CHAPTER XI SAG-TENSION CALCULATIONS In the British Isles the erection of overhead line conductors must comply with the requirements of the Electricity Commissioners’ Regulations EIC53 (Revised) for voltages exceeding 650 volts direct current’ and_ $25 volts alternating current. ‘These ane os follows : “The Factor of Safety of line conductors shall be 2. ‘The Factor ‘of Safety shall be based on the breaking load, and shall be calculated ‘on the assumption that the line conductors aro at a temperature of 22°F, and have a covering of ice to a radial thickness of three- cighths of an inch, and that they are simultaneously subjected to ‘4 wind of 50 miles per hour at right angles to the line, this wind to be taken as exerting a pressure equivalent to $Ib, per sq. ft. caleulated on the whole of the projected area of the ice-covered lines, ‘The weight of ice to be taken as 57 1b. per eu. ft.” The same basis is used for voltages not exceeding 650 volts direct current and 325 volts altenating current, except that the ico coating is three-sizteenths of an inch instead of three-eighths of an inch, In overhead line design and practice an intimate knowledge of the tmathematies of sags and tensions must be regarded as essential. The span lengths to be practised, the height of supports to be use, and the strength of supports required are direct functions of the con- ductor sags and tensions. Sag-tension calculations are regarded by many as highly mathematical, but this is not the case. ‘The solution, of sag-tension problems is really the application of a few empirical formulae requiring only a knowledge of arithmetic, and culminating in a cubic equation which can be simply solved on the slide-rule. ‘The caleulations would be still more simple if the wires could be regarded as being subjected to a fixed loading. This, however, is not the case, since the conductors may be ice-loaded at one time, subjected to a gale at another, or even both simultaneously, or may only be acted upon by their own weight in still ar. As a result of the varying conditions, the overhead line engineer must be able to erect the wires under still-air conditions, with the knowledge that the maximum permistible tension will not be exceeded should the conditions of wind and ice Inid down in the Regulations occur. 180SAG-TENSION CALCULATIONS st Theory of Sag-tension Calculations. ‘The general theory of sag-tensioas is based on the fact that if « ftexible stranded wire of uniform woight is suspended at two poists ‘which are at the same level, it sags st tive centre and assumes & Shope known as a *"Catenary Curve, the tension in the curve being 0 portional to its length at all points, ‘The mathematis of the catensry fre somewhat involved and for overhead lines a parabolic eure is generally assumed. ‘This is sufficiently accurate, since the ratio ofthe Span length to the sag is never less than ten to one, and hence the trvots are small and can be ignored. ‘The following is the basic fortrula for the parabola. Refer to Fig. 101 Let_1 = Span length (measured horizontally) in f. W = Weight of loaded conductor in Ib, per fe. run. § = Conductor sag in ft. F = Max. working tension in loaded conductor in 1b. ‘Taking moments about Y, the tension F acting at a distance 8 will be ult the weight of a the lade enductar ating a point midway between S and Ye. at frm ¥ 1 — a 4 xpos AY »~ ss) . \ tT og ‘The sag 8 i thus propor: ‘ tional to the weight of, the roo, % Toued conductor W and to the square of the span length ¢ and inversely proportional to the tension F. EMPIRICAL FORMULAE FOR WINDAGE AND 16F WEIGHT ON CONDUCTORS (a) Windage on Conductors rer ft, run Let d = Diameter of conductor in inches. 1 = Radial thickness of iee on conductors >, Total diam, of jew-loardes conductor D nches. Finches.182 OVERHEAD LINE PRACTICE Projected area of conductor = D 12 q. in. per ft. run. Wind pressure per ft. ran on conductor assuming » wind pressure of 81b. per yy 19 x iat ‘9, ft. on projected area P= 2p. 3 +. Wind pressure per ft. run on any conductor loaded to the Com- missioners’ Regulations is two-thirds the diameter of the loaded conductor. (6) Weight of Tce om Conductors per ft. run. Refer to Fig. 102, 4 J Fie. 102. ‘Area of annulus of ice = 20R x tsq.in. ait pute = 245 272 Substituting this value in equation (1) a Area of annulus of ico=2n (24) togm . 