Programme Objective Series :

PROBES/7011 997 ·98

Assessment of Impact to Air Environment:

Guidelines for Conducting Air Quality Modelling

CENTRAL POLLUTION CONTROL BOARD

DELHI

 Programme Objective Series:

PROBES{70/ l 997-98

Assessment of Impact to Air Environment:

Guidelines for Conducting Air Quality Modelling

CENTRAL POLLUTI ON CONTROL BOARD

(M inistry of Environment & Forests, Govt. of India)

Parivesh Shawan , East Arjun Nagar

Delhi - 110 032

CPCB. 1000 Copies. 1998

ISBN : 8' ·86396-96-9

Published By . Member Secretary. Central Pollution Contlot Board, Delht; and

Printed at Mis Akashdeep Printers. Oarya Ganj, New Oelhi · 11 0002.
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Central Pollulic n Control Board

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fA Gov'L of InOla OrganisaTion)

M,nisHY 01 EnViroomenl & Forests

DILIP S/SWAS Phones . 2204948

Foreword

The Environme nl ai Imp(lCI Assessmenl (EIA) not ification o f Ma y 4, 1994 of Ihe MinisTry
of t.:.nv lronl11enl and Forests (MoEF) , Govcmmen t of Jndia, makes it mandalory to call)' out
1- IA swd y hefore certain ca tegories of Industri es are sited, or an eXistin g Indu stry IS
ex panded.

Air beinl:\ an Integral part of environment, the proponent s must demonstrate the atta mment
o f sat Isfactory <tmbient air quality in the viclnily of theIr so urce complex. AUa ln me nl o f
sa li sfaclory ;m qU<llily is generall y predicted Ihrough d ispersion modelling. The present
pr::tclice for Jmb.cnt air quali ty predic l io ll~ is through appli catio n of Gaussi an Plume Model
and liS avaiJo.bJc vamll lOns. The expenence so fa r, has shown thm , al times. fh e model h<l.!o
heen used Illcom.'ctly. and the values of various paramel(I'S. requirt:d for m odelli ng, are
adopted from other Counlnes Wllhou t undersl:::.nd ing their applicability in Indian contex i
Th...' re IS an IIllJlH'diaic need (0 evolve guidc1111es for conducting al( qua lity modelling for
11lChiSIOn In Elf' proced ure so Ihal a unifom l and acceptab le procedure fo r modell mg is
;\VaJiable

This repon on Air Qual1l}' ModcJh ng IS a n effort 10 stream h ne the modelling proceuure fo r
the purpose of ob lainlllg enviro nmental clearaoce, We hope Ihat Ihl s reporl will prove
useful for project proponents, consultants , reglll<ltory agenc ies :lI1d others interested It1
pollu tion conl ro1.

I gratcClllly ackno\v ledge th e lime and efforts put In by vano us experts towards compl etio n
ll f the report. part ...:uLl rl y. by Dr. V.V S hirvaikar who chai red the Expert CommltJee I
\\·ould al so hkt: to place on record my SlOccre al'preCI:lllOIl for the C(forts made by
co!IeHguc.s Dr. J.K Mailra, Dr. 8 . Sengupta and Dr Mukesh Shanna In bringing QU! IhlS
report

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' Pa r ives h Bhawan ', C 8 0 . cum · Offic e Complex, Easl Aqun Nagar. Deihl· \ 10032

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 .'le mbE'TS o f Expert C ommittE'E'

S.No Name Organisation

V ,V Shi r\' aikar Bhabh a Ato mic Research ('entre. Bom bay
,
G .D Agrav. ,Ii Env irolltceh ins\nllnents , New Delhi
3. 1\. Bagclu Mlilistry of En vironment & Fo rest s, Delhi
.j . B. Padll13 nab hamurthy Jawahar Lal UniYersity, Nc\..'" Delhi
5. S C. Shar m(l Ind ia Meteoro logica l Dep anmenl, Delhi
6. S. P Chakrabarti Central Pollut io n Contro l Board, Delhi
7 A L Agarv.:al NatIonal Env, Engg. Research In s 11. , Nagpur
s. S. P BaneTJee Indi an Schon! o f Mines, Dh anbad

"

 ,
Li st of Experts Co ntributin g in Pre parati on of Gu id C' liJ1\.' ~

S.No. Narne Organisat ion

I S.B . Si nha Projec t and Developments IndI a Ltd ., Smdn

2. N.D. Sen AIC Walson Pvt. Ltd ., Bom bay
3. D. Ghosh Metallllrgica l and Engg. Consultants, New De ihl
4. SK Aggarwal Ministry of Env ironment & Forests, New De ih l
5. A. K. Shyam National Therma l Power Corporation, Naida
6. 1. A. Khan Engi neers Ind ia Ltd., Na ida
7. P.M. Pinparkar Engineers Ind ia Ltd" New Del hi
S. R. S. Pali! Indian Insti tute of Technology, Bombay
9. T . N. Mahad evan Bhabha Atomic Research CelHre, Rombay
10. M. Mohan
Indian Instit ute o rTeclmo logy, New De lhi
Ii. I. M. t\1ishra
Uni ven slY of Roorkee. Roorkee
12. B. S. Gera NatIOnal Physical Laboratory. New De ihl
13. S P. S mghal Nationa l PhysIcal Lahoral0f}', Ne"" DeIhl
14 . R. Parsad Envlronl ech instru ments Pvt. Ltd., New De lhi
15. S C. Dasgupta Developm ent Co r1sultant s p"t. Lid, Calc tltta
16. A. V. Ch ipl unkar Kirloskar Consultants Ltd ., Puna
17. S. Venkalram an Ind ian Oi I Corpora lion, New Delhi
18 B. P. Das Indian Oi l Corporation, New Delhi
19 S. Chakraborty Jadavpur UniverslIY , Ca lcutta
20. K.B. Deb M.N. Daslu r & Company, Ca lcu tta
21 H. Pam:ana Pu njab Pollut ion Control Board, Patiala
22 . A. Chowd hu ry Bharat Heavy Elec lric ais Ltd .. I-Iardw ar
23 . S.V . Bab u Design Lid ., New Delhi
24. P. Goyal Indian Instrtu te of Tech.no logy, New Delhi
25. T. K . Bhabopadh yay Ministry of Envi rorunent & Fo res ts, New Del hi
26. B Sengupta Central Po ll ution Con trol Board, Delhi
27. M. Sharma Centra l Pollution Control Board, DeI hl
28. P Ga rgava Central Pollution Contro l Board, Delhi
29. G K. Mendiratta Central Pollution Comro l Board. Del hi
30. J.K. Ma rtra Centra l Pollution Control Board , Delhi

Iii

 Contents

Foreword

Members or Expert Commillee

"
List of Experts Contributing in Preparati on of Gu idelines HI

C bapler 1. [ntraducli on

I .J Ambi eOl Air QuaJity Mode lling Requirements

1.2 Need for Guidelines for Air Quality Mod ellin g
1. 3 Report Organisation 2

Chapler 2 . Atmospheric Dispersion and Gauss ian prume Mode l

2 .1 Atmospheric Processes and Di spersion of Air Po llutants 3

2.2 Gauss ian Model 4

Chapter 3. Data Requirements and Model Parameters 6

3.1 Emi ssion and Slack Details 6

3.2 Meteorological Parameters 7

3.3 S tabilit y C lassi ficati o n 9

3.4 Ex trapol atio n of Windspeed 16

.lS Plume Ri se 16

3.6 Dispersiorl Coefficients 18

3.7 Mix ing Hei ght 18

3.8 Terrain Characteri stics 19

3 .9 oa1a Format 20

Chapter 4
Modell ing Procedure 21

4.1 Receptor Location s 21

4.2 Model Appli cation 22

Chapler s. Presentation o f Results 29

5.1 Details o f Source Complex and Processes 29

,.

 5.2 Model and Input and Output Data 29

5.3 Me teoro logica l Data 29

SA Modelling Results
29

5,5 Model Appilcahon for Evolving Emission Standard s 30

References 30

,
List of Tables
Table 3. 1 Stabi lity Classification 9

Table 3.2 Insolation Category II

Tab le 3.3 Solar Angle and Cloud Cover-based lnsolati on Ca tegory II

Table 3.4 Temperature Gradient and Pasquill Stability Classes 14

Table 3.5 Siades Stabi lit y Classifica tion 15

Table 3.6 Va lues of Ex ponent On' for Various Stabili ty Classes 16

Tab le 3.7 Summary of Severa l Plume Rise Fo nnu lae 17

Table 3.8 Briggs DispersIon Parameters 19

Tab le 3.9 Data Format 20

Tab le 4. 1 Max imulll Concentrat ion lUlder Worst Me teorological Condi tions 22

Li st of Figures
Figure 2, I CoordIn ate System Showi ng Gaussian Distribut lO n 5

 Chapter 1

Introdu ction

1.1 Ambient Air Quality Modelling Requirements

The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) notification of May 4, 1994 of the Ministry of
EnvIronment and Forests (MoEF), Government of India , requires that project proponents
obtain clearance from MoEF be fore siting a new industry or for expansion of an existing
industry through an E1A stud y (for details on sile and type of mdustry re fer to the above
no tifi callon), which interalia necessitate evidence of allainmen l of sati sfactory ambient air
qualit y in thc vicin ity of their source complex through dispersion modelling.

