Overview of Urban and Regional Planning

What is planning?
Planning is primarily a way of thinking about socio-economic problems, oriented predominantly toward the
future, is deeply concerned with the relation of goals to collective decisions and strives for
comprehensiveness in policy and program (Friedman)
A sequence of actions which are designed to solve problems in the future
Planning problems tend to be social and economic; time horizon of the future varies according to the type and
level of planning
Planning is a reconciliation of social and economic aims, of public and private objectives
It is the allocation of resources, particularly land, in such a manner as to obtain maximum efficiency, while
playing heed to the nature of the built environment and the welfare of the community
Planning is an art of anticipating change, and arbitrating between the economic, social, political and physical
forces that determines the location, form, and effect of urban development

Functions of the State (vis-à-vis society)

Provision of public services
Regulation and facilitation of the operations of market forces
Arbitration of contending social groups (e.g., capital and labor, landlord and tenant)
Social engineering – structural change

Urban and Regional Planning

Town and Country Planning

Comprehensive Development Plan

Comprehensive Land Use Plan
Master Plan

Purpose of Urban (Town) Planning

Can’t be confined to land use allocation alone; must include consideration and coordination of associated
activities bearing upon the human and physical environment
To promote a physical environment that is harmonious, pleasing and convenient
A planned provision of distribution of all facilities designed to secure aesthetic qualities in the physical
environment

Urban (Town) Planning

The art and science of ordering the use of land and siting of buildings and communication routes so as to
secure maximum practicable degree of economy, convenience and beauty
An attempt to formulate the principles that should guide us in creating a civilized physical background for
human life, whose main impetus is … forseeing and guiding change.
Concerned with providing the right site at the right time, in the right place for the right people (Ratcliffe)
The manner of allocation of resources, particularly land, in such a manner as to obtain maximum efficiency,
whilst paying heed to the nature of the build environment and the welfare of the community
The act of anticipating change, and arbitrating between the economic, social, physical, and environmental forces that
determine the location, form, and effect of urban development (Ratcliffe)

Scope of Urban (Town) Planning

Development control (planning law and its enforcement) – means by which planning policy can be put into
effect and made a reality
Much of the planner’s work - consists of dealing with already developed older sites where the objective
maybe to incorporate existing buildings into the proposed new scheme
The planner’s job – has to be flexible in applying planning standards when negotiating with the developers in
order to get the best solution possible

1
 Production of citywide development plan that determines which sites can be built upon in the first place
 Development Plan – covers all types and aspects of land use and development, both rural and urban

Scope of Urban (Town) Planning

 Town planning probably influences people’s lives more that detailed site specific aspects - but it is relatively
invisible to the average citizen or taken for granted – until they are adversely affected
 Macro or city wide policy level is linked to the micro site level of town planning

Planning and the Market

 Without town planning, land would be apportioned between competing uses by the price mechanism and
interaction of supply and demand
 The market, operating alone, does not provide the most appropriate location for what are generally described
as the non-profit making uses of land (e.g., open spaces, roads and bridges, etc.)
 However, correct siting of these lands can make land uses more profitable
 Thus, planning assists the market in becoming more efficient
 Planning seeks to direct and control the nature of the built environment in the interest of society as a whole
 But there are twin forces of the free market and the planning process
 The planner has to operate alongside of the market, directly influencing and frequently assisting its functioning, but in a
manner that takes account of both public and private interests

Regional Planning
 Concerned with planning for an area with distinctive economic and social characteristics, opportunities and
problems and setting it apart from other regions
 Process of formulating and clarifying social objectives in the ordering of activities in urban space

What is a Region
 A flexible concept referring to a continuous and localized area intermediate between national and urban levels
 Straddles the national and local gap
 Can also have sub-regional level
 “Hybrid,” relating to a part of a larger region, although it may not be too clearly defineable, it has a
certain logic in practical terms
 May overlap local authority boundaries relating more to specific problems than administrative
convenience
 It is a more localized area with its own particular structure, problems and potential

Formal / Functional Region

 Formal Region – geographical area which is uniform and homogeneous in terms of related criteria
 Functional Region – geographical area which displays a certain functional coherence, an interdependence of
parts, defined on the basis of certain criteria

