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 VOLUME 13 ISSUE 3

The International Journal of

Literary Humanities

__________________________________________________________________________

Ekphrasis and Its Multifaceted Nature

Ways of Its Usage in Literature and
Cinematography
MANANA RUSIESHVILI-CARTLEDGE AND RUSUDAN DOLIDZE

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THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LITERARY HUMANITIES
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 Ekphrasis and Its Multifaceted Nature: Ways of
Its Usage in Literature and Cinematography
Manana Rusieshvili-Cartledge, Tbilisi State University, Georgia
Rusudan Dolidze, Tbilisi State University, Georgia

Abstract: Traditionally, the term “ekphrasis” was used to describe visual works, to present in words something that is
mostly imaginary or represented in images. However, further research into this issue has revealed that ekphrasis is a
complex phenomenon which is not confined only to a “verbal representation of a visual representation” (Heffernan
1993), but it may involve several semiotic systems and take a variety of configurations. Consequently, being an
intersemiotic phenomenon, ekphrasis may imply not only paintings, films, music, or architecture, but also “uncanonical
art forms such as television, photography, comics, and cinematography” (Persin 1997). Taking this into consideration, it
is only natural that such a complex phenomenon arouses interest among scholars and creates a number of theories
regarding the definition, typology, properties, and ways of employing ekphrastic inserts as well as the issues connected
with their perception. This paper addresses the issues of employing ekphrasis in intersemiotic systems involving not only
literary ekphrasis but also filmic ekphrastic inserts. More specifically, the paper (1) restates the scopes of ekphrasis and,
based on the type and degree of depiction of the work of art in texts created across several semiotic systems, suggests
three types of ekphrastic inserts: ekphrastic description, ekphrastic allusion, and ekphrastic simile, (b) discusses how
literary and filmic ekphrastic texts are perceived by the reader/viewer. The textual examples used in this paper are taken
from the novel Girl With a Pearl Earring by Chevalier, an ekphrastic poem by Mitchell inspired by one of the paintings by
Vermeer, and the films Once Upon a Time in America by Leone and The Godfather by Coppola.

Keywords: Ekphrasis, Ekphrastic Inserts, Verbal and Filmic Ekphrasis

Introduction

T he category of ekphrasis has been identified since the ancient Greeks who intensively used
it in literature. The term ekphrasis originally meant “to represent in words something that
is represented visually” (Pop 2010). However, as revealed by further research, the nature
of this phenomenon is more complex than a mere verbal description of visual works and thus
poses difficulties facing scholars belonging to a number of fields of study but interested in
ekphrasis. Specifically, current issues of ekphrastic studies still include the definition and
typology of ekphrastic inserts as well as the ways they are perceived by the reader/viewer.
This paper restates the scope of ekphrasis by suggesting three types of ekphrastic inserts—
ekphrastic description, ekphrastic allusion, and ekphrastic simile. The criterion for this is the
specificity of description of the work of art in ekphrastic inserts, created across several semiotic
systems. This paper also discusses how literary and filmic ekphrastic inserts are perceived by the
reader/viewer.

Theorising Ekphrasis Discussion of Examples

Scholars interested in ekphrasis maintain different views regarding its essence, scopes, and
typology. For instance, the best known definition states that ekphrasis is a “verbal representation
of a visual representation” (Heffernen 1993). However, the complexity of the phenomenon
increasingly drives scholars interested in this issue to disagree regarding the definition and
attributes of ekphrasis as well as the mediums of transfer employed. This is not surprising as
Heffernen’s definition does not reflect the fact, made obvious by further research, that ekphrasis
may embrace several semiotic systems. It can take a variety of configurations, and consequently,
besides literature, there can be ekphrasis implying not only to paintings, film, music, and