Thi s repon o utlines Ihe procedure that ma y be [allowed [or conducting air qualit y modell ing to
assess impacl o n the air eo virorunent.

1.2 Need for Guidelines for Air Qu ality Modelling

The present pract ice for ambient air quality predi ctions is through appltcatlOn of Gaussian
Plume Model (G PM) and its available variation s. The application ofGPM requires knowledge
of several parameters, namely emIssion release rate , altnosphenc turbLilence, wind speed,
di spersIon coefGcleJlts, effective stack hei ght, mixing height etc. The experience so far, has
shown that the values of these parameters are often adopted from other countries without
und erstanding theIr applJcabillty in Indian context. [t has also been observed that vanous
[OnTIS o fGPM are used without providing any reasonable justification in doing so.

In view of the above shortcomings, it was felt that there is an immediate need to evolve certain
guide lines fo r conduc ting air quality modelling for inclusion in ETA procedure. The merits in
fOnTIul aling these guid elines include preve ntion o f indi scriminate application of GPM to
proponen ts' advalliage/d) sad vantage and 10 prov ide a unifonn and acceptab le procedure for
conducli ng air qual ity modellmg. To formulate these guidelines, the Central Poll ulion Conlrol
Board (epCB) constituted an expeJ1 comm itl ee (through O rder no. 8·310011 /48/94 -PCI-1I o f
February 8, 1995) wi th a specific mandate to bring out a unifo rm and acceplable modelling
procedure fo r follo win g in Er A stud ies_

The draO gUIdel in es on air qual ity dispersion modelling prepared by the Committee were
c ircu lated (0 several experts including consultants involved in modelling work. After
reviewJn g th e co mments of all experts, the Committee recommended guidelines for use in
In(\I,1. TJle S(: guide line s descrihe th c mo d cl, th e type o f oil -site meteol"Oi o g icai dat a
requir~llle ll t5. the methods of data co llection . tht: de fa ult parameter v(J lue s (when Oil-s ite datJ
c(Jllnot be coll ected) . the methods for delennination of atmospheri c sta bility , ancl lhe Illcthods
to C~tl t11 .. tc Cft'cctl \'C stach hei ght Clnd the m ixing height. Methods of estimating gro und level
conccnlrallons un der somc ::pec ia l siTuations ar(' al" o ('(1\ crcd i!1 1hc gllidcIlIlCS.

!t IS e.\peclcJ 111,11 Ibe n:cotlll1lcJ1dcd gUldeJll){'s arc fo1!o \\'ed in their totaht y \\ hde conducting
~n\'ironmentaJ 1I1lpdCt stwJic!') \0 ,Iir C'1l\ Iron111ent for the purpose or cn\ Il'ollmcntai ekarancc.
Proponents c an also LISe:: otht"1' mod e.ls for air qllJltty pn:dictlolls. 110\\ C\'CT, \\ tlilc duing so, they
must proYlde eno ugh e\'id ence \0 show th,1I their model \\-ould prov ide more realistic
assessment o r ill r qua l!lY thall th:)1 obtained tl Slllg proposed gUldclll1t:s_

1.3 Report Organist.ion

Chapter 2

TillS chapter provides a teciulieaJ notc on GPM w hich includes pnnci ples o f dispe rs io n
model li ng and linutatio ns of G PM,

Chapter 3

This chapler describes the: data requ irem ents and model paramcters for use in the mode l
Specifically, the various parameters necessary for modelling purpose e.g., emiss ion
characteristics , collect ion of mcteorolo gi cal data, stability classificalion. plum e rise fommlae,
terrain eharacteristJcs, are discussed in detail in the chapter

Ch apter 4

T his chapter describes the modelling proc edure includin g sclcellOI\ l) f rccepto r po ints . Speci fic
mode !lin g proccdures are desc ribed to ac count for situations , like plume penetration,
dispersio n in budd mg wake and com plex terrain.

Chapter 5

This chapter describes the methodology for presentation of modelling results.

2
 Cbapter 2

Atmospheric Dispersion and Gaussian Plume Model

2.1 Atmospheric Processes and Dispersion of Air Pollutants

Upon di scharge to atmosphere, the em iss ions from stat ionary SOurces are subjected (0 the
follow in g pJlysica l and chemical processes :

a) an initial vertical ri se, ca lled plume nse, du e to initial buoyancy and momentum of
disc harge ;

b) transpon by wind in its direction;

c) diffusion by turbulence; and

i) gra vit ati ona l selllin g of particles 0 f size greater than to 11m ;

Ii) c hemic al reacti ons and deco mposi tion;

iii) depositi on on vegetation and other surfaces;

IV) washout due 10 rain ; and

v) a combinati on of complex physical and chemica l processes, I. e coagulat ion of

particles, deso rption of deposited vapors etc.

Atm ospheric dispersion models are mathematical expression s which attempt to describe ehe
above processes in order to re late em ission rate to atmospheric conccm rati on.

Budianski ( 1980), BenaTie ( 1980) and mar)Y others have summarized variou s air q uality
model s for caku lating concentrations fTom point, area and li ne sou rces. Most of the air
quality models are of two fann s: (i ) gaussian plume model and (ii) numerical models which
rel y on numeri ca l solutions of the K-theory equations (advection-diffusio n equation). The
gaussian plume models are attractive for their simpli city in terms of lOput parame ters and
computational requi rements. The numerical models perfo rm better than gaussian models in
Some situati ons but requ ire more detailed information, particul arl y on wind speed and
direction, and th eir comp utational requi rements are much larger. Considerin g the sc arcil y of

3
data in Indian conditi ons , the Gauss ia n Plurn e Model (GP M) is recom rnended fo r air qua lity
modelling calc ulat ions. Th is model is brien y described in the [a llowing section.

2.2 Gaussian Plume !\1.odel

The o rigin o f the G auss ian Mode l is fo und In work by Sutton (1 93 2) . The GPM is an
analyti cal SOlU lio l1 o f th ree dimensional ad vec tio n-d iffu sio n eq uati on . To obtain the GP M, the
following four assumptions are made and propon ents/con sultants sho uld keep these in view
while applying GPM :

- the so luti on is ti rne-inv ari alll ;

- tbe w ind speed is nO l a fun ction o f positio n;

_ the diffus ivit ies a re not func tion s o f pos itio n; and

_ d iffu s io n in downwi nd direcho n is insign ifi cant compared w it h mean !low (advection
domi na tes ov er diffus ion) .

Despite the a bove s laled assumptio ns. the G PM is s till a bas ic workho rse fo r d ispe rs io n
calculati ons because o f its si mplici ty in mathematical operatio ns and its cons iste nc y w ith the
rando m nature of almospheric turbul ence .

The conce ntrali on , C, of gas or aerosols (parti cles < 20 ~m ) at x.y.'" (sec F igure 2. 1) from a
cont inuo us source with a n e ffective stack height H (defmed later) given by GPM is

(2.1 )

Wh ere,

x,y,z a re th e coo rd ina tes of any po int in space w ith ori gi n al point of re lease (ses Fi gure 2. t);

4
C (x,y,z;H) is the concentrati on at a point x,y,z from an effective source height of 1-£ ;

Q is the unj[onn emiss ion rate of poli llian I;

cry and crz are th e standard deviations o f plume co ncentration 111 hori zontal and venical

di rect ions;

u is th e mean w indspced affec ting Ihe plume; and

H is the effecti ve he ight a fr elease, i.e. ph YS ical stack height, h, plu s plume n se 6 h

In devel op ing th e above equation, il is assumed that earth surface acts as a perfect reflector of
plume and phys ico -chemical process, such as dry and wet deposition , and chemical
tran sfo lmation of po ll utants are negligib le.

For obtain ing the estimate of Ground Level Concentration (GLC), Equation 2.1 can be
modifi ed by puttin g '- = O. Where, GlC is to be calculated along the centerline of the plume,
Eq uati on 2. 1 can be modifi ed by puuing both y and z equa l to ze{"Q.

x
~'
_
.(x.o.O)
(x .-Y .Z)
.---: ­ ~-- ..,.., (x. - y. 0
H h
y

Figure 2 . 1 Coord in a te System for Gaussian Plu me

Disp ers io n

 Chapter 3

Data Requirements and Model Parameters

In Chapter 2, the Gaussian Plume Model and the paramete rs requi red for using the model
were described . This chapter, specifically, deal s wi th the procedure that must be follow ed in
Obt aining valll€s of these parameters for carrying out th e air quali ty modelling.

Three seaso ns (wi nter , summer and po st-mon soon) are suggested for modelling stud y. [0
these seaso ns, the representative month s includ e December to Febru ary for w int er, May for
summ er and October for post-monsoon seaso)! . Sin ce \. . ltltcr is the critIcal season fr0111 air
po lluti o n d isperSIon point of vIew. allt h.rec l11()nlh:-; , as suggested above, should be included
for modelling \\lark. A ll relevant data co ll ccti o should refer to th e above spec Ifi ed months .

