e f o r a b l a s t
action index of n= 1.5.
Experience has revealed that a i r - c a v i t y c h a r g e s can p e r f o r m a s i m i l a r amount of mechanic~al work with
25~ less potential e n e r g y than o r d i n a r y c h a r g e s .
In all c a s e s of the use of a i r - c a v i t y c h a r g e s with blast action indices 1 - < n ~
- 3 the specific explosives
consumption r e m a i n s 25-40% less than that of solid c h a r g e s ; the less the b l a s t action index, the g r e a t e r is the
reduction in specific explosives consumption. It is important that with such c h a r g e s there is a reduction of
1.3-1.7 times in the degree of cracking of the s u r f a c e of the working o r ejection c r a t e r , and this i m p r o v e s
their antifiltration p r o p e r t i e s .
A i r - c a v i t y c h a r g e s a r e the basis of the method of controlled ejection blasting with a horizontal free s u r -
face, which can eject 92% of the ground in a given direction without an i n c r e a s e in the specific explosives con-
sumption.
One of the main p a r a m e t e r s of a i r - c a v i t y charges is the charge cavity index 0 (the ratio of the volume
of the charge c h a m b e r to the volume of the charge); f o r dense viscous clays and loams the optimum value is
0 = 2 - 3 [8]. The charge m a s s , calculated f r o m the usual e x p r e s s i o n s , should be reduced by 25% for n->2. In
p r a c t i c e the formation of an a i r cavity is achieved by placing the c h a r g e s in l a r g e c h a m b e r s .
In the construction of r i v e r control and i r r i g a t i o n works in Kazakhstan and the Ukraine, the industrial
adoption of the new method of ejection blasting has reduced the specific explosives consumption by an a v e r a g e
of 25%, and hence has reduced the cost of the s t r u c t u r e s by 15-20%. The economic saving is 60.000-100,000
rubles p e r million cubic m e t e r s of blasted rock.
These investigations have c r e a t e d a fundamentally new trend in the t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e of blasting and
have set the c o u r s e for f u r t h e r i m p r o v e m e n t s in methods of control of the p r o c e s s e s of r o c k crushing and
ejection by i n c r e a s i n g the efficiency of utilization of the energy of the blast.

LITERATURE CITED
1. N. V. Mel'nikov, "Utilization of the e n e r g y of explosives and the f r a g m e n t size of r o c k in blasting o p e r a -
tions," Gorn. Zh., No. 5 (1940).
2. L. N. Marehenko, "Increasing the energy utilization f a c t o r of explosives in ejection blasting," T r . IGD
Akad. Nauk SSSR, 1, Moscow (1954).
3. G. 1a. Cherepanov, "On the influence of the pulse on the development of initial c r a c k s , " Prikl. Mekh.
Tekh. Fiz., No. 1 (1963).
4. N. V. Mel'nikov, L. N. Marchenko, and I. F. Zharikov, "Investigation of the influence of an a i r cavity
on the p a r a m e t e r s of motion of the ground in ejection blasting," F i z . - T e k h . Probl. Razrab. Polezn.
Iskop., No. 5 (1976).
5. N. V. Mel'nikov and L. N. Marchenko, The Energy of Blasting and Construction [in Russian], Moscow
(1964).
6. N. V. Mel'nikov, L. N. Marchenko, N. 1a. Seinov, [. F. Zharikov, and V. S. Kudryashov, "Effective methods
of controlling the p r o c e s s e s of crushing and ejection by blasting," Fiz.oTekh. Probl. Razrab. Polezn.
[skop., No. 1 (1971).
7. N. V. Mel'nikov and L. N. Marehenko, "Increasing the effectiveness of blasting with crushing of ejected
r o c k , " Gorn. Zh., No. 2 (1971).
8. N. V. Mel'nikov, L. N. Marchenko, N. P. Seinov, I. F. Zharikov, and V. S. Kudryashov, "Charges with
air cavities in ejection blasting," in: Blasting [in Russian], 71/28, Moscow (1972).

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