6. @) ‘i a+t Volume of ice = 2m ( ? ix eu. in. per fe.run (8) Weight of ioe allowing den. iaxer ‘BT Ib, per ou. ft. = 2 tx 2228 pp, per ft.run (4) Ib. per en. ft. (=) Tag 1b Per fe-run (4) = 1-243 td + 0) Ib. per The weight of ice per ft. run on any c #¢+@ Ib, the conductor diameter in inches. ANGLE OF SWING OF LOADED CONDUCTOR Frost ft.mun . . (6) vonductor is equal to where ¢ is radial thickness of ice in inches and d ‘THE VERTICAL. Tn the design of clearances and: onductor spacing a knowedge of the angle of sing of the ice-loaded conductors under the influencea ES RE =SAG-TENSION CALCULATIONS 183 of wind is useful. ‘This is obtained easily from the total weight of conductor, ice-loaded, and the total windage on the conductor. Let ice-londed conductor weight per ft. ran be W. ‘Let wind load on conductor per fe. run be P. Let 0 be angle of swing of conductor from the vertical ‘Then tan 9 = Windage per ft. on loaded conductor P Weight per fe. of losded conductor — W Application of Sag-tension Calculations. In the application of sag-tension data it is necessary to consider {vo sets of loading conditions : (a) loading conditions of wind and ice at 22°F. as laid down in the Regulations and (b) still-air conditions With no wind or ice on the conductors. It is necessary at the outset to determine the loading factor for both sets of conditions. (@) Loading Factor for Wind and Ice Conditions at 22° P. Tet P = Wind pressure on conductor in Ib. per ft. run. 'W = Woight of conductor ice-loaded in Ib. per ft. run. w= Weight of conductor only in Ib. per ft. run. Loading factor g, = wrw (0) Loading Factor in Stilt Air. ‘The loading factor with no ice or wind in still air g, S40 AT WORST LOAD CONDITIONS OF WIND AND ICE AT TEMPERATURE , aR, let fy ‘Max. working stress in conductor in Ib, per sq. in. at temp. eR. » = Max. working tension in conductor in Ib. ‘Area of conductor in sq. in, Let 4 = Weight of conductor per ft. run per sq = Lo Conductor weight per ft. Conductor area sq. in.” |. cross-section Loading factor wind and ice, Span length in ft. 8 = Sag of conductor in ft1s OVERHEAD LINE PRACTICE he axh *, Worst load sag § Roo. ee SAG AND TENSION IN CONDUCTOR UNDER STILL-AIR CONDIFIONS. Since conductors will be erected under still-air conditions at & tomperature t,° F., it is essential that the erection tensioas should be such that when loading conditions subsequently oocur there will be no infringement on the factor of safety. ‘Let f= Stress in conductor in Ib, per sq. in, at erection temperature eR. Coefficient of expansion per degree F. ‘Modulus of elasticity in Ib. per sq. in. . Difference in temperature between the two sets of loading ‘conditions = (ty — t,)° F. Loading factor in still air. ‘Area of conductor in sq. in. ‘The stress of the conductor f, in Ib. per sq. in. at temperature f ‘can be determined from the formula bo m4 bags wpe Having determined the value of f, from equation (7}, the sag ean be found from the formula BE t E m — (K — «t)] = now K =f, — Pee ah ‘The tension in conductor ‘T = Stress fs x grea A Tb. Rehibes e sO ‘An example will illustrate the application of the formulae. Example: Find the sag and tension in a 0-1 sq. in, (7/-136 in.) stranded copper conductor on a basic span of 400 ft. at a factor of safety of 2 under the worst load conditions of wind and ice and also determine the sag and tension in still-air temperatures of 40° F. and Breaking load of 0-1 sq. in. (7/-136 in.) stranded copper conductor Factor of safetySAG-TENSION CALCULATIONS 185 Breaking 3872 = “1, Max: working tension —= Deakins load _ $872 oo36 1b, Fof 8. 2 Conductor diameter d = 0408 in Toe thickness in. radial Weight of conductor per ft. ran 039861, —— 18 x 10 Ib. per sq. in 9:22 x 10-* por deg. F. 22°F, (2t+d) 2 x 0375.4 0408 1-158 in. _ Modulus of elasticity for copper Coefficient of linear expansion for copper Worst load temperature ‘Total diameter of iea-loaded conductor D Windage per ft. run on ice-loaded ‘contctor P=§xDib. ~ = $x 115807721 Weight of ice loading on conductor per 1-243¢ (t + d) Ib. . inn 1-243 x 0-375 (0-375 + 0-408) Ib. 0988 b, Tal wiht ofiedoaded contuctor W080 0365 0-7636 Ib. —_ . sar, working tosion Max. work stress in luctor ST el ing sires in condo 2936 i = 28 2636018 gn oI {sq Weight of conductor per ft. run per 1 uo ‘sq. in, cross-section 6 = —— x Weight Trea 5 0:088 a = 5480. _ Loading fctor wind nnd ie EW j Loading factor in still air Span length186 OVERHEAD LINE PRACTICE SAG AT WORST LOAD CONDITIONS OF WIND AND TOR At 22°. Seg = 12d) _ 100° x 3080x272 yg, 8xh 8 x 20360 ‘This is a deflected ang. ‘Ton of angle of swing = 2722 — 1.008. 8 = 0.7656 Sagis deflected at 45° 12'to the vertial 8AG AND TRNSION IN STILL am ar 40° Ja = Stress in Ib. per oq. in. in conductor at temperature 4°. “Temperature t, = 40° F. Loading factor in still air gy SU — (K— ate] = Boat 34g 400% x 3-986" x 2-72" x 18 x 108 K=f,-—2— = eee SS Se ap, 29360 2A x 20500" = (29360 — 16968) = 12997. PR=%—4)F. = (40-2) =18F. - ee B= 922 x 10 x 18 x 18 x 10" = 2087 hdr quE _ 400! x 3-986" x 14 x 18 X 10° _ 996 1018 By 4 “fel —(—« bas Sfe Us = (K = tb] of f.* [fs — (12997 — 2987)] = 1-906 x 10 a* [fs — 10010] = 1-906 x 10 2. fa = 16780 Ib. per 6g. in. Tension in conductor = f, x A = 16780 x 0-1 = 1678 1b. 1 8.qy _ 400" x 3986 x1 gage 15 SB Sx ox 10780 <2 Tension in conductor in still ar at 40° F. ~ 1678 1b Sag of conductor, ,, ,, ,, 40°F. = 4-75 ft. SAG AND TENSION IN STILL AIR AT 122° ¥. All values are the same as for 40° F. except eB. 122°F. To find f, corresponding to f° F. cB = — ty F. = (122 — 22) = 10°F.