3.1 Emission and Stack Details

Values o f all pararoelers related to emission characteristics should correspond 10 full plant
capacit y (even ifproductio n is to be achieved in a phased mann er). Thcsc parameters in cl ud e:

Quan titi es o f raw materials (includin g fuel s);

Fue l ana lysis (e.g. ash , su lphu r & nitrogen content and calo rific val ue):

For ex it gases:

veloci ty;
temperature;
now rate;
dens ity (app ro xi mat e);
spec ific heal (approx. imate); and
hea t emi ssion rale;

For stack: ,
inlema l diameter at top ; and

he ight from gro und level

Efficiencies of variOllS proposed po lluti on contro l devices

6
Th e values of the abo \c parameters should possibly be compared v. ith similar C\I~llng
JOstall;llions III Ind ia or OlllSldc and presented III a tahular fo nn .

The: emiSSion mt~ cQ) fo r polluta nts should be ca lculated based on e n llSSI(IH slJnJards notllied
under the L(P) :\ct , 1986. If for a specific po llu tall1 , standJru IS 1101 notilicd . ava dable
em ission factors \\ Il h proper reference can be used. ft 15 unpil ed that the propollents, al the
minimulll, \\ ill cont31ll em ission releases to the specified emi ssion slam..lards. In case, the
proposed control equipment can achie\ c 100ver emissions than the prescribed standard.
proponents can LI se the lo\\ cr cmissJOI1 nlle than the prescribed sta ndard s. 1100\c\ cr, 1Il dOing
so. they sh o ultl provl de evid ence for higher remov,tl dficiency of P OI! Ulillll(S) through
proposed control un ICC

Fu el analysi .. , e spl:!c i<l Il~1 tbe m eas urement of sulphu r cont ent for all types of fuel to bc used. is
essential. l: xrcl"I!!!lCC ha s sho\\ n that th e su lph ur conten ts on average, for various fuels
availabl e in Ind ia. are a~ 1'0110\\5:

Type of Fu el 'S ' C ont en t,

%
Light Diese l O il 1.80
(LOO)
High Speed Diesel 1.00
Kerosene 0.25
Furnace Oil 3.00 · 4.00
LPG 0. 10
Coal 0.50

Among the m easu red sulph ur content an d the values stated above. the hIgher \ alue sh oul d be
used for est imat ing S02 emi ssl on rate.

3.2 Meteorological Parameters

Surfac e meteorological data at the project site shoul d be generated for three seasons : \vin ter,
SUlUme r and post-monsoon. The represen tat ive m onth s for these sea sons i:lclude December
10 Fe bruary for wi nter. May for summer and October fo r post-mo nsoon season. The
meteoro log ical data req ui remen ts can be divided in two pal15 - ( I) essentia l and (2 ) des irable

J) Essent ial :

- Wind speed and d irection (Oil a continuous basis);

- Am bient atmospheri c temperature (da ily m ean) ;

 - Cloud cover (synoptic measurement all east four timcs in 24 hours

at regular intervals):

- So lar IOsolalion (measurement/estimat ion) ; and

- Atmospheric pressure (dai ly mea n)

2) Desirable:

- Humidity (dally mean): I

- Ve rtica llemperat ure profile (on a continuous bas is);

,
- Mo nthl y precipitation (on a daily basis); and

- Number orrainy days (ra infall> 2.5mm )

It is made cl ear that under the essent ia l category o f data requirement. (i) (wind speed and
direction) and (iii) (cloud cover) should be measured at the project s ite . Fo r other va n~bl es,
data ca n ei ther be co ll ected frOIll nearest airpo rt or rrotn the nenrcst aVOli lab le measurcmcllI
s ite oflMD or any other rep uted agency .

For some cases , e.g. rapid EIA studies, the data on wi rld speed and wi ntl di rection can be
obtained from the ne arest IMD station (but nOl from c limatological tab les) or from the nearest
airport .

3.2.1 M easurements of 1\fcteorolo gic a l Parame ters

Near- surface (w ltl11n 10m o f ground) meteo ro logical ins tnllll ent<ltion should Inclu de \vlnd
measurements and turbul ence measurement s. Such meas uremC'nts can be mad e 10m above
grou nd by us ing a guyed lower. A cup anemometer and WlOd vane or vane w ith a prope ll er
speed sensor mounted in fron t can be the basic wi nd syslem .

The wind se nsor shou ld ha ve a thresho ld starting speed of less than 0 .5 m/sec, an accuracy of
0.2 mlsec or 511/0 and a distance co nslant of less than J m. The primary information needed is
the hourly average wind speed . A representative va lue may be obtai ned from va lues taken
each minute, although va lues taken at interva ls of \ -5 sec are belter.

The vane ca n be used fo r average w ind di recti on and Ouctuat ion s tati stics (O'e; see S ub·sec tio n
3.3.3). The vane should have a di stance constant of less th an J m and a damping ratio greater

8
Ihan or eq ual to 0.4 10 have a proper response . Relative accuracy sho uld be 1 and absolu te
<)

acc uracy shou ld be 5°. In o rder to eSlJ mate as accurate ly, the d irect ion sho ll kl be samp led a t
IOter\,a[ 1~5 sec.

Measureme nt of w Ind speed, turbu len ce and tcmperaturc al oft may also be mad e at various
heJght s on mcteoro logic al towers ta llcr tha n 10 lll. \\'hcre temperature dIfference j:;, required,
basH': te mperat ure sb ould be me asured correct to 0.1°C. Whe n ab5011ltc tem perat ure 15
required. the meas urement nlay be correct to 0.5 °C.

3.3 Sta bility Cla ssifi ca tion

The hourl y occu rrence of vanou s stabdlty classes at the project sil e should be detenmn ed lor
all the representativ e mo nths of the above-staled three Seasons. T hree methods fo r
delcnn imng the atmospheric stability are reco mm ended . These incl ude insolat ion -based
classi fi catio n, vert ical te mperat ure pro fi le measureme nt s and w ind d irect ion fl uc tu ations. In
case sola r inso lation me thod is used for estimating the stability c lass, it is adv isa ble to
estimate stability class wit h the wind direct lo(l Ollctuatio ns method as \"e ll and hi gher stability
(out o f th ese two) can be used for calculation s (for example, if estmaled s tab~iJty class by tw o
rnelhds are B a nd C. use stabil ity class C) Wh erever possible , the dist rib ution o[ stab Jl lty
category should bl"; compared with observed d ata, such as SODAR echograms or ve rt ica l
tem pera ture profile obt ained from Mini- sonde, mult ip le tempe ralUre sensors e tc .

3.3.1 InSO la tion -based classificat ion

In p ri ncip le, dayt ime stabili ty can be detennined from T abl e 3. 1 If insolati on (in COllllllg
solar rad iat io n) data are not available in Table 3.1, these can be estimated usin g the method
desc ri bed at Sub-sect ion 3.3. 1. 1 "Es timat io n of Insolation".

Ta ble 3 I Stabili ty C la ssifica tion

Surface Day Time Inso lation Night T ime Condi tions
Wind speed
(at 10m) , mis
S tro ng Moderate Sli ght H un overcast or $ 3/8 Oo uu
~4/ 8 low cloud cover
cover
<2 A A-B B - -
2- 3 A-B B C E F
3-5 B B-C C 0 E
5·6 C C-D 0 0 0
>6 C 0 0 0 0

9
 Abbrcv iations used in Table 3. J
A=Extremel y unstable D=NclJtral
B=Moderatel y un stabl e E- SIlghl ly stable
C= Sli ghtly unstable F S",blc

(n order to ILSC Table 3. 1: proper estimat ion of daytime insolation IS cssentlal. The following
sleps outline the stcp.w ise proced ure for using Table 3. 1.

Step-1: For InsoJalJo n categoril.allOo, refer to Tab le 3.2.

,
S lep-2: For estima ting insolauon based on so lar angle and eloud lllcss. refer 10 Tab le 3.3.

Step -3: So lar eJevatilln an gle may be obtained for a giv en d<lt c, time and latllude fr om
astronomical tables (see SubsectIOn 3.3 1. 1)

Step·4: S uh-sect io n 3. 3.1. 1 can be used for d irectly estimallng the so lar inso lati o n and
thereby Steps 2 & 3 ca n be avoided.

Step · S: Ne utral class 0 should be assumed for overcast conditions dun ng day or night.
Night refer s to a period from half ho ur be for e s unset to halfhour aOer sunrise

Sl ep-6: For A -B, lise average of A and B. Proceed simi larly, if es timated stabili ty classes are
B-C and C -D.

In practic e, cloudi ness data may no t be avai lab le. This is becau se of the nature o f cloud iness.
wh ich can not be recorded continuo usly by instru men ts but has to be Visuall y recorded at
discrctt' hou rs. At large airports cloudiness is record ed every three hours including night.
Ho\\:c\-t: r, at most of th e IMD stations, cloud iness IS noted alollg with syn opt ic obse rvati ons
twice dail y. Spec ial effo rt s are , therefo re, to be made to record c loudmcss if inso lal!on data
are not available. It can be seen fr om Table 3. 1 that. du ring night li me, cl oudiness data are
Illos t essent ial 10 di st ingui sh between the two stabi lity regimes E and F. O ft en, o ne has to
interpolat e between two observations separated by a few hours. Alternate ly, some other
pa rameler must be found w hic h can be: continuo usly recorded in a relativel y si mple and
rel iable ma rm t:: r. One such parameter is the tem pera ture lapse rate. Another parameter is the
Wind direct ion nuctuat ions which is an indicator of intensi ty of horizonta l or latera l
turbu lenc e and therefo re. in principl e can be used for dc:tennining stab ility (see Sub-sect io n
3.3.3 ) for horil..Oll la l o r lateral d ispe rs io n.