The International Journal of Literary Humanities

Volume 13, Issue 3, 2015, www.thehumanities.com, ISSN 2327-7912
© Common Ground, Manana Rusieshvili-Cartledge, Rusudan Dolidze, All Rights Reserved
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THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LITERARY HUMANITIES

architecture, but also to “uncanonical art forms such as television, photography, comics, and
cinematography” (Persin 1997).
Clüver broadens the scopes of ekphrasis by including in it any discourse composed in a non-
verbal sign system (Clüver 1997). However, although being relevant for filmic ekphrasis,
Clüver’s conclusive definition of ekphrasis as the “verbalization of real or fictitious texts
composed in a non-verbal sign system” still implies the importance and significance of
verbalization (Clüver 1998, 40). This approach is further advanced and expanded by Bruhn, who
refers to ekphrasis as a “representation in one medium of a real or fictitious text composed in
another medium” (Bruhn 2001). Sager Eidt rightly considers Bruhn’s redefinition particularly
relevant as it “contends that the re-creating medium need not always be verbal, but can itself be
any of the art forms other than the one in which the primary ‘text’ is cast” (Sager Eidt 2008, 19–
21). Interestingly, the examples discussed by Bruhn reveal the cases of visual representation of
artworks represented verbally, which clearly reverses Heffernan’s definition of ekphrasis.
Several classifications of intersemiotic ekphrasis have been suggested. For instance, while
contemplating similarities and differences between ekphrastic and linguistic tropes and
comparing a verbal, linguistic simile and ekphrastic model, Yacobi singles out two crucial
moments: (a) Ekphrasis is generally characterized by semiotic bi-polarity and belongs either to
two media (verbal vs visual) or two art forms (literary vs graphic) and (b) even a glancing
allusion to an art work, style or genre can be classed as an instance of ekphrasis due to the fact
that any allusion to a visual art object, no matter how brief it may be, compensates for the
minimum quantity by bringing the figure of speech into multiple cross-reference and
interconnectivity. (Yacobi 1999, 28). In addition, while further contemplating differences
between two rhetorical figures—ekphrastic simile and ekphrastic model—Yacobi argues that
ekphrastic simile is a very short, often “glancing allusion to a visual art object” and directly
compares the tenor to the vehicle (Yacobi 1999, 46). On the other hand, the ekphrastic model is
merely a brief allusion to a pictorial model or genre, by which the text can “abstract a bare theme
from a multiplicity of particularized visual sources” through mere hints or indirections (Yacobi
1999, 47). Thus, Yacobi’s classification does not include the cases in which an art object is
directly and explicitly described although they are univocally considered part of ekphrasis.
Robillard (1998, 53–72) divides ekphrastic texts into two groups relying on the degree of
explicitness of a verbal depiction of the art object: In the case of a depictive text an art object is
explicitly portrayed, whereas an associative text refers to conventions, styles, or ideas associated
with the plastic arts. Clearly, although this classification does include associative texts, it still
does not differentiate between various associative ekphrastic texts.
Relying on the existing classifications of ekphrastic texts on the one hand and on the
criterion of the competition between the ekphrastic medium and the visual source on the other,
Sager Eidt proposes four categories of ekphrasis: attributive, depictive, interpretive, and
dramatic. Specifically, attributive ekphrasis includes the verbal allusion to the scenes in which
artworks are shown or mentioned, but not extensively discussed or described. Within the frames
of the depictive ekphrasis, images are discussed, described, or reflected on more extensively in
the text or scene. Interpretive ekphrasis implies a higher degree of transformation and additional
meaning whereas dramatic ekphrasis expresses a higher degree of dramatization and
theatricalization to the extent that the images take on a life of their own (Sager Eidt 2008, 45–
63).
As it can be seen, all the three approaches discussed above clearly maintain that the cases in
which the object of art is either only briefly alluded to (Yacobi), referred to (Robillard) or are
endowed by higher degree of dramatization and theatricalization are still considered to be
ekphrastic (Sager Eidt), although none of them states explicitly either how subtle the reference to
an art object should be or how high the degree of dramatization or theatricalization ekphrastic
inserts should possess. Consequently, it is entirely up to the reader/viewer to measure the degree
of dramatization and allusion of ekphrastic inserts and infer from them accordingly.