The Need for Regional Planning

 Urban regions arising from rapid population growth, increasing urbanization and increasing standard of living
and personal mobility
 Resulted in aspect of regional planning that has been physical or environmental in nature
 Led to the evolution of land use planning approach
 Problem of depressed industrial and rural regions suffering from economic malaise
 Resulted in the aspect of regional planning that is economic (Economic disparities between regions)
 Separate regional cultures and political identities produced necessary pressure for action
 Movement towards a regional structure of administration and decision making
 Supporting device for national and local planning (i.e., interregional allocation of resources)
 But the climate of need for regional planning is not constant caused by:
 Institutional environment of regional planning (e.g., reorganization of local government)
 Economic recession

Regional Planning
 Physical Planning – planning of an area’s physical structures: land use, communications, utilities, etc. and has
its origin in the regulation and control of town development (direct control)

2
 Economic Planning – concerned with the economic structure of an area and its overall level of prosperity
(works more through the market mechanism)
 Allocative Planning – concerned with coordination, the resolution of conflicts ensuring that the existing
system is ticking over efficiently through time in accordance with evolving policies (also known as regulatory
planning)
 Innovative Planning – improving / developing the system as a whole, introducing new aims and attempting
to mold change on a large scale (also known as development planning)
 Indicative Planning – lays down general guidelines and is advisory in nature
 Imperative Planning- (or command planning) involves specific directives

Typology of Planning Theory

Procedural
 Decision Making
 General theory of decision making in a social context, but not in urban planning
 Advocacy Planning
 Urban planning is conditioned by the distribution of power in society, with the consequence that
powerless groups can find themselves without technical expertise
 Planners serve the disadvantaged
 New Humanists
 Planning through mutual learning
 Critical Theorists
 Looks at the historical evolution and the transformation of the capitalist mode of production
Explaining the Facts of Planning
 Marxists

Planning Theory
 Town planning developed out of architecture, engineering, and surveying
 Area of concern being that of the “system” of land use and settlements
 Planning theory is reduced to a kit-bag of “how to do it” prescriptions and somewhat elusive nations of the
creative mind (Procedural)
 But the planning profession cannot claim any exclusive rights to the system concept either, even when it is
applied to land use
 Planning theory is applicable in as much as wider field than just physical planning;
 it deals with the activity of planning and must take cognizance of the social sciences (Substantive)
 The record of collaboration between town planners and social scientists is not good, nor one must add, does
their education necessarily equip social scientists with the skills and attitude required in planning

 If courses are to consist of more than a collection academic disciplines clustered around a rather nebulous
concept of planning, then there must be a core of planning theory in any such course
 The need for the development of planning theory is therefore felt most urgently by planning teachers, and in
particular by those who teach undergraduates
 Theory of planning as having an applicability far beyond town planning
 The academic study of planning may therefore provide stimuli for innovations in planning practice. Finally,
there may also be tremendous potential in the planning education sector influence many educational fields
outside of town planning which maybe beneficial to the profession
 Instrumentalist View
 “The actual conduct of inquiry … concerns itself with ultimates, but with the next step to be taken (Keplan,
1964)
 Realists hold that a good theory provides a map of the world as it us and therefore prefer a deductive
model of explanation based on laws
 The instrumentalists view is that good theories are guides to successful action, no matter whether they
represent the world accurately or not.
 Instrumentalism does not disregard empirical findings. It is only more sympathetic to man ass an actor
wishing to orient himself here and now than realism
 The Rationale of Planning Theory
 Planning promoting human growth by the use of rational procedures of thought and action
 Identifies best way of attaining needs
 Contributes to learning and hence, future growth
 Human growth as power

3
Planning and Related Fields
 Architectural design
 Economics and valuation
 Sociology
 Statistics
 Engineering
 Traffic engineering or traffic planning
 Geology
 Agriculture
 Law
 Government structure
 Geography
 Applied math
 Environment

Legal Basis of Planning

 Planning as an activity of government
 Involves exercise of powers vested in the government and the expenditure of public funds
 Constitutional framework – defines power of the government (federal, state, sub-state, city, township,
village)
 Power of Eminent Domain
 Government has the right to take property for public purposes; payment of just compensation, due
process of law
 Power of Taxation
 Government has the right to impose taxes

 Police Power
 Regulate activities of the private parties to protect the interest of the people – health, safety, public
welfare
 Further established the principle that compensation need not be paid for any loss of property value that
zoning might impose
 If compensation will be paid, public control of land use would be very expensive
 Public Control Over Private Property
 One of the central stories in the history of modern planning
 Involves the imposition of uncompensated losses on property owners

Planning and Politics

 Planning often involves matters in which the people have large emotional stakes.
 Planning decisions are visible. (e.g., roads, parks, etc.)
 Planning encourages participation
 Citizens tend not to defer to planners – assume they know something about the plan
 Planning involves decisions with large financial consequences.
 There can be a strong link between planning and questions of property taxes.