'0

 T abl e 3.2 in sotatioo. Cat ego ry

Insolation Category Insolation (lang ley hour)

Strong R > 50
Moderate 50 > R > 25
Weak 25 > R> 12 .5
Night R < 12.5
R is the 1I150lal1on (not e : 1 langley - I eaJon e per squ are ct:ntnn etre)

T a bl e 3.3 Solar Angl e and C loud co ve r-base d In so lation C atego ry

Cloud Cover So lar Elevat io n Sol ar Eleva tio n Sol ar Elevat io n

Angle > 600 Angle:5: 600 but > Angle :S 35 0 bu t >
35° 15 0
4/8 or less or any St rong Moderate S lIgll t
amo unt of hlgh
thi n clouds
( > 4800 In base)
518 to 7.8, m idd le Moderate Sl igh! S li ght
clo ud s (2100 !0
4800m b<1 sc)
518 !0 718 low S li gh! S ligh! Slight
clo ud (<2 1OOm
base)

3.3.1.1 Estim ation of sola r angle and in sola tion

A very approx i1l1<1\1..:: met hod for esti matin g in so lation, Ihal is Ih e I11 Ct)lllin g so l,Jr radial lon
from the $ol ar el evatio n is disc llssed below. It consists of IWO SI CpS (I ) computat ion of sol ar
e1cvalion and (i i) comput<llio n of insolation. Befo re proceedi ng to elahora le on these \ \ VQ
stcps, jl is necc$sa ry to undcrsland th e princ iples of measurem ent of lim e

Reckoning of Ttil1le

In each co unl ry, a reference meridian is used 10 define standard time. 1n India . Ihe re rerence
meridian is 820 30' E. At any given location, the tim e at which the sun crosses the merid ian is
called the local nooJ). Obviollsly, the loca l noon is dIfferent rrom the noon based on lhe
standard lime. Local time is o ncll needed in swd ies of local phenomena whic h depend on the
sun's positi on. It may be obtained by add ing to 1he standard lime, a correc tion !lT, gi ven by

II
 (3.\)

Where, \110" and :\ is!d ::Ire the local and stand ard rererenc e mer1di~H\S respec tively,

Apparellt Tilli e

In the swuy o f so lar rad iallon. apparent position (i.e . position as il actuall y appea rs) o f the s un
;s required . L'sing calendar time h,lsed on the mean sola r t11l 1": tan tamo unts to us ing the
average ra te or movem ent of [he SUIl llllhe sky , and (h us gives illco rrcCi pOSl1 lon . In thi s case.
H is necessary 10 usc the apparent so lar tllllC. The dlfrerence bet\.. cc n the mean sol ar li me and
I
apparent so lar lime IS ca lled Eq uall oI1 o f Tl111e (E QT). It c ha nges fro m day to day and passes I
through an annu al cyc le. In India, EQT c ha n ge ~ rrom a mi nlmu lll or -1 4 .4 min utes on
February 11 , to a maximum of +3.8 minu tes on M"y 15 . EQT is lero on April 15, Jun e 14 ,
September I and December 25. It can be approxim al ely calcula led (in minutes) for an y date
llsing the followi ng re lation

EQT ~ - 7.7 sm [ (J60IN ). (n -J )] + 9 5 "n [ 2 (360 . \0 ) i n -80)1 .. (J 2)

Where , J1 is th e number of days reckoned fro m Janua ry 1 as the fi rst (b y and 'J IS the nu mber
of days in a year (3 65 or 366).

Apparent Local Ttim e

T he apparent local l ime, la, in hOllrs is obtained fro m the ca k~l1d:1f lim e, Ie , uSlIlg the
combmali on of local lim e and EQT correctio ns as pres ented belo w

(3 .3 )
I
Computatioll ofSolar Elevation
I
Sol ar elev ation, (h), IS calculated fro m the following equation

s in (h) = sin L .sin d + cos L .cos d . cos I .. (34)

12
 whe re. I. is the latitud e of tile locatin!l. <lnd parameters! and d ;In:: c \pl~lI n ..-::d helo\\"

The pa!';,)!1l Cler , l. the ho ur angle or {he sun . IS defin ed tl S {he arc or lh( c ncle along lhe
celcstl.:! 1 cquoln!' measured fro m the upper meridian of th e obscn'er to th at or th e SU Il . The
hour ang le, t. mu y he exp ressed in tenns o f ang le I11cJ!'U!"(,;d cas! and \\'C SI\\ ards . It ha s a
range of uplO i J 80 degrees, SInce th e sun traverses 15 degrees 1/1 one hOUL t may be obtained
[rom the [ollowing relation

1 = 15 (12 -ta l. degrees (3 5)

t where , la is the apparr:: nt (i .e, oCllIa l, see Equat ion 3.3) loca l solar tll11C In hours. The hour
an g le OC ClJrs 111 th e cosine tCrlll, hence the algebra Ic sI gn of til e hour an g lc does llo 1m a!lcr.

The tem" d (in Eq uation 3.4), is the so lar declination which IS the ~ un 's position wit lJ resrcct
to the cel est Ial equator. Declination changes duri ng the year from 23.5 0 north to 23.5 0 sou th
due to inclination of the axis of earth' s rotati on to the ecIJrtl c Da ily values of sun's
declinat ion are to.bulated in the almanacs h ut can al so be obta lJ1cd \\ Ith sufficien t :1ccurac y
from the followin g rel ati o n

d = 23 .45 si n I (360 fN) . (n + 284) ) .............................................. . (36)

The sun's CieVJ11011 can be comput ed using Eq uations 3.4 . 3.5 and 3.6 f~) r a give n date & time
and latitude & lo ngitude of:1 place.

Sunri se and su nset times may be de termined fro m the v<lllles of the a pparent loca l time
corresponding 10 (h) = O. Solar cJeva rio ns and sunrise and su nset tllnes arc used fo r
de temlining the atmospheric sta bilit y class.

Computation oj II/ coming Solar Radialion

I The insolatio(1, R. may be est im ated from the follo w ing app rox imate relat io n g iven by Briggs
( 1988)
I R = (2/3).S. ( I - 0 .8 C) s in (h) ............ . ... ........... ..... ... .... .. .... .. .... ... .. ... ....... ....... ... (3 .7)

w here, S is the so lar co nstant = 2 ca ll sq cm Imin a nd C is the c loud iness fraction. Not e tha t
even when sky is completely cloudy, the radi atio n recei ved by the g round is anout 20% of the
cl ear sky value . However, lhi s depend s upo n the type o f clo uds, 'When the cloud cover is o f
thick stratus clouds, the value of R is a lmost zero .

13
3.3.2 Tem perat u re Profile Meth od

Atmospheric stability is depend ent upon the temperature profi le o f the atm osphere, i.c. the
lapse rale. Lapse rate is det ermined by laking temperature measurements al IwO or more
heights. Lapse rate changes with height and it woul d be necessary that when ever lapse rale IS
to be used, the heights at which temperatures wcre measu red for obta inin g the lap se rale arc
specI fi ed. Table J.-i presents the temperature gradient and stability cl ass.

Tah le 3,4 Tcmpcrature Gradient and Pasqui ll Stabi lity C la sses

PasqUlIl Stability Temperature Gradient, fit/oz. ( 00 100 111 )

class
A < -1. 9
[J -1.910 -1.7
C -1.710 -1.5
D -1.5 10 -0 .5
E -0 .5 10 1.5
F > 1.5

3.3.3 " 'in d Directi on Fluctua ti on Met hod

Since wind direction cn.n he recorded continuousl y, 00' the standard deviat io n or 'w ind
direct Ion flll ctu ati o n ~. can be a very useful para met er to obtain stab ili ty . If an on-llOe data
acqu isition system is Llsed, com puting of 0e may be q uite casy. lI owever, if it ha s to be
obta ined from th e "' md dIrection chart s. exact comp utati ons shall be rather cumbersome and
Impractical. In suc h cases. one gen erally resort s to a c mde approxim ati on given by

"e = Wd/6 (3.8)

V,"hcre, \Vd r IS the overall ran ge o f the \v lIld dircctlon nu ctuation s or the w idth of th e win d
directIon elmrt jl) degrees, o\'er the averaging pe riod . Rcl:lIl ons!lJP bet ween 00 and stabil it y
class as suggested by Slad e (1965) is given Jll Tab le 3.5

Th (:rc arc som e differences in the slabill ty clas s de termined uSI ng 08 and that using ol he r
cntcna. because Go essentially measures lateral turbulence \\ hilc the other criteri a prl ma nly
rel ate to vcrtic<.J1 turbulence. Turbulence depends upon the rou ghness of the site in th e upwi nd
directi on. '1 he rou gbJ1 CSS can change seasonally becJuse of seasonal growth o f grass and
shrubs or pcrm;wcnt ly duc to cons tructi on of S\nJctures . In gen cral. roughness al a site may

14
 Table 3.5 Siades Stability C lassificat ioll

A
Stabilit y Class 0 0 (d egrees )
> 22. 5
-----.l
B 22.4· 17.5
C 17.4 - 12.5
-
D 12.4 - 7.5
E 7.4 - 3. 5
r- < 3.5

be uiffe re nt In di ffercni directions. Also, act ivi ti es, like affor..:st Ht ioll or construction of
bu ild li1 gs a nd struc tures. also c hange the s ite roughn ess . Th c callbnltiOIl o r 0 0 as un IIld icJ to r
o f stability shouk!. there fo re, be don.e freq uently .