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 RUSIESHVILI-CARTLEDGE & DOLIDZE: EKPHRASIS AND ITS MULTIFACETED NATURE

This paper makes an attempt to (a) re-state and specify the definition and typology of literary
and filmic ekphrasis and (b) discuss the ways of their perception and decoding.
While discussing the features of ekphrastic poems Verdonk righteously maintains that an
ekphrastic poem embodies a communicative triangle between the artist, the poet’s persona, and
the reader (Verdonk 2005, 231–244). Following Verdonk, we consider that ekphrastic inserts
(both literary and filmic) also involve three parties: the artist, the writer/poet, and the
reader/viewer, close cooperation of which will lead to an adequate decoding of the ekphrastic
text. In order to build a more complete picture of the process of encoding, perceiving, and
decoding an ekphrastic insert, we propose the model according to which the semantic structure of
the ekphrastic insert consists of two interdependent layers: a surface plane (on which the
literary/filmic ekphrastic insert is formally presented) and its background cultural knowledge
plane (on which specific contextual associations, connected with the object of art are actualized).
Clearly, the wider the background cultural knowledge of the context the fuller the scope of its
perception. Based on this model, we propose three types of literary and filmic ekphrastic inserts:
ekphrastic description, ekphrastic allusion, and ekphrastic simile. In the case of ekphrastic
description the signified object created in one semiotic plane is explicitly described in another
semiotic plane. Due to this, from the point of view of decoding, ekphrastic description is the
easiest one, though the fullness of this process still relies on the background cultural knowledge
plane.
Our perception of both ekphrastic simile and ekphrastic allusion is close, though not
identical, to that of Yacobi. More specifically, while contemplating ekphrastic inserts and
comparing them to rhetorical figures, Yacobi discusses two types of ekphrastic texts: the
ekphrastic simile and the ekphrastic model. The former directly compares a tenor to a vehicle and
is very brief, “often glancing allusion to a visual art object” although it “compensates for the
minimum quantity by bringing the figure of speech into multiple cross-reference and
interconnectivity” (Yacobi 1997, 42). On the other hand, the ekphrastic model is a mere brief
allusion to a pictorial model or genre, by which the text can “abstract a bare theme from a
multiplicity of particularized visual sources” through mere hints and allusions to them (Yacobi
1997, 43). We borrowed the term “ekphrastic simile” from Yacobi and slightly modified it to fit
into the model we have suggested. In our view, as ekphrastic simile directly compares the tenor
to the vehicle, both of these parts are presented on the surface plane of the figure. Obviously, the
degree of decoding will still depend on the background cultural knowledge plane. On the other
hand, ekphrastic allusion involves the cases in which the vehicle is represented on the surface
plane whereas the tenor is hidden and, as well as in the case of ekphrastic simile, it is fully
unveiled according to the width and depth of the background cultural knowledge of the reader (in
the case of literary ekphrasis) or the viewer (in the case of filmic ekphrasis). As can be seen,
although the background cultural knowledge plane is significant in the case of ekphrastic
description, it becomes especially important with ekphrastic simile and ekphrastic allusion as
they, being ekphrastic rhetorical figures, are directly connected with background cultural
associations and cues.
As it was mentioned above, the textual material of the study includes both literary and filmic
ekphrastic inserts which we would like to discuss in more detail.
In the novel Girl With a Pearl Earring by Chevalier, one of the portraits by Vermeer, A
Young Woman With a Pitcher unfolds in front of our eyes in a dialogue between Griet and her
blind father. This description, which contemplates the pose of the girl, her clothes and colors
employed as well as the techniques Vermeer uses while painting, can be characterized as
straightforward, explicit and meticulously detailed:

“The baker’s daughter stands in a bright corner by a window,” I began patiently. “She is
facing us, but is looking out the window, down to her right. She is wearing a yellow and
black fitted bodice of silk and velvet, a dark blue skirt, and a white cap that hangs down

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in two points below her chin.... She has one hand on a pewter pitcher sitting on a table
and one on a window she’s partly opened. She’s about to pick up the pitcher and dump
the water from it out the window, but she’s stopped in the middle of what she’s doing
and is either dreaming or looking at something in the street.”

“But what is the story in the painting?”

“His paintings don’t tell stories.”