(rae pse 186SAG-TENSION CALCULATIONS 187 . atB = 922 x 10+ x 100 x 18 x 10* = 16596. ‘ bbtqvE : Ife Ket) = PEGE [fs — (12997 ~ 16596)] = 1-906 x 107 * [fa + 3500] = 1-006 x 108 “fe = 11300 Ib. per sq. in. Tension in conductor = 11300 x 0-1 = 1130 Ib. 15q,_ 400" x 3-986 x1 705 ft. Sp” 8x 11900 +. Tension in conductor in still air at 122° F. = 1130 1b. Sag of conductor yy my ym» 122° F. = 705 Re. Baste Span 400 Fr. Conductor 0-1 sq. in. (7/136 in.) Temp, in deg. F. | Sag in ft. | Tension in B. 22° F. wind and ice 140~ | 2936 | ba Wwe fa | isok WOE, £75 1078 OOF yy | 629 | 1608 srr, | 586 1360 10°F. 3s, | oat 1243 [reer 705, | 1130 Method of Solving Oubic: Equation by Slide-rule. ‘There is no difficulty in solving the cubic equation in the calculation of the stress in the conductor. In the stress calculations given for 40° F. ‘the equation takes the following form : Jat [fa — 10010] = 1-906 x 108 The cursor is set at 1-906 on top soale A of slide-rule, Fig. 108, and the ainv is to adjust the slide until the figure under the cursor on188 OVERHEAD LINE PRACTICE scale B is equal to the figure at the end of the slide on sale D minus 10010, This gives an equivalent to the expression (J, ~ L0010) in the equation. When this position has been found, the figure st the end of the sale D is the stress f, in the conductor in Ib. per sq. in. The process is trial and error, but with practice the value can be calculated very rapidly. In Fig. 108 cursor on seale A is sot to 1-906 and the slide is adjusted until figure under cursor on seale B is 6770 and that at end of seale D is 16780, (16780 — 10010) = 6770 ‘Therefog tho stein tho eondutor is 167801, eran. a given on seale'D at ond of slide. A If the equation is in the form of (f, + constant), the object is then to adjust the slide until the figure under the cursor on scale B is equal to the figure at the end of the slide on scale D plus the constant. Here ‘again the figure at the end of the slide on scale D is the stross fx. Tt is good practice to test the result, by slide-rale mukiplcation in order to check the significant figures. In the example given Js* [fs — 10010] = 1-906 x 10% 16780* [16780 — 10010] = 1-906 x 10% - 16780" x 6770 = 1-906 x 10% BASIC OR EQUIVALENT span, It will be observed that the sags and tensions have been caleulated at the various temperatures on what is known as the “ Basic Span”, and it will be necessary to correlate the sags on the other spans from this. A section of an overhead line route consists of a number of spans of variable Iength due to the changing profile arid the desire to Toeate supports in positions to oause minimum interference with the norma tuse of the land. In erecting an overhead line section it is not practicable to caleulate the sags and tensions for each individual span. If tis , were done, then adjustments of tension would be necessary i adjacent spans, since any alteration in temperature and loading would result in unequal tension in the various spans. Thisis obviously impracticable, 1s a constant tension can only be applied at the vensianing position, and this constant tension must be uniform throughout the whole of the section, irrespective of the span length. With suspension insulators any inequalities of tension would be compensated by a corresponding deflection of the insulator strings from the vertical, in» lineways: direction. With pin or post type”insulators inequalities of tension” would iave w be tien dy ve binders, wisi is uot desixable When a sag-tension chart is received from the conductor manu- facturers it should be remembered that they do not know whether the copper is to be usedl on L.V. lines with 150 ft. span, 11 kV or 33 kVSAG-TENSION CALCULATIONS 189 ‘wood or concrete pole lines, or steel tower lines ; hence the sags and tensions are calculated for individual span lengths. As already stated, ‘You can oily wpply oné tension to any section and 30 @ sag-tension ‘Share must be prepared for the appropriate Tine. ‘This is done on the “Constant Tension ” and ‘“ Basic Span ¥ principle ; the theory is that iy applied tension ‘will bé constant and uniform throughout. the section, and this constant tension will produco © dafinite sag on a Aefinte “ Basic Span” Iength at given temperature. “ Having determined the sage and tensions on the basic span at the various temperatures, it is then easy to correlate the sags on the other spans in the following way : Sag on basic span go tength X* Basic span lengths ~ SP&" length or in terms of constant tension on Spon X* x Weight of conductor per ft. fase span X 8 x Constant tension Consider the 0-1 aq. in. (7/-136 in.) copper conductor (referred to in the calonlation) on a basic span of 400 ft.; the constant tension at 40°F, is 1678 1b. and the ang is 4-75 fe. If the ange are calculated for other spans the results would be a follows ‘Sag on any span X ‘The sags at the other temperatures are calculated in a similar manner. A typical sag-tension chart is given, Fig. 104 (opposite p. 188). The basic span is usually fixed from a knowledge of the type of construction to be employed and consideration of support strengths ‘and conductor spacing. ‘There