Calibratioll Pro cedure (Strip.c/laert-recorder)

Estimate Stab ili ty class by taking observati ons as prescribed in SeCtlo l1 3 3.1 . Simul tan eo us ly ,
also estimate (Jfj. The wind direction range shotlld be deteml incd 0\,\.:1' a 60-m inutc period . I f
the standa rd dcv icuio n is obtained [rom a recorder Irace, th en ;IIl Y ~tra y c~trcm es or d irec tion
may be d isregarded from the trace. Averages with standard tl l'\ lations o f the data sc t shou ld
be ploUed against each stab il ity class (I fo r A, 1 fo r B ctc .). This graph can be used for
obta llling st abili ty for routine use. It is clJ,uti on ed that un der stab le categories. e\'c n when there
is liu le di ffusi on, th e plume Itself can meand er (i .e. have a \Va vy ap pear:l.llce). T hi S is reflected
in the wind direction trace on the chari. The de finit ion of th e range thell IS not Ju st 'maxi m um
~ nlinilll UIll' but has to be with re::pecI 10 th e mean der in g cent re of the tract' . Unless thi s care
is taken, o ne ma y lind large values of ae at ni gh t, lead ing to an absurd conclusion thai
stab ility cl ass IS unstab le. Another aspect that should be remem bered is that the calibration
cun'e is somcwhat na t jn the st able regime. S ince accuracy o f I.?sti mation of (Je is lim ited, thi s
can Introduce ina ccurac ies in the determ ina ti on of stab ilil y. It Ill;"!)' be preferabl e to use the
lapse rate at Tll ght a nd (Ju dun ng daytime as stabil ity ind icators and. therefore , this split sigm a
ap proach 1S parti c ularly recomm ended for detenn lll in g stabdity class whd e uSIn g Slade's
critena glvcn In Tab le 3.5.

Men tion mu st be made here o f the venica l compone nl o f wind di rec tion n uclU ati ons. Nonnal
wmd vanes measure honzonlal w ind com ponent. The vert ical WlIl d d ireclion compone nt may
also be measured usi ng:m inSlntmen t called a Bi vane which measures both Ihe horiwnt al and
ver\lC31 components o f w ind directi on. Th e vertical compone nt is denoted by the symbol a~.
It IS a very useful paramet er iu Jcte rrm ning lhe stablllty. However, Bivane is a diffi cult
Instrument to opera te, reqUir ing frequent adjustments.

15
3.4 Extrapolation of win d speed

The \\ IIld speed measurements are nonnally carried QuI at a heigh t of 10 melres. In order 10
lise th&!:ie m C~I Sllrcmcnl S fo r tnOOdling purposes, th e wind speeds need 10 be co:\.t rapol ated to
the effecti ve height of release. 11 is recommended lhal for ex trapol atio n, an em pi rical powe r
taw as given by In\ III (19 79) be used. This powe r law IS described belo\\!:

lrwi ns' Wind Scali ng Law

(3 9)

\\here, lit and ul arc wi nd speed s at height s 7..[ fi nd z2 respecti vely, and 11 is an ex ponent. The
' al ue o rn IS a fun cll on of s tability class (see Tab le 3.6)

T a bl e .'\ .6 Va tu C's of E xponC'nf n for Va rio us S I:l bilit y Classes

Siabli lly ( class Urban Conditions Ru ral & Other Cond itions
A 0.1 0 0.D7
B 0.15 0.D7
C 0.20 0.1 0
D 0. 25 0.15
E DAD 0.3 5
F 0. 60 0.55
]\,; f) tc : At heights ah ove 200m, the value o f wlIld speed calcul ated (It 200m shoul d be used ,

3.5 Plu me Rise

Since th e ground le ve l con ccntralJon of effl uents fro m an elev<l tt:d pOl m source depends
ro ughly 011 th e inverse sq uare o f the effective: slack hei ght , the «mowll of pl um e rise ob tai ned
is an Impolt,mt factor III red ucing gro und level concentrat ions. 1 he e lTect lvc stack height ( H)
is taken to be the SUIll of the act ual slack heighl, h, an d the p lume ri se, .)h, defined as the
height at wh ich the p lume becomes passive and , subsequently, fol lows the amb ient aIr mo tI on.

H= h + l1h .. .. ... ... .............. ........... ............ ........ ....... .... ....... .. .. ... .... ......... (3.1 0)

16
The behavior of a plume is affected by a num ber of parame ters, includ ing th e initIal sou rce
cond itio ns (exit ve loc ity and difference between th e plum e tempe rature amI thai of the a ir),
the stratificat ion of the at mosphere, and the wind speed . Tab le 3. 7 presen ts a summary of
severa l a va ilab le plume rise fo nnul ae ex pressed in the foml •

.. ............... ........ .......... ... .. ..... ................ .... .. .......... .. .... .. ....... (3 .1 1)

Tab le 3.7 Summary of Plume Formula e (see Equation 3. 11)

Reference Atmospheric a b E Condi tions

Stabil ity
Buoyan t plume

Briggs Neu tral and I 213 1.6Fl !] F<55, x < 49F s ' 8
( 1969, 1971, unstable
1974 )
1 0 21.4F314 F<55, x ~49F s, S
I 213 1.6F I/3 F.255, x <1 19 F2 5
I 0 38.7F3 5 F~5 5, x >11 9F2:-
StabJe a 113 0 2.4(FI S) 1/3
0 0 5FI ·'S·31S
I 213 1.6F I/~

Mome ntum plume

B ri ggs UnslabJc and 213 113 1.44(d vs )213 vs/u ~ 4

( 1969) ncutral b

I 0 3dv, "s /u > 4

Nomencl ature for Tabl e 3.7

d = stack diameter. m
F = buoya ncy nux parameter, gd1vs(Ts-T a.> /4Ts, m" sec 2
g = acceleration of gravity, 9 .807 m sec· 2
p = atmospheric pressure, kPa
Po ~ IOI.3kPa
S = (g CQ'czYfa• scc· 2 c (8 is potent ial ternperature)
Ta = ambi ent temperature a l stack he ight, K
T s = Slack ex it tem pe ra ture al stack height , K
Vs = stack exi l velocI ty. In sec 1
aOf these formulae fo r stabl e condi tIons, use the one that predi cts the leas! plum e rise.
bOf the t\va formu lae for neutral condi Ti ons. use the Olle that preJ lcts the least plum e ri se
CJ f th e app ropriat e fi e ld data are not uvn ilahle to es timate S, Table J 4 can be used for
estimatlllg CtO/cz (f{j/6z ::::- ct 1f"; ! 0.986 ).

For stable momentum plum e rise, the foll ow ing f011llUiae can be used

'\ -
u1- ) .)- [V, -'1'1
l - 'aI( '"')' s LL )JI'." S' -I" .. ..................... . . , , " '" , (3 12)

S tack DOlVIJ wash

Emission released from a stack or struc ture but nm inlo a wake region may be subj ect during
periods o f relatively h1gh wind speed to ae rody namic dOWll W<.lsh induced by the stack or
structure. In sllch cases (vs < 1 5u), the phys ica l s tack he ight lllus1 be considered reduced by a
height, hd wh ich is given by

hd :o:; 2d«( vs u )·1 .5) for vs<1 Su ........ ..... ....... .. ... ... .. .............. ................. ... ..... .. .. .. ... .. (3. 13)

3,6 Dispersion CoefJicients

Bnggs di spe rsion coeffic ien ts should be used to determine 0y and oz. Toe deta!ls of Bri ggs
dispersio n coefficients are gIven below!n Tab le 3.8.

3,7 Mixing Height

Knowledge of site-specific mixing depth (miXin g heIght or co nvec ti ve stabl e boundary layer
and inversion hClght or nocturnal slable boundary layer) is cru CIa l !Jl rea li sti c ado ption of
app ropnatC' plume ri se and ve rtICal dlspersion parameters. IMD generates data on mI xing
dept h .1t .1.5 loc ations 10 the country usmg the radioso nde technique. wi th two readings a day
\\ 111(11 arlO <w adable WIth IMD , Pune. SODAR dala on mixmg deplh at 9 locali ons (as in early
I ()1)';; I .Ire a\ a ilablc w ith i'\'PL New Delhi. CpeB has pub li shed the mi x iog depth graphs for
C:l kU I!;1. Bombay and Nc "\' Dclhi in the docume nt "A me thod to detennine m inimum stack
hei ght" For urb<.lJl and ind ustnal complexes, a reas o f ro ugh te rra in (defined in sec-ti on 3.8)
:tnd coa~t;lJ ;lrC:':lS «20 km from coast) 1MD's reg io na l data have lim ited releva nce due to heat
L:,;land crfec t. lerr:UJl comp lexit)' and coastal fumi gation . The re fo re, for s uch areas, s ite srlecific
data on m i'X ing de pth are requ ired to be genera ted fo r use in m alhem atical modellin g. In case

18
o f large industries, sit e speci fi c data (S OD A R , M ini-Sond e o r Rad iosond e) :1110 used in
mathematical co mputatio n. For ;ndu stn es hav ing stacks less than 50 m height , the m ixmg
depth ext rapolated from the nearest IMD rad Io sonde data m ay be used in air dispersion
mod ell ing .