We argue that this type of explicit linguistic description of an art object created across two
semiotic systems (visual vs verbal) can be classed as an ekphrastic description due to the fact that
the object of art is explicitly, verbally described. However, while perceiving and visualizing such
extracts, the reader may address one of the following two cases. If the reader is familiar with the
painting, they will re-construct a more or less accurate image of the painting in their mind
whereas on the other hand, the reader will follow the description and construct the image
accordingly.
Griet’s idea that Vermeer’s paintings do not tell tales did not prove to be correct as
Vermeer’s paintings have invited quite a few ekphrastic poems. For example, one of them by a
translator and poet Stephen Mitchell, Vermeer, which is dedicated to the description of the same
portrait comprises two distinct sections. The first one includes explicit ekphrastic description of
the painting. However, in contrast to the matter-of-fact description of the portrait discussed
above, the latter is made more memorable by the author employing metaphoric poetic
comparisons (sere as a clear sky; like a snowflake in a warm hand), metaphoric epithets
(luminous in her blue dress). It is also interesting to note that the wimple is referred to as “many-
toned,” which is in accord with the part of the description in the novel describing “the cap which
is not white at all” (“When you look at the cap long enough,” I added hurriedly, “you see that he
has not really painted it white, but blue, and violet, and yellow.... That’s what is so strange... It’s
painted many colors, but when you look at it, you think it’s white.”).
Below there is the first part of the poem which, as was mentioned above, comprises
ekphrastic description:

She stands by the table, poised

at the center of your vision,
with her left hand
just barely on
the pitcher’s handle, and her right
lightly touching the window frame.
Sere as a clear sky, luminous
in her blue dress and many-toned
white cotton wimple, she is looking
nowhere. Upon her lips
is the subtlest and most lovely
of smiles, caught
for an instant
like a snowflake in a warm hand.

The second part of the poem contains an ekphrastic allusion to the Annunciation, closely
connected with the epigraph of the poem (Quia respexit humilitatem ancillae suae. Luke I: 48)
and referring to the moment when St. Mary learns about her pregnancy with Jesus. The clues of
this literary ekphrastic allusion emerging on the surface level of the poem together with the
vehicle of the allusion are vividly expressed and make it possible for a reader with the relevant
background cultural knowledge plane to decode the hidden meaning of the allusion. Such a

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 RUSIESHVILI-CARTLEDGE & DOLIDZE: EKPHRASIS AND ITS MULTIFACETED NATURE

reader will recognize the cues presented by the poet, namely, the epigraph as well as stylistic
devices referring to St. Mary and the infant, such as a metaphoric comparison (as though the light
at the window were a newborn child) and an allusion to St. Mary holding her son (her arms open
enough to hold it on her breast, forever). Moreover, the title of the poem also facilitates the
process of decoding of the ekphrastic allusion as it makes it easier for the reader to link the poem
and the painting:

How weightless her body feels

as she stands, absorbed, within this
fulfillment that has brought more
than any harbinger could.
She looks down with an infinite
tenderness in her eyes,
as though the light at the window
were a newborn child
and her arms open enough
to hold it on her breast, forever.