is, however, a simple mathematical190 OVERHEAD LINE PRACTICE expression for determining the basic span. ‘The application of the ‘method is sometimes nocossary whero 8 dificult short section with considerable variation in the span lengths is encountered. Let L = Basic or hypothetical span length Leta, 6,¢ and d = Individual span lengths respectively in the section of the line ‘Then basic span L= (ereeeee ___, [Samm of oubes of span length o Section length PLOTTING OF SAG-TEMPLATE. In a previous chapter the sag-template was referred to in connection with the setting out of line and fixing support heights, The method of plotting the sag-template is as follows: The sags at 122° F. still air aro plotted against the span lengths and known as the “ Hot ‘Template Curve ”. The ground clearance Iisé is then drawn parallel to this at the given distance required by the ‘Regulations for the line under consideration. ‘The sags at 22° F. still air are similarly plotted end the curve is known as the ‘Cold Tem- plate” or “Uplift” curve, As already stated in a previous chapter, '& “Support Foot” curve is sometimes incorporated. A typical sag-template is shown in Fig. 105 (opposito p. 189). = Tt is good practice to have the templates in everyday use mado in good quality celluloid, but other templates can be made in cardboard. Many engineers prefer to have the uplift curve on a separate template. ‘The templates are plotted to the same vertical and horizontal scales 1s the profile and these are generally 1 in. = 200 ft. horizontal and Lin, = 20 ft. vertical. SAGS AND TENSIONS FOR LINES EREOTED TO THE RELAXED REOULATIONS, The relaxed Regulations give the following design data for con- ductors : “‘The tension of a line conductor at # temperature of 22° F. and subject to a wind exerting a transverse pressure equivalent to 16 Ib. per sq. ft. caloulated F the projected ares of the ‘conductor shall not exceed its breaking load divided by 2-5.” Example: Consider a 0-05 aq. in (No. 8 sw.) solid copper conductor erected to a factor of safety of 2-5 on a basic span length of 350 ft. im the whSAG-TENSION CALCULATIONS 1 ‘Span length 300 ft. Conductor diameter 0-252 in. Tee coating Nil Weight of conductor per ft. w= 0.19223, Breaking load of conductor = 2875 1b. Factor of safety =25 Max. working tension — 3B = uso. Modulus of elasticity E = 18 x 10¢Ib/sq. in. 1150 2180 _ 23000 Ib oq. in. Max, in condue' working strs in conductor f, = ‘Weight of conductor per ft. run per 1 'q- in. eross-section o = 5b; x “loans = sessib, Windage per ft. run on conductor at 16 Ib,joq. ft. P ee x16 = 0-3361b. ‘Lodiding factor wind and weight = q.= VPP Wi Sinoo no ice costing then Loading factor still air ‘Sag at Worst Load Conditions 22° F. Sag = Has _ 350% x 3-845 x2 Bxf.~ 8 x 23000 2. Sag at 22°F. (loaded) = 5:12. Tension at 22° F. (losded) = 1160 Ib. 12 ft. ‘Sag in Stilt Air at 122° FP. UK — amy = 2a FOL (6 — wey) = 29 * x 24 x 18 x 10+ 24 x 23000" = 23000 — 10270 = 12730192 OVERHEAD LINE PRACTICE Be dtgstB _ 350% x 3:845% x 18X18 108 _ y g599 5 108? 2 By : 1 = (122 — 22) = 100°F. cetE = 922 x 10-* x 100 x 18 x 10" = 16596 bogeE Afi — (K— ati) = flO a) " [fs — 2730 — 16096)] = 1-3582 x 10" fot [fa + 8860] = 13582 x 10% “fa = 9990 1b. per sa. in. ‘Tension’ = Stress x Area = 9090 x -05 Ib 496 1 350" x 3845 x1 3 x 9980 Sag at 122° P, still a ‘Tension at 122° F still sir 5.92 ft. 5.92 ft. 496 Ib. ‘The sags and tensions for the other temperatures are caleulated in 4 similar manner. Fig. 106 (opposite p. 192) shows a sag-tension chart for 0-06 sq. in. (No. 3 s.w..) solid copper conductors based on the relaxed Regulations, Graphical Method of Solving Sag-tension Problems. Many engineers prefer to determine the sage and tensions by graphical methods and the following is a very useful one to use. ‘cmmoRY OF METHOD. ‘The method is based on the theory that if two curves, Y= 8" and Y= aS +6, aro plotted to suitable scales they intersect at & value for § which will satisfy the original equation. A curve is frst plotted for ¥ = S* on squared paper using values for 8 up to the maximum sag likely to be required. The second curve, Y¥ = a8 + by is:then plotted. The value of “a” is the slope of the curve and the value “6” the point at which the curve crosses tho ¥ axis. It is therefore only necessary to fix two points on this curve, sinoo it i straight line, one point is the origin and the other is obtained from slope “a”. PRACTICAL APPLICATION. ‘The method can be best illustrated by a practical application, and reference should be made to graph, Fig. 107 (opposite p. 198)SAG-TENSION CALCULATIONS | © Plot carve ¥ = S* as shown on graph. ‘The basic formula for sog-onson caleultions ia o_( Waty, oe 88 (ap 2g Wee ge (at ona SRA | Where $= Sag in f. at temperature °F. above datum in still air Span length in fe. Coefcient of linear expansion per degree F. = Temperature rise above datum (datum is 22° F.) ing tonsion = Breaking load working tension = stor of safety E = Modulus of elasticity in Ib,/sq. in, ‘A = Area of conductor