3.8 Terrain C haracteristics

The area shou ld be cl assJfied as urb an wh en more tha n 50% o f hmd ins id e a circle o f 3 km
radius around the source can be conside red buill up w ith heavy o r rnedlUm IIld ustrlal ,
commerc ia l o r residenti a l Units . Do wnwash e ffects du e to buildi ngs and o ther el evated
structures sho uld be cons idered appropn (l lely d uring the m ath emat ical compu tali olls . Such
sllu atlon a rises on ly w he n the talles t bui ldin gs or o ther stnJcllJrcs

Ta bl e 3.8 8rigg 's Di spersion Paramelers 0y (01) & Oz (m) (100 m < x < 10000 m)

Sl:tbi lil y c las s [ G, (m) l 0 , (m)

Ru ra l cond itions

A 0 .22x( 1+0 000 1x)'O, 0.20x

B 0. 16(1 ' 0 000 I x)-0.5 0. 12;.;
C 0.1 I x(1 + 0.000 1x)-o., 0.08x(l ~ 0 .0002 x)· 0 . 5
D 0 _08x ( I +0 _000 1x )-0.5 0 .06x(l +0 _001 5x) -0 5
E 0. 06x(I +0 000 \ x)-0 5 O.OJx( 1 ~0. 00 03 x) -1
F 0.04x ( I +0.000 1x)·0 5 0.0 16x( 1+0 .0003 x)- 1

Urban condi tions

A- S 0.3 2x (I +0 0004x)"0 5 o 24x ( I +0.00 1x) -O 5

C 0.22x( 1+00004 x)"05 0 .20 x
D O. I 6x ( 1+0 0004x)'0 5 0.14 '\( 11-0.000.h )- i)
E-F O. I I x( I 10.000-h)"05 0 0 8, ( 1 ' (lOO I5 xl

Note : x IS the dow!1wmd ols tance 111 metres . fo r U rban and Rural Areas, re ll'!" to Sec tIO n 3.8.

in the a rea ha ve a h~lgh t cqul\J1cnt to at leas I 40 ~ o o f th e !)ource hel ghl ,md <l fC \\'Hhi n a
distance of fi ve lImes of th e les ser o f the hc\ gh l or maxi mu m prOJect ed w idth o f sti ch 1:111
bui ldings (refer to C hapler 4 fo r de tail s).

19
3.9 Data Format

Before proccedmg to th e mode!llllg procedure (C hapter 4), Jet us recapI tul ate th e basic data
requ iremcJ1I s for mod ell ing under ideal con diti ons. It may be recogarll sed, that for comp lex
si tuations, Ihe data requ irement arc very detailed as discus sed in Chapter 4.

The object ive here is to pI ed Ict hourl y concen trati on at severa l receptor locatIons (de fined
later in presentation of result s) . An input data fi le for a da y o f 24 ho urs may look as shown
belo v.' in Table 3.9.

Tabl e 3.9 Data Format

Para meter Hour of Da y (slarting fro m 0000 hIs)

1 2 ...... . . .. ... .. 23 24
Emission rate (q)
W ind speed (u)
W ind direct ion
St abili ty
M Ix ing he ight
Ambient Temp . (Ia )
SIJ.ck Temp. ( IS)
Pl um e rise (,6,11 )

Some of the parameters mu st be obtained from the site and some need to be denved using the
methods discu ssed in thi s chap ter.

20
 Chapter 4

Modelling Procedure

4.1 Receptor Location

Before describing th e modeJ Jin g procedure , it is necessa ry to speci ry the recepto r loc atlons.
The receptor locatl ons are defi ned re lati ve to the abso lute reference point of the plant.
Generall y, a receptor location is de fined as x·y coo rdin ates with refemce to the absolu te
reference point. The approac h adopted here is sli ghll y differem, as it is reali zed that a radia l
pattern of receptor may be easier to implement for hourl y ca lculati on of concentratl on,

Absolule Reference Poinl (ARP)

The ARP for modelling purpose is considered as the point of release and not as the centre
point of industri al complex. It Implies that if there are more than one POIOI of rel ease, the
ARP and relative receptor locations will also change.

Description of Locatio"

The locati ons o f receptors are de fined with respect to 16 rad ial wind direct ions (N to NNW)
and the rad ial distance fro m the ARP . Although the six teen directions are ke pt const ant, the
radial di stance of rec eptors should be a func tion of physical stack heIght Th e receptor
locati ons in each o f the radial di rect ioos should be the foll ow in g multip le o f physica l stack
heigh. 2.5. 5, 10, 15. 20, 25, 27.5, 30, 32.5, 35. 40. 45, 55 . 70, 90, 11 0 and 140. The
maximum distance to be covered is 20 kro . The purpose of not having the fixed coordinates is
that the concentrations depends on stack height. Where concentration changes rapidl y, a better
resolution should be considered. For near surface releases, include a set of receptors as close
to the source as possible. These receptors should encircle the same.

To gel a better insight into th e concentration distri bution pattern, it is recomm ended to obtai n
the concentration Li ke ly to occur under worst meteo rological co nd itions. For this purpose,
details on Table 4.1 must be obtained.

From Tab le 4.1 . (Wo situations must be iden tified - first condit ion most Ijkely to occur and
anot her conditi on which yield s maximu m concentrat ions. AI these two conditions, possibly
the reso lution of receptor locations should be much finer.

,.

Special Receptor

Any receptor of special si gn ific ance, like national monum en ts, parks, wild-life reserves , etc.
must be inclu ded as a receptor, within a di stance of 20 km from the source.

Table 4.1 Maxi m um C oncentrat ion und er ,",,' ~rst M eteor ological Conditions

Wind Stabi lity class

Speed ,
mis
A B C D E F
0 .5
0. 8
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
4.0
5.0

Note - the entries in above T able should include C max (Ma xi mum Concentra tion) and
distance at which the concentration will occur. Wind speeds not appli cable for certain stabi!!ty
may be excluded .

4.2 Modelling Procedures

The gauss Ian model described in Chapter 2 is appli cable on ly under special conditions (see
assum pt ions in mode l) , which are not likely to exi st in actual fi eld condi tions. So me of the
s illlatio ns likely to occur in th e field and procedures to incorporate these s ituati ons in the
model are described be low.

Plume Petletration

A buoyant plume , risi ng into a well -m ixed Jayer trapped by stable a ir, may, partiall y or
completely , pene trate the ele vated stable layer. To co mpute ground leve l concenlrations fo r
this si tuatJ on , the fraction or the plume that penetrates the stable layer IS fir st estim ated a nd

22

then th e emi ssion rate, Q, and effecti ve plum e height , H. the material remaining within the
mixed layer, are modi fi ed .

The fra ction P of the plume that pene trates the elevated stable layer is estimated as follo ws
( Wei l and Brower, 1984) :

I) No penetration:

P = 0 if z'/6h " 1.5 ........... ........................... ... ........ ....... (4. 1)

2) Total penetration:

P = I if z'/6.h ::; 0.5 (4.2)

3) Partial penetrat ion:

P = 1.5 - z';lM if 0 .5 < z';l6 h < 1.5 ........................ .... ............ .. (4. 3)

Where, 6. h is the predicated plume rise and z/ = ZI - h, zi is the height of the stable layer alo ft ,
and h is the stack height.

The plume ma terial remaining w ithin the mi xed layer is assumed to contribute to ground leve l

concentratio ns, The mod ifi ed source strength, Q is then:

Q = Qs( I-P) .... (4.4)

where, Q s is the emi ssion rate on top of the stack.

To modify the effecti ve pJwne height for plumes trapped within th e mix ed layer. it IS assumed
that th e plwn e rise du e to penetrati on, tili p' is lin early varyin g between 0 .62 z'! for no
penetration to z'. fo r full penetration . Thus fo r partial penetrat ion (0 < P < 1):

6 hp= (0.62 + 0.38 P) i ; ....................................................................... (4.5)

Th e modifi ed plum e height, b m , to be used in furth er calcu lati on, is th e lowest value o f th e
height in rhe unlimited atmosphere, h, and the heigh t d ue to pe netratio n, such as:

hm = min (h, hpj; hp = h + IIhp ...... ......................... .. .. .... ........ .... ....... (4.6)
(note: h must be modified fo r downwash, ifapplicabJe)

23
Terrain C"urrl c(e ri,~tics alld DOI\!JnvaJh of Po IlUlalf( .~

If the re lcJsc IS locatcd on o r nea r a lall but narrow StruC !UTC such that the height (mod ified
fOT do\\ nwash . i r applicable) of release is less than 21 fa (Ha is the height of stmcture) b UI is
equal or gre~ler Ihat 10 Wn <\V o IS the width o f stnlcture) thel11he dow nwash IS esti mated by
hd .>! 2 ( v.~/ 1I - 1.5) W B ..... ... ........ ........ ........................................... .... ....... . (4.7)

Dowllwash redu ces the e ffect ive release height o f the plume but is ass umed not 10 reduce the
effl ux huo)lancy ur mo ment um

.Effee, ofB llilding Wake

If [he heI ght of release (modi fied fo r bot h types o f downwash. if app licable) from bui ldmg
le aks or Sil0!1 stacks is les s th an 0.5 HB (or Wg ), the emil1 ed materia ls get mi xed in th e
turbulen t wak e crca l ~d by the air flow arou nd the bu ilding o r stack s tructure . This gives ri se to
a vol um e source. Based on the stud ies o f ex periment al re leases fro m bu ildi ngs and on
assumpllon of un ifo rm mix ing o f the efflu ent in the buildi ng wake. the nonn a l shol1 term
centreline concentra tion is give n by

c( \".0) = - -"
Q~----; (4 .8)
u(lra ,.a , +C.. Il)

where,

A = Com:::ct ionai are" o f the buildIng nomlai to th e win d. an d

Cw = fractl (m o f A ov er whi ch th e plun:e is di spersed by th e wak e or more commonl y

know n as buildi ng shape factor. conservati vel y es tim ated as 0.5.