The same stylistic mechanism seems to work in the case of filmic ekphrastic allusion which,
in our theory, is characterized by the structure similar to literary ekphrastic allusion. For instance,
in the following example only one of the planes of the figure (the vehicle) is represented on the
surface whereas the other one (the tenor) is hidden which makes their successful intersemiotic
transposition difficult to decode and the fullness of inference depends entirely on the readiness of
the reader: one of the heroes of the film Once Upon a Time in America, Noodles, reads Martin
Eden and the cover of the book remains on the screen for a considerable time. The associative
connection between this ekphrastic insert and Noodle’s life is quite clear: Martin Eden is a self-
educated, intelligent man who, defeated in his fight with the class recognition, finishes his life
thoroughly disappointed and disillusioned—that may be decoded based on the background
knowledge level. The events unfolded in the film confirm the allusion: disillusioned and unhappy
Noodles in the end escapes from the reality though not to the South Seas, but to the heroin den.
Interestingly, in the novel by Grey The Hoods on which the script of the film was based, Noodles
reads Robin Hood and as well as this, the novel reveals several metaphoric allusions to this hero.
In the film, Robin Hood was replaced by Martin Eden, as the director and other filmmakers must
have considered that replacement of the British hero by the American cultural icon of the period
would make it easier for the American audience to decode the meaning of this ekphrastic insert.
In some cases of the filmic ekphrastic allusion inference process may require even more
considerable mental effort from the viewer (based, once again, on the background cultural
knowledge plane) to decode them successfully. For instance, the episode from the film Once
Upon a Time in America in which Deborah dances in the backroom of the diner, evokes
associations with Degas’ Rehearsal on Stage as well as with his Little Dancer of 14 Years. This
filmic ekphrastic allusion is encoded and decoded based on the fact that the surface plane
presents the dance of the girl wearing the costume and hairstyle, reminding the viewer of Degas’
Little Dancer. In addition, the shape of the stage in the backroom and the colors employed also
provoke associations with Degas’ artworks. As well as in the cases above, for the successful
decoding of the allusion addressing their cultural background level, the viewer will be able to
recognize the associations if they are aware of the connection.
The third type of ekphrastic inserts, ekphrastic simile, is based on similarities or contrasts
between intersemiotic inserts (verbal versus visual). For instance, in the Georgian novel
Ekaterina Chavchavadze by Chilaia, Russian poet Griboedov compares the beauty of his future
wife, Princess Nino Chavchavadze to Murillo’s Madonna: “If you want to see my Nino, she is
standing over there, like the Madonna by Murillo.” Following Yacobi, we considered similar

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cases as ekphrastic simile, and, depending on the mode of depiction, we differentiate between
literary and filmic ekphrastic simile.
Both literary ekphrastic simile and filmic ekphrastic simile are created by referring to, and
comparing, two cross-semiotic mediums (visual versus verbal). As well as this, both types of
ekphrasis contain two elements: the vehicle and the tenor. Filmic ekphrastic simile may be
expressed by consecutive juxtaposition of the tenor and the vehicle of the figure by means of
replacing shots and close ups on the surface plane, which makes it easier to perceive the
connection between them. For instance, the final scene of Godfather III, into whose fabric
Coppola introduced the elements of Cavalleria Rusticana (music by Mascagni and story by
Verga) emphasizes both the similarity and contrast between the events unfolding on the stage and
in the film. By doing so, Coppola points self-reflexively to the status of his work as cultural
artefact, as art within art rather than reality within art, and any traditional notion of mimesis is
thoroughly dismantled. (Lauri-Lucente 2002, 9). Interestingly, this ekphrastic simile involves
three intersemiotic mediums (music, story and film, which, in its turn introduces visual and
auditory elements into the picture) as the contrast and comparison between the two arts (art
within art) intertwine on a musical as well as on a filmic scale. We argue that this episode
includes a number of filmic ekphrastic similes, amongst them, for instance, two screams
announcing Turiddu’s death and Michael’s famous silent scream, mourning his daughter’s death.
As can be seen from the textual examples provided above, the suggested bipartite semantic
model embraces both literary and filmic ekphrastic inserts and provides the channel for their
encoding and decoding stages. However, as Sager Eidt righteously argues, the two types of
ekphrasis, literary and filmic, differ in the mediums of expression. For instance, literary ekphrasis
is based on the verbal plane whereas filmic ekphrasis can employ verbal, visual and auditory
means (Sager Eidt 2008, 19). Needless to say such fullness and variety of expression
characteristic to filmic ekphrasis encompassing several semiotic systems encourage the viewer to
visualize (by either constructing or re-constructing) to a fuller extent than a reader would be able
to do due to their restriction by verbalization.
Sager Eidt presents her final definition of ekphrasis as “the verbalization, quotation, or
dramatization of real or fictitious texts composed in another sign system” (2008: 20). Based on
the textual examples analyzed above, it becomes obvious that in many cases, both literary and
filmic ekphrasis may not only employ the verbalization, quotation, or dramatization of real or
fictitious texts composed in another sign system (as suggested by Sager Eidt ) but, also, they may
indirectly allude to them both visually (pictorially) or verbally. Therefore, the finalized definition
of ekphrasis we suggest is the following: “Ekphrasis is the verbalization, quotation,
dramatization of or allusion to real or fictitious texts composed in another sign system.”