in sq. in. W, = Resultant weight per ft. run of wind and ieeoaded ccn- ductor = VP*- We Weight of conductor per ft. run in Ib, T= Ma Brample: To find the sag at 122°F. on a O-1 sq. in, (7/136 in.) conductor on a basie span of 400 ft. = = 922 x 104 per dogroo FP, -‘T — 2036 1b. t= (122 — 22) = 100° F. E= 18 x 108 Ib. per sq. in. W, = 1-086 Ib, w = 0397 Ib. act = 9-22 x 10 x 100 = 0-000922, Be 88: st 3 x 4007 60000 we 0.001032 BA 8x lo" x04 Watt 1.0868 x 400 Watt _1086* x 400° _ gooo12 UT? ~ Bt x 2996+ wt 0397 x 400" ose SEAS 8xIsxlorxo01xS 8 Now substitute the values in the basic formula SS (qT Watt , whe BA” 2) YS has 8 00442 = (0-000922 — 0-001632 + 0.00001 aoo0g 7 (0-000022 — 0-001682 + 0.000012) +, 290198 OVERHEAD LINE PRACTICE —8*__. o.o00202 4. 200442 000 S Multiply throughout by 60000 § St= 121284252. 0. 2. 1. ‘The scale of “b" values is marked off on left-hand sife as shown in graph and this scale should be the samo as that used for S*. The scale of “a” values is marked off on right-band side as Fig. 107. Since the value of “a” may be either positive or negative the values of “a” should be marked off both above and below the X axis. Bark on scale, a = 12-12, the value from equation (1), and mark on, 6 = 2652 from the same equation. Placo the set square on the line through tthe origin and 12-12 and move the set square parallel until it reaches © = 265-2 and draw a straight line from this to intersect the ¥ = S* curve. The point of intersection gives a value for S which satistios the expression S*—aS ++ 6. The value of the sag from the graph is S = 7-05 ft. at 122° F, This value can be checked from the previous method of determining the sag by calculation. ay) a 8840? E Ufa (K — at)] = See — (= ty] = PO Se [fs — (12997 — 16596)] = 1-906 x 10 fe [fa + 3599] = 1-906 x 10 ‘fr = 11300 Ib,jog. in ‘Tension = Stress x Area = 11300 x 0-1 * 3g, _ 400 x 3-086 x 1 8xf, 8 x 11300 So that the graphical and calculated values are the same. = 705 ft. Sag. Application of Method where a" is Negative. ‘This occurs when the sag is required on a 400 ft. span of 0-1 6q. in. (7/-136 in.) otranded copper evuductor at 00° F. 6 = (60 — 22) = 35°F, t= 922 x 10-* x 98 — 0-0008508. 8s To Waly, wt BS" (gy) Ty Watts ah (eg ep) tes 5 2088, L060 v 40% ISx 10x01 24 x 2030") 0-397 3 400" 8x 18 x 10*x01xS— SAG-TENSION CALCULATIONS 195 st o-004s2 (0 = 2) 4 20082 ano ~ 9008508 — 0001652 + 0000912) + 9°08 st 0142 <8. — —oooasea7 +. 2002 aoos = ~2 008607 + 2908 Multiply by 60000 8 then $* = —2218 8 + 265.2 Mark off on scale, “a” = —22-18 and draw a line from this point, through tho origin. ‘Placo set square on this line and move it parallel until it reaches 2652 on “6” scale. Draw a straight line from 25:2 to cut Y ~S* curve. The point of intersection gives the sag 88 before. The value is 27 ft. on a 400 ft. span of 0-1 aq. in. (7/136 in.) Stranded copper conductor. The caleulated value is 5:29 ft Overhead Lines on Slopes. It sometimes occurs that the spans in a section of an overhead line are on rapidly sloping ground and in many instances the supports are at considerably different levels. ‘This makes tho calculation of cage and tensions a little more difiicult, while the checking of the ‘tetual sag in practice is more complicated than on level ground. ‘The calculations are similar to those used for supports at the same lovel with the modification that the calculations are done on the equivalent complete span length. Spon lengths are always measured horizontally on the survey. If, however, the slope of the ground is known, it is e fairly simple matter to determine the actual span length on the slope from the horizontal span length and the ground slope. ‘The calculations are based on the parabolic formulae, and according to Watson! this is sufficiently accurate so long as the tension ratio is ‘greater than 2. If the tension ratio is less than 2 a egrrection should be applied, and the method of doing this will be dealt with later. Derivation of Formulae ‘The derivation of the formulae is based cn the fact that a parabola on span length 1 between level supports has an equal sag in the same Vertical plane as a parabola formed by supporta at different levels fon the same span length J ‘The equation of the parabola is: paket "Sage and Tensions in Overhead Lines; by €. G. Watson.73 2OVERHEAD LINE PRACTICE 195,SAG-TENSION CALCULATIONS 197 Referring to Fig. 108 Let S, = Sog and 5 = half the span length When 2 = Zand y = 8, then from equation (1) soit) a)" 4 48, ork=—) . . . . . . (2) 2 @ (3) dy _ 88, Slope of parabola“ — 551, oe . @) poof paral a PF Se -. A Six . . . . - (5) iM * Sy a8," 18, Referring to Fig. 108, the total sag on the equivalent complete span is =ptSty Insert value of Y from equation (6) =Ha+Z)rs, rn) Let l, = Equivalent complete span length ‘Then from Fig. 108, ht ‘ bolix : nr) zat insert in equation (8) the value of X = ht. Then Raby MO . ” 22 as,108 OVERHEAD LINE PRACTICE If T is the tension in Ib. in the conductor and w is the woight of onductor/ft. run, in Ib., then