It wou lJ be seen from the ex pression that the e ffect of wake is 10 reduce Ihe ground level
concen trat ions 111 th e downw ind d1recti on However, If th e co rrec ted co nc entration value
reduces to less than o ne third o f the uncorrected value, then the concentrat ion is taken to be
equaJ to one-th ird the uncorrected concen tration. Th e effec t of wake beco mes insignifICant
when

C w A « cry cr 7'

24

Area Sources

The area so urc es which do nOI ernil itllo a wake region should bc treated as cilhcr P0l!11 so urcc
with initial cross-wind spread or as non-buoya nt volume source w it h lllilla l vert1cal a nd cross
wind spread . If an a rea sou rce is treated as an effec tive poinl source modelli ng may proceed as
it would fo r a poi nt SOllrce located a t the centre of the area but w it h inlli<ll cross wi nd spread
ex pressed in tcn n s o f a dis pers io n r aramc te r

" yO ~ 0.25 YA

where, 0yO is Ihe in ili a l cry and Y,\ IS the c ross-w Ind extent o r th e so urce. Area so urce treated
as po int sources may have release he ights whic h a re above Ihe ground level but usua ll y these
so urces are em ill ing inl o a st ruc ture wake a nd s ho uld be Irealed appropnate ly.

rr a no n-b uo yaot area so urce is treated as a vo lume source, it is assumed to be located at thc
centre of the a re a and 10 ha ve inith·1I spread s in th e vertica l and cross-wi nd d irec ti o ns defi ned
respecti vely, by the initia l mean plume he ig ht ,

... . . ...... (4 10)

where, Gzo is the wJlwl at: and HA IS the height of llle vo lume source. No te lhat a area so urce
treated as volume source is conS Idered to be located at th e g round leve l. he nce, effecti ve stack
height IS zero.

Low wind speed Stahle regim es

ThiS condition is very co mmon in North ern India during win ter nIg ht s . U nder stable reg Ime
wind dIrectiOn may meander with large amp lilUdes giving effectively a large disperSion In
horizontal dJnxlion than in dicated by standard O"y values . Under these cond iti o ns, ]t is
recommended to use lhe split sigma method, i.e. use of cry curve for sLab ility as indic ated by
tem perature profile and G z curve for stab ility as indica ted by as values. A ltern atively, calm
cond iti ons are equally d istributed in all sixteen wind direct ions and minimum wind speed o f
0.5 m/ sec is c onsi dered .

Complex Terrain

Sources loca led in com plex te rra in o r nca r s ig nifi ca nt lo pogra plHc fea tures w ill need specia l
cons ide rat ion due to the expecled s ite de pende ncy o f poll utan t di s pers io n in these regions.

25
Terrain features are co nsid ered 10 be sufficienlly com plex to warrant ph ys ical modelhng if
both the fo llow ing cond itions are m el.

1. The release he Ight of the contaminant is less than two lim es the maximum teITatO heigh!.
nle max imum terrain he ight is defined as Ihe difference between the hi ghest e levation
(includin g tree tops) and th e lowest ele vat ion within a distance equal to 20 times the stack
hClght or one kdom etrc, which eve r is greater.

2. The gradient o f lhe tenain height w ith distance, x, from the source is grealer Ih an 115.

The eom ple,\; terrain may al so in fluen ce the dispersion of a plume, Ph ysica l mod el ling In wind
tun nel is the best v, ay to und ers tand di spersion. In the literature it is s uggesled thai in case o f
valJeys there IS increased lUrbulence and usi ng o lle higher stabil it y is useful (e.g. taki ng
stability A when it is B). This revi sion IS requITed only If, stability is eslimated based on
Insolati on. In ca se o f hill s, il is recomme nd that ground leve l concentrations be ca lculat ed
using plum e hei ght equa l to half the centre line plume height calcu lat ed fo r Oat terrain (Hanna
et al. \ 982). In addition , the locat ion of sites downwind where concentration is calcu lated (the
receptors) must Include consid eratlon of their height with respect to the grad e level at the
source.

It is, however. adVised that in case of complex terrain, lh e proponents disc uss th ei r mode llin g
pJan with appropriate regu latory auth ori ti es

Urban Heaf Island Effect

In an urban area, one has lo ts of concrete structures apart from vanous indu stries, lead ing to
higher tempera ture In Ihe urba n area as compared to the surro unding mral area . Effeci o f thi s
is to create a heat sourc e in the op en cou ntry. These areas are som et imes referred to as heal
Islands. [n ev aluat ion of transport and diffUSion o f pollut ants to urban areas, factors, such as
the e ffect of loca l w ind circulation systems estab lj shed d ue to urban heat Island e ffect, should
be consi dered wh ere appli cab le to Ihe grade leve l at the source.

Th e difference in the diumaltemperalure variali ons In nlral and urb an areas causes heat Island
to be most Int ense- al ni ghl and least intense during the da y. The d iffe ren tia l IcmperalUre
dIstribution produc es a weak two-ce ll CIrculati on during weak wi nd s ovc r th e urban area, an
up ward moll on o f urban air and an uppcr level hori7.0nt al divergence to the rural area Under
fairl y strong w inds. the circu lation syslem is d isplaced downwind 10 a dIstance which appcars
10 be proportional {o the mean w ind speed and healing Tale. Presenc e o f an eleva ted
temperature lnv c-rSlon over the urban area s has also been IOdi ca ted Thi s acts as a lid to
vertical diffu sion of pollutants in urban areas. This ma y lead to a dovmward subsidence o f air
over urban areas ca lisUlg the urban po llu tion levels to increase dU ri ng day lime hours. A layer

26

o f pollutant s over the city during daytime can inhibit so lar radiati o n reaChing and hea ling th e
urban area reversing the temperature differential between the urban and ru ral area.

No s impl e analyt ical methods are yet ava ilable 10 account fo r these phenomena in the
calcul ati o n of concentrat ion. However, a knowledge of existence of these phenomena is
useful 111 interpretatio n of data rca llZlng th e li m it ati o ns of th e models and m ake a l least
approximate co rrecllon facto rs whenever pO SS Ible us ing numeri ca l Of ",,'\Od tunnel modelhng
techni ques.

Coastal sites

The pecuJi an llcs o f a co as tal site li e JJ1 two fea tu res. FIrst IS lhe land and sea breeze syst em
WhlCb dO ll1 lnatC"s th e loca l n ows and the secon d is the si gn! li ca nt change III th e surface
roughn ess felt by the alrO o\\' when alf enlers land from sea an d Vice versa. As far as short
d istance dispersion is concerned , the first as pect of sea and land breeze does no t im pose any
problem s ince It is refl ected in the wi nd records.

The seco nd aspec t, i .e. th at of the change in th e surface roughness, is a more comp licated one.
The wllld coming from the sea, as soon as It crosses the shore an d enters the land , deve lops an
Intern al bo undary layer, th e thickness of whi ch depends upon th e downwInd d Istance from the
shore and 1he d ifference in potentia l temperature between the sea and land surface. Th e
aerodynamica ll y SniOOtll now from the sea is Slo wl y conven ed into a ro ugh flow due to
increased surface roughness. The height or the infernal boundary layer OBL) is given by the
rel a1ion.

H, ; 8.8 (x I U 68)0 5 (4.11 )

where, .69 IS the po te ntial temperature d ifTerence befWeen top and bo tto m o f the initi al stable
layer (i.e, at the shore). Thjs value may be used in [he fumi gatio n mode l 10 obt ain the
concent rati o n.

c= _ Q exp( _ y 2 I 20- }" 1 ) (4.12)

J 2trua: ,. H,

In add iti on 10 the above approach , the model described by Misra ( 1980) for shorel ine
fum igati on can al so be used .

Multip le Stacks

27
~l all) indu strial lI nlt s have a nUl1lo ... r of slack s. If th ese s t.1 C ~ ~ <Ire c lose to Oll e another. the
plllJll~ ca ll1ll(:rg...: \\Ith ea ch other The bu oyallc y Oflhe: comhll1 ed plume becomes more than
the Indi vid ual buoyallcy of the plumes. S illc e the plum e fiS C IS proportional 10 r t ,1. (buoyancy
flux, rdcr to Chapter 3). the rise of the combined plul11e will he higher th an thf! rise either of
plu mes would have achieved. This plume rise enhancement is, the refore, an ad van tage.