Nature of Planning
 A process
 Science and art
 Multisectoral
 Dynamic
 Continuous / Cyclic

Planning Approaches

1. Traditional Planning Approach

 The Master Plan Approach
 With bias on physical planning

4
 Conforming to traditions, code or practice from the past (conventional)
 A one-shot attempt
 Advantages:
 End product is long range (20 – 30 years)
 Comprehensive with respect to physical design
 Useful in planning isolated middle size city or affluent cities with moderate growth (new towns, garden
cities)

2. Shift from Product to Process

 Gives alternative solutions in the process of planning
 Planners plan with the people and not for the people
 Given impetus by the industrial revolution because of the problem of rapid migration
 Howard – introduced the transition from physical to process-oriented plan

3. Systems View of Planning

 View of subject matter through system or sub-system of man’s activities through interrelationships
 Systematic view of man as he relates with the environment
 Environment as a system
 Complex whole
 Set of interconnected things or parts
 Group of objects related or interacting to form unity
 A set of objects together with relationships between the objects and their attributes

4. Policy Planning
 Focuses only on a particular issue
 Products include draft legislations, memoranda, position papers, letters
 Clients are national and local government officials
 Process of establishing ends and determining means to achieve the end
 Preparation of a set of general statements that define direction of future development

History of Human Settlements

Human Settlements
 Rationale: An increase in the number of settlements which is not developing in accordance with the needs of
its community leads to its DISINTEGRATION
 Hippodamus of Miletus – was able to comprehend the experience of his era and express it in cities that he
designed

Ekistics
 The attempt to arrive at a proper conception and implementation of the facts, concepts and ideas related to
human settlements
 The attempt to reexamine all principles and theories and to readjust the disciplines and professions
connected with settlements
 The science of human settlements (by Doxiades)

Human Settlements
 Settlements inhabited by man
 Consists of
 The Content: Man
 The Container: Physical Settlement
 Natural Elements
 Man-made (artificial) Elements

Elements of Human Settlements

 Nature – the foundation upon which the settlement is created; frame within which it can function
 Man
 Society

5
 Shells – structures within which man lives and carries out different functions
 Networks – natural and man-made systems which facilitate the functioning of the settlement (e.g., roads,
water supply, electricity, etc.)

Human Settlements
 The study of human settlements must revolve around the relationships between the elements (objects of
study of the different disciplines)
 These relationships bring settlements into existence

Four Basic Parts of Composite Human Settlements

 The Homogeneous Parts – the fields
 The Central Parts – built-up village
 The Circulatory Parts – roads and paths within the fields
 The Special Parts – i.e., a monastery contained within the homogenous part

Ekistic Logarithmic Scale (ELS)

 Consist of 15 Ekistic units ranging from Man to Ecumenopolis and these units turn into 4 basic groups
 Used as a basis for the measurement and classification of many dimensions in human settlements
 Also used in geography and regional science

Four Basic Groups of ELS

 Minor shells or elementary units (man, room, house)
 Micro-settlements –the units smaller than, or as small as, the traditional town where people used do and still
do achieve interconnection by walking
 Meso-settlements – between the traditional town and the conurbation within which one can commute daily
 Macro-settlements – whose largest possible expression is the Ecumenopolis

Classification of Human Settlements

 Based on Sizes –sizes of the five elements and their combinations (people, land area)
 Based on Location of Settlements – plains, mountains, coastal, etc.
 Based on Relationships between Settlements within Space (hierarchical or non-hierarchical)
 Based on Physical Forms - form as the expression of content, function, and structure
 Based on the Five Elements of Human Settlements
 Based on Functions – which are important to an understanding of the meaning and role of settlements
 They reveal the nature, specialization, and the raison d’etre of the settlements
 They can be based on activity (economic, social), their performance, or their special role (as
dormitories, retirement villages, etc.)
 Based on Time Dimension – the age of settlements, their place in the continuum (past, present, future), their
relative static or dynamic character, the whole process of their growth
 Based on the degree of society’s conscious involvement in the settlements creation – natural and
planned settlements
 Based on institutions, legislations and administration - which society has created for settlements
 By Ekistic Units
 By Ekistic Elements
 By Ekistic Functions
 By Evolutionary Phases
 By Factors and Disciplines