from normal sag calculations vet? s=2e 2 2, - (0) Sag aT ao) Insort the value of 8 in equation (9) Then 4 oie 2 wl 4 Length of equivalent complete span LW ste 2Th =14 7a. : - ay halt a (ay This is the formula generally used for caloulating the length of the equivalent complete span length. ‘The distance from the lowest support to lowest point of sag Po—Th he If the value of a is negative, the lowest point. of the sag is outside ‘the actual span length. Practical Brample ‘The formulae derived in conjunction with Fig. 109 are applied to ‘m example from practice. The conductor is 0-15 sq. in. eq. cadmium copper and its properties are shown with the dimensions of the span in Table A, ts ae er Fie. 109,SAG-TENSION CALCULATIONS | Span ‘Span length | Conductor breaking load | Factor of safety | Conductor diameter | Conductor areo (actual) | Modulus of elasticity | Toe thickness | Cocficent of linear expan- sion | Conductor weight ‘Tapes A 1 | 1920 fe. — | 13,5881. jaa 0537 in 0-175 99. in. 118X108 Ib./sq. in. in. radial i Bla | 992x10-4 w — 0-6906 Ib,/ft. ran 109 ‘The derived quantities for the cadmium copper span are given in Table B. Quantity Max. working tension Overall diameter of | ive-coated conduc- tor Wind pressure on conductors | Weight of ice per ft. | run | metal weight of ice | leaded conductor Breaking stress of | conductor | Max. working stress | Woigt ot conductor per R. run per a | _ ta ceoee-veotion | | Leading factor wind and ico Leading factor still =+a) 3 D Ibi. Lease + 4) w+ Wi Breaking load “Area | Breaking stress F ofS Weight (ae 1.287 in, 0-858 Ib,/ft. 0-425 Ib. | arse Ib ft. 77,378 Ib faq. in. 36,840 Ib faq. in. 3-946 Ib. 2-038‘ 200 OVERHEAD LINE PRACTICE rl Sog at 22° F. Wind and Ico. ‘ Pbq, _ 19208 x 3-046 x 2.038 8, = Tote _ MPO X SHAG x 2088 _ rors re, rl see 8 TE 8 x 36840 Difference of lovel of supports hk = 200:3 ft. Totals = 204 Ay 48,0, 2003 /, , 2003 “FP (h + store) +158. =101-15(1 + 0-246) + 101-5 fe. = 226-3 ft. ‘Sag and Tension at 122° F. Still Air. Any of the usual formulae can be used for determining the sag and tension in tillair.‘The following is tho one generally used by the etinee, 18% 2B Sela — (&— ocomy] — POs" where f, ia the required strese in Ib,/per sq. in. at temperature t; "Thus for 122° F, (122 = 22) = 100° F, 22 x 10-* x 100 x 18 x 10" = 16600 = soso — 19208 x 8-9462 x 2.0382 x 18 x 108 24 x 30840 = (26840 ~ 132000) = 96160 ogg _ 19292 x 3.0468 x 18 18 x 108 a Br Wy ~ ~ ctey) = POE SPU, ~ (= 96160 ~ 16000)) = 43-46 x 10% SEU + 112700) = 43-46 x 1084 ofa = 18200 Ib faq. in, Tension = stress x area = 18200 x 0-175 3185 Ib. 16g _ 19298 x 3.046 x 1 Sag 8, = 1:62" __ 1029% x 3-046 x 1 8xh ‘8 x 18200 = 43-46 x 101 = 100-8 ft, Total sag § = + 100-8 = 225-8 fe.SAG-TENSION CALCULATIONS on ‘The sage and tensions for the other still-air temperatures required are calculated in a similar manner, ‘The following table gives the sags and tensions at the various temperatures. 22° F. loaded 22°F still air | 3395 12 wR | 3354 | 2220 | sorry 3311 | 2330 srr |, |, | 3270 | 2230 wR 3185 | 2258 Catenary Correction, ‘As already stated, Watson recommends a correction to the para bolic sag if the tension ratio is less than 2. ‘The tension ratio is found 2 follows ‘enon ratio por unit ‘Tension in conductor ngth of wire ‘Load per unit length ‘of conductor ‘Spam leneth In auch cases the span length recommended for the correction is the 1mean of the actual and equivalent complete spans. ‘The error to be ext- rected is the difference between the catenarian sag and the parabolic sag Apply the correction to the sag calculated in the example for 22°. wind and ice. Tension in conductor ~ 6449 Ib, Resultant load per unit length of conductor VPEL WE = ose? 11156 = tao, Baul complete smn ich ete tony 2x 040 x 2008 Tat» 89 281, Avorge facta and equiva: pee gn Tent span. -202 OVERHEAD LINE PRACTICE Since tension ration is less than 2, a correction is required. I [Tables or graphs aro generally ‘available giving catenarian and Parabolic sags and the correction is taken from these. A graph showing catenarian and parabolic sags for various tension ratios is given in Fig. 110. “oT oo rH INRRIAN |SAGB. PRR =| EEE eer ts ptr on mh Catenarian sag corresponding to tension ratio 1-906 = 0-0685 ft. Parabolic, » >» om 1-906 Difference : «Error correction =2405 x 0-002" “Corrected sag at 22 °F. wind and ioo— (226-3 + 6:6) 232.8 ft, ihe corrections to be applied to still-air sage are calculated in a similar manner, and the following table gives the corrected sags for the ‘example given. Parabolic | Sag | Correa | Sog | Correction | Sag ie ft. fe mee | os | ae mabe | dass geo | 66 oars 223-0 56 2286 | | 223-9 60 229.9 | | 258 | 65 | seaece page 208}“DR/WING & DESIGN kK. E.C.LTD., KURLA.”SAG-TENSION CALCULATIONS 303 ‘Measurement of Sag where Supports are at Considerably Diferent Heights, In cases where there is considerable diflrenos in level ofthe supports, such as that given in the example, the measurement of sog is im practicable by ordinary methods. ‘The