Consider two slln ilar pl umes separated hy a di stance 6s have a plu me ri se of .6.h t • The
co mhined rlume ri se !1h2 from t \\O plu mes = E..j,h 1, whe re. F. IS the en hancemwt fac lor. Lf
.\5 -=c 0, then F - } t 3. If 6.s is very large. the plumes do no ! merge and E = I. In a practical
Si lll3tlon wilh l' slacks separated hy 6s, Briggs suggestcd boh .N E. boh ], where, E IS
;;0

assumed to ha\·c the fo llowing [a nn

F ~ [(N+S)i(I +S)jI '" ( 4.13)

Where. S IS a dnnenslOlls pa rameter rela ted 10 boS/t.h ] and ma y be obta ined from the foll owing
n prcSSlon

(4 14)

28

 C ha p le r 5

P rese nta tion of Results

Thi s chapter descri bes the presental\o n of modd li ng results fo r inclus ion ill the report The
proponents arc cncouragd to provide any olhc;' info nn au on which Illay J ss i ~t in e\ al u,ltlll g the
im pac t assessment repo rt .

5. 1 Deta il s of Source C omplex a nd Vari ous Pr oc esse~

Th e fo ll o wi ng detail s must be incl uded :

Layout pl an o f su rc c comp lex \vll h sou rces of emi ssion c learly identi fi ed ; and
Proct'ss and production detai ls - products, capac iti es, processes. pollut io n cOl m ol
dc\ ices and emiss ion a nd stack de tails. (see Sec tion 3.1)

5.2 i\ lod el a nd In p ut a nd Output Da ta

Descnpt ion or model and software used, ready- la -use mode l soflware (nol nec essanly sou rce
code), and all Inpu t a nd o utput fil es to model should be sto red o n J di skelle and a re IIlciuded in
the repon .

5.3 Meteorologica l Da ta
The fo llo wi ng de la ils mu st he in c luded :

Monthly W Hl d ros e;

Month ly stabdi ty r05(,; and

Mo nt hly stab ili ty freq uency In tab ul ar Conn

5.4 Modelling Res ult s

Cllntillarille CO It Ce ll f rmioll plot

In three mosl prevalent wind di rections, monthly cumu lati\'e frequency dI strib ution of
concentration (based on hourl y pred ict ed va lue) sho uld be plolled (to r all locations incl uding
specia l reccplor) . In o ther words. number of plots wil l be

29
.\1any lIlulIslflal lInil~ lla\'c (i nUJllber or slacks. I r Ihese slads are close 10 one ano lher, Ih('
plume Ceill !Ih.:rgl: \\ lIh each o ther T h e b uoya ncy of lhe cOln h llled plume bccoJlles m o re Ih ,]))
Itl e JIll!J"lduCi) buoY:Jnc>' n f lh c p lume s. Si nce th e phJl11e nse IS propor1ionallO F I 3 (b UOYdl1Cy
llu x; rc[er to C hap ler 3 ), the ris . -: or the comb in ed plu me ""' i ll be h Ig h er than th e ['I se either o f
plum es would ha \'C achl cved. T h is plum e ri se enhan cem en t is, th ere fo re , an advan tage .

Co ns ide r \WO si m il ar pl um es separated by a dI stance C!.S have a pl ume rISe of Dh] Th e

combined plu\l1e nse 6 h2 from 1\\0 p lu mes = E..~ h I, where. [ IS the enha ncc ment faCiOr. If
JS (), th en l o- 2 1 ,'. I f 6 s is very large , th e plum es do not m erge and E = I. In a pract:cal
situation \\- 1111 :\ slac ks separateci by D.S , Brt ggs sugges ted 6 h.:"J = E 6 h l' where , E IS
assu med to ha\'c the fo llowi n g form

(4. 11 )

Where. S is d dimensions param eter rel aled to t\S/l.\hl and llI ay be oblallled from Ihe ro llowing
exp ress io n

S ···6 [ ( N~l)lIs I N " ) 6 h ,J 3:2 ..... , ....................................................... (4 . 14)

28

 Ch'pter 5

Prese ntation of Res ults

This chapler descri bes the presentation of modell mg results for i nclu sIOn in the repo rt. The
propo nents are encouragd to prov ide an y othc,' ill folmalion wh ich may assist III (;'va l uaung (he
im pact assessment repo rt .

5. 1 Detai ls of Source Compl ex and Various Processes

The fo ll owing detail s must be included :

L ayout plan o f surce complex w ith sources of emiss ion clearl y I(Jetllified ; and
Proc('ss and production details - produc ts, capac ities, processes, po llulion cOlilro l
dCV1C-eSand emi ssion and stack deta ils (see Section 3.\ )

5.2 Model and Input and Outp ut Da ta

De scripti on o f model and son ware used , ready-to-use mod el software (not necessarily source
code), and all input and output files to model should be stored on a dIskette and are incl uded in
the repo rt.

5.3 Meteorological Data

The fo llowi ng detai ls m ust be included:

Monthly wmd rose;

Month ly stabi lity rose; and

Month ly st<lbility frequency In tabular fonn

5.4 Modelling Results

Cumulative cOll celi/ratio" plot

In three most preva lent wi nd directions, month ly cumulat1ve freq uenc y distributio n of
concen tration (based on hourl y predicted va lue) sho uld he pl oll ed (for a ll locations incl udi ng
special recepto r). In olher words, number of plots wi ll be

29
3(w ind dircctions)x NoP (no. of pollutants) x NoL (no . of locOltions)x 5 (months).

For illclus ioll in the report , on ly the mos t preva lell1 wi nd direction plot s should be covered .
The plots for other Iwo wmd direc lions mus t be pr~ sented in the noppy w hi ch can be
eva luated on commo nly-used graphical soflwares.

Exceedell cf! ojNo liollal A mbient Air Quality 5randords

A rter con sidering the bac kgrou nd c-oncen trat io n. spec ify the fo llowing:

Locations •.IIld tJllleS o f standard Exceedence (on real -lime ho url y basis) ; and
Actua l predi cted conce ntrat ions at th e lime o f s tandard Exceedencc

For each month, provide 10 hi ghest valucs for eac h loea lio n.

lS0~CO ll celltro(iO Il plot

Based on month ly ave rage co ncentrat io ns , in clude iso-concen trati on plots fo r eac h months .

5.5 Model Applicatio n for Evolvin g Emiss ion Standards

If the modell ing resu lt s of emissions fTOm proposed industry (o r expan sio n o f ex ist ing
indu stry) ind ica te viol ati on o r likelihood of violatio n of am bi ent air qua li lY 51andards (a fter
accountin g ror backgro und leve ls), the location speCific emi ssi on standard s he made more
s iringem to ensure compliance with the ambie nl air qual ity standards. foo r th is purpose, the
mode ll ing gui del ines presenl ed in this repOr1 can be used to back calc ulate the li miti ng
emi SSi on ra te whi ch s hould e nsm c Ihat the predi cled air qualit y lev el s plus back ground levels
are less than the (lmbi ent air qua lil y stand ards.

Refere nces

Briggs, G .A (1 969). P lume Rise. US. Aromlc Energy COf/illl ls.f;/O n Critical Rev/('h' SeY/es TID
25075

Bri ggs, G .A . ( 19 7 1) Some Recent Ana lys is of Plume Rise Observal lons . III Proceeding o f the
Second {nternationol Clean Air COl/gress . H.M. Engl und and W.T. Berry (Eds .), Academic
Press , New York , 1029 -10 32

'0

Bri ggs. G .A. (1974) . Diffusion Estimation for Sma ll Em issions," In Environmental Research
Loborotorlt!s A,r Re.(ollrces A.tmospherlc Turbulence and Diffimoll LaboralOl)' 1973 An nual
Repon , USAEC Rep ATDL-1 06 Natl. Oceani c Almas. Admin. Washington D.C.

Benari e, M. (1980). Urban Air Po/uulion Control Modelling. The MIT Press, Cambridge

8udianski, S. ( 1980). Dispersion Modelling. Env. Sci. Tech. 14.370-374

Hanna, S. R., B ri ggs, G .A. and Haskar, R.P. ( 1982). Handbook oj Afmospheric DifJilSl on.

DOEfTlC 11 223, DOE.

Irwin , J. S. (1979) . Almos. Environ. 13, 191-1 94

Misra, P.K. (1')80). Dispersion fro m Tall Slacks into a Shore line Fumiga1 lon. AtmG.)'. £nv. 14 ,

3967-4000

S lade, D.H . (1965) . DispersIOn Estim ated from Pollutant Release oj a Jew seconds to eight

hours il/ DI/ratioll Technical Note, 2, ARC-I , US, ESSA, 23

SUllon O. G . ( 1953). Micromereorology. New York, McGraw-H ilI. 333 pp

Wei l, I .e. and Brower R.P. (1984). An Updated Gaussian Plume Model for Tall Stacks. Jr of

AIr Pollwion Com. Association , 34, 818 -827

JI