Conclusion
As was mentioned above, the goal of this paper was to restate the scopes of ekphrasis by
suggesting three types of ekphrastic inserts—ekphrastic description, ekphrastic allusion, and
ekphrastic simile—and to discuss how literary and filmic ekphrastic inserts are perceived by the
reader/viewer.
The research was based on the textual examples taken from the novel by Chevalier Girl With
a Pearl Earring, an ekphrastic poem by Mitchell inspired by one of the paintings by Vermeer,
and films Once Upon a Time in America by Leone and The Godfather by Coppola.
Having analyzed the examples we came to the following conclusions:
Being a multifaceted phenomenon, ekphrasis still evolves and stretches across genres,
semiotic and modal systems, hence the need for its revision and modification based on specific
examples.
Based on the bipartite semantic model of ekphrastic inserts proposed in this paper, we
suggest three types of literary and filmic ekphrastic inserts: ekphrastic description, ekphrastic

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 RUSIESHVILI-CARTLEDGE & DOLIDZE: EKPHRASIS AND ITS MULTIFACETED NATURE

simile, and ekphrastic allusion. All three of the proposed types of ekphrastic inserts are
characterized by the similar structure. Namely, they include a surface plane and a background
cultural knowledge plane. The latter plane plays a significant role in the process of decoding the
ekphrastic inserts. However, it becomes especially crucial with ekphrastic simile and ekphrastic
allusion as their adequate decoding depends on the relevant knowledge stored on the background
cultural knowledge plane. Specifically, ekphrastic description is relatively easy to decode due to
its explicit nature. However, the richness of associations and completeness of decoding of the
text still depends on the cultural knowledge the reader/viewer possesses. More specifically, if the
reader/viewer is familiar with the art object, they will reconstruct the image whereas in the
opposite case, they will construct the image following the description. Needless to say that in the
first case, the fullness of reconstruction will be greater.
In the cases of ekphrastic simile and ekphrastic allusion the process is more complex. For
instance, in the case of the ekphrastic simile, which, following Yacobi, we consider to be a
rhetorical figure, the tenor as well as the vehicle are represented on the surface level, and the
successful decoding of the figure depends on the degree of readiness of the reader’s/viewer’s or,
in other words, on the associations and cues stored on the background cultural knowledge plane.
The significance of this plane becomes greater in the case of ekphrastic allusion which
directly depends on it due to the fact that, although the vehicle is represented on the surface
plane, the tenor is tied to the background cultural knowledge. The more relevant the knowledge,
the fuller the overlap between the writer’s/filmmaker’s encoded intentions and the
reader’s/viewer’s perception of the ekphrastic insert will be and thus, the fuller the process of
decoding is.

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Prof. Manana Rusieshvili-Cartledge: Full Professor, Head of the Department of English
Philology, Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia

Prof. Rusudan Dolidze: Associate Professor, Department of English Philology, Tbilisi State
University, Tbilisi, Georgia

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The International Journal of Literary Humanities is
one of five thematically focused journals in the
collection of journals that support the New Directions
in the Humanities knowledge community—its
journals, book series, conference, and online
community.
Documentation of the literary practice in the article
should include factors such as contextual explanation,
interpretative exegeses and audience analysis.
The International Journal of Literary Humanities is a
peer-reviewed scholarly journal.

The literary humanities analyze and interpret literatures

and literary practices. Their role is to locate texts and
stabilize bodies of work into traditions and genres.
Or, in a critical orientation, the literary humanities may
also seek to unsettle received expressive forms and
conventional interpretations. This journal explores
these dimensions of the literary humanities, in a
contemporary context where the role and purpose of
the humanities in general, and literary humanities in
particular, is frequently contested.

As well as papers of a traditional scholarly type, this

journal invites presentations of literary practice—
including unpublished literary pieces. These can either
be short pieces included within the body of article or
if longer, referenced pieces that are readily available
in the public domain (for instance, via web link).

ISSN 2327-7912

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