method employed is to ust @ dynamometer for conductor erection. ‘The conductors are pulled up until the dynamometer records the correct tension for the temperatare at the time of erection and this tension will produce the correct =. Sag Chart for L.V. Distribution Lines. Conductors on low voltage lines are not erected to the minimum requirements Iaid down in the Regulations, as this would entail ‘additional staying and stronger fittings. ‘The factor of safety on 1.V. conductors is usually of the order of 5 or 6, and since spans are relatively shor the additional sag has little effect on the pole heights. Further- ‘more, where street lighting is required, the switch wire is of much smaller section than the phase of neutral conductors. For appear. ance’ sake all LV. conductors are erected parallel, as there would be 1 danger of the small wire being overstressed, if the line conductors were erected to the minimum requirements of the Regulations. Sag charts for LV. distribution lines are generally based on a worst ‘oad tension of approximately 1000 Ib. per conductor. A seg chart for LL. distribution lines is given in Fig. 111 (opposite page 203). ‘This is based on a maximum sag of 3:1 ft. on a span of 150 ft. Design Aspect for Loading Conditions in Excess of those given in the ‘Regulations. The requirements of the overhead line Regulations re ioe costing and wind pressure for basic loading conditions are a minimum and this is not always appreciated. While the values given in the Regula- tions are adequate for most of the British Isles, there are many areas ‘where loadings are experienced much in excess of the minimum values. It i foolish to erect lines in these areas to the minimum condi:ions ‘as failures will result. In considering » higher standard of losding thero are three factors which have an important bearing and are as follows : (@) Span Length, (0) ‘Type of Conductor Used. (¢) Factor of Safoty of Conductor, (a) Span Length. It is a well-known fact that the stability of an overhead line under any set of loading conditions increases as the span length decreases.206 OVERHEAD LINE PRACTICE To illustrate this point, an overhead lino erected to a fuctor of safety cof 2, with O-1 sq. in. copper conductors, requires 3-19 Ib. of ice to cause failure on a 400 ft. span. If the apan length is reduced to 300 fe. then 4-02 Ib, will be required to break the conduetor. ‘This is an increase of 26% (0) Type of Conductor Used, The ability of an overhead line to withstand loading greatly im- Proves with increased strength of conductors. As an exampk, if a Steel-cored copper conductor of 0-1 sq. in. eq. (7/-147 in.) had been sed on tho 300 ft. span referred to in (a), the ice loading necessary to cause failure would be 6:25 Ib., or an increase of 55%. Fro. 112, (c) Factor of Safety of Conductor. One of the most important aspects is the factor of safety of erection, If the steel-cored copper referred to undor (b) had been erected to « factor of safety of 3, the ice loading to cause failure would be 7-57 Ib., or an increase of 21% Fig. 112 illustrates the importance of span length, conductor type ‘and factor of safety. SOME ASPECTS OF Ick FORMATION. In order to simplify design, the Regulations assume that the ice forms a true annulus around the conductor for the whole of ita length, and that it exposes a uniform front to the wind. Both these assimp. tions are entirely hypothetical and far removed from the truth. Ive hever deposits evenly or uniformly on conductors either in ‘wird or calm, and the actual nature of the deposit depends to a great extentSAG-TENSION CALCULATIONS 105 oon the wind and atmosphere prevailing at tho time of icing. If wind is prosent, the ice tends to form to a greater thickness on the leeward side of the conductor, and this is very pronounced and can be closely inspected on wire stays supporting the line. ‘This actual eflect is con- trary to the general view expressed, that ico will not form on over- head lines in the presence of a high wind. Tt is sometimes said that in a gale ico will not form on the conductors; in a high wind it wil not deposit beyond two dismeters ; snd in 6 normal wind will not ‘accumulate more than three diameters ; but as a result of personal observations T cannot subscribe to these suggestions, as I have exzer- enced conductor failures in the presence of high winds. Toe deposits generally result from two causes: (a) the presence of sleet and high ‘wind, (6) the presence of fog. ‘The latter deposita are the most prevalent and heaviest, (a) Ice Deposite Resulting from Sleet and High Wind. When heavy sleet is falling in the presence of high wind, ice is deposited on the conductors. ‘The ice deposit is not uniferm but is much greater on the leeward side. Windage under such conditions helps to build up the deposits, as esch particle of sleet contains kinetic energy due to the wind. This assists in the co- hesion and agglomeration of the particles and is responsible for the heavier deposits being driven to the leeward side of the conducior. I believe this also accounts for the different densities of ice loading on conductors, (6) Ice Deposite Resulting from Presence of Fog. ‘The worst deposits of ice result from the presence of fog, particularly at high altitudes. I have experienced the same type of deposite st sea evel near the coast, but nover at low altitudes inland. The theory is that fog is present at a low temperature and as soon as it finds a metal anchcrage it deposits ice. Conductors, telephone wires, stay wires ‘are good anchorages and even the poles get coated on occasions. The heaviest and most rapid deposits result from fog in the presence of light wind. ‘The icing is worst on the windward side of the conductor, due to anchorage being encountered first on that side, Teing due to fog has generally @ solid core becoming fuzzy and less dense at the surface. Careful consideration should always be given to lines to be erected above the 700 ft. level. Fig. 113 shows the formation of ice on an overhead line which failed, due to icing, at a level of over 100) ft. ‘Lhe ice deposit, whicit was irregular in shape, measured 9 in, on major axis and 6 in. on minor axis and weighed 42 1b. per ft. run,CALCULATIONS OF ICE LOADING TO CAUSE CONDUCTOR FAILURE. Example: Consider & 0-1 sq. in. (7/-136 in.) stranded copper conductor erected to the Blectricity Commissioners’ Regulations of } in. radial foe and 8 Ib. per sq. ft. wind on » 300ft. span. Find what the ice loading will be to cause failure of the conductors, Span length = 300 ft. Conductor diameter 4 = 0-408 i Conductor area 0-1 sq. in, Conductor weight w = 03986 Ib. per ft. Modulus of elasticity E = 18 x 10° Ib. per. sq. in Radial thickness of ice t= fin, Wind pressure per sq. ft. of pro- jected area Breaking load of conductor Factor of safety Max. working tension 29361, Weight of ice per ft. run at jin, radial = 0365 1b. Total diameter of ioe-loaded con- ductor D=2x 9 +0408 = 11581 Wind pressure per ft. run on ice- loaded conductor Paip == x 1158= 0721. Total weight per ft. of iceloaded conductor W = 03086 +0365 = 0.7696 1b. Resultant weight R=VPEW V-TI2* $F -T636* = 1-035 Ib.SAG-TENSION CALCULATIONS sr Blongation of unit length of eon- ductor ‘due to tension of i Max. working tension 2096 Tb. at loading Ie oR = Max. working tension ns ‘Ares x Modulus 2096 1x 18 x10 = co01631 Tangential ratio at support in unit working teasion Saat Rae Dn Mas working tension Res, weight R x Span length 2036 2988 ___ 9.99, 1-085 x 300 Excess length ratio, i.e. excess Iength of conductor per unit span. From Cantenarian Function tables using T = 9-02 1 = 0-00052196 Unloaded excess length of condue- tor in unit span = (— eR) 0-00052196 — 0-001631 —0-00110904 Elongation of unit length of con- ductor due to breaking load of 5872 Ib, ‘eR, = —Preaking load Area x Modulus Excess length ratio at breaking load of 5872 Ib. =) + eR, 000110904 + 0-003262 0-00215296 ‘Tangential ratio corresponding to 1, from Cantenarian Function tables for h = -00215296T, = 4424 Corresponding resultant. force cing on unit length of con rein ond Span length x Tan ratio T 872 __ g4oib, | 300 x 4424 1 . Weight of ice per ft. run to eause | conductor failure (f — conductor weight) (442 — 0-3986) = 402 Ib. If desired the radial thickness of ice can be found from Weight of ice per ft. run = 1.2431 (t +d)208 OVERHEAD LINE PRACTICE Tame 25 i | Weight of Ice | Radial Thick- | Gonder |FL) Span) Basic to Cause | ness of Ie to | (Be |" “Yoading Failure | Cause Failure. | yey ae | th Tn (015 oq. in. 2) 300 | fin. radial = 5486. 1-86, | (7/166in.) | 400 | ive. 81b. per 4276 1-62 | stranded | 600 |sq.ft.wind 3-176 1365 | copper | 900 | pressure 2-556 1-20 015 sq. in. 2 300) do. 10-538 2667 | eq.(87/-081in) 400 8268 2300 stecl-cored 600 5368 1816 copper condr. 900 3868 1500 (015 sq. im. 2| 900 do. 1065 2.593 | ea.87/102in.) 400 788 2-183 steel-cored 600 543 1-763 alcondr. 900 397 1-463 [045 sq. in. 3 300 do. 1261 2848 e.(87/-0zin) 400 oa 2443 stecl-cored 600 697 2043 alcondr. | 900 538 1748, 01 sq. in. 2) 300) do. +02 1-601 “7/38 in” | 400 319 1.408 stranded | 000 248, L221 copperconds. | 900 U1 rm 01 ag. in 2) 900 do 625 20M ea-(7/147in) | 400 479 1749 steclcored 600 344 1-459 coppercondr. | 900 264 29 (01 sq. in. 3) 300 do. 181 2.254 eq.(7/-14Tin) 400 597179 stecl-cored 600 454 1-699 coppercondr. 900 35 1529SAG-TENSION CALCULATIONS 209 it will be noted that the tangential ratios are got direct from ezeeas length ratios and vice versa. ‘These aro got from tables of Cantenarian Functions and this saves time and laborious ealeulations. ‘The modulus of elasticity has been assumed constant right up to conductor failure. A typical example of the information given ina table of Cantenarian Funetions, from Sags and Tensions, by Watson, is as follows — ] 1 | | | boy ah hoa | 5B Eecone— = sinks 9 [oa] aeons fiom a awed nas Pao x a | ‘Table 25 (on p. 208) will be a useful comparison for the behaviour of various types of conductors on varying span lengths erected to different faciors of sufety.