By Ekistic Elements
 Nature
 Geologic resources
 Topographic resources
 Soil resources
 Water resources
 Plant life
 Animal life
 Climate

6
 Man
 Biological needs (space, air, temperature)
 Sensation and perceptions (‘five senses’)
 Emotional needs (human relations, security, beauty)
 Moral values
 Society
 Population composition and density
 Social stratification
 Cultural patterns
 Economic development
 Education
 Health and welfare
 Law and administration
 Shells
 Housing
 Community services (schools, hospitals, etc.)
 Shopping centers and markets
 Recreational facilities
 Civic and business centers
 Industry
 Transportation centers
 Networks
 Water supply systems
 Power supply systems
 Transportation systems (water, road, rail, air)
 Communication systems
 Sewerage and drainage
 Physical lay-out (Ekistic Plan)

By Evolutionary Phases
 Macro scale
 Nomadic
 Agricultural
 Urban
 Urban-industrial
 Micro-scale
 Specific area at a limited period of time

History of Planning
Ancient World
 Urbanization in the fertile lands from Nile Valley to Euphrates River
 Babylon as one of the first cities
 Rectilinear plotting with the use of plow
 Suited the needs of agriculture societies of the Nile, Tigris and Euphrates River for easy land division by crop
 Used in ancient Greek towns, Roman colonial outposts, Indian, Chinese and pre-Columbian cities

Ancient Greece (500 – 400 BC)

 Hippodamus of Miletus (Father of Town Planning)
 Greek architect, emphasized geometric designs, grid pattern of streets to ensure accessibility
 Provided the first theoretical framework in planning
 Significant developments include:
 Acropolis – visible relationship between buildings and nature
 Agora – buildings served as facades to form an enclosed urban space; grouped around central
open space
 Gridiron Pattern – credited to lawyer named Hippodamus

7
Ancient Rome
 Rome was the first city with a million population (3 AD)
 Significant Developments:
 Definition of Town – a system of gridiron streets enclosed by a wall; theatre, arena, and market were
places for common assembly
 Basic street pattern useful for military government

Medieval Times
 Growth of towns around either a monastery or castle, assumed a radiocentric pattern; relied on protective
town walls or fortification for security
 Generally, towns evolved with irregular street patterns;
 Predominance of abbeys and cathedrals indicating church influence
th
 13 century AD – many towns with less than 10,000 residents; few times more than 12 miles because of
water consideration
th
 14 century AD – Florence had 10,000 people, Venice became trading center of Byzantine empire, Paris
emerged as trading center

Renaissance (1440s )
th th
 15 / 16 Century
 Aesthetics as the basic form of planning
 Established concept of urban design
 Beauty, form and function combined
 Leon Battista Alberti
 “Ideal Cities” – star shaped plans with street radiating from a central point, usually for a church, palace
or castle
 Designs usually included curved streets conforming to topography
 Pierre Charles L’enfant (1791)
 French-American engineer who prepared Plan for Washington D.C.

Rome (1550s)
 Linked settlements to transport
 Built roads to expand empires because of Napoleonic concept of colonization
 Built military cities for defense and security
 Characterized by square pattern of plans with housing consisting of small apartments for masses and with
atrium for the rich

London (1600s)
 Sir Christopher Wren (1600s) – English architect, prepared Plan for London, St. Peter and St. Paul
Cathedral
 John Gwynn (1766) – prepared a remarkable plan called “London and Westminster Improved”
 James Craig (1767) - Scottish architect, planned linear new towns for Edinburg
 Robert Owen (1799) – English social reformer, conceptualized “Village of Unity and Mutual Cooperation)
 Don Arturo Soria y Mata (1844) – Spanish engineer, suggested the idea “Linear City” from Cadiz, Spain
across Europe, logic of linear utility lines should be the basis of all city lay-out, houses and buildings could be
set alongside linear utility systems supplying water, communications and electricity
 Tony Garnier – French architect, industrial city with a linear structure, designed hypothetical industrial town
called “Une Cite Industrielle”

Paris (1800s)
 Baron George Eugene Haussman
 Architect-theorist, urban design attended to workers as well as members of the ruling class
 Advocated informal groupings of houses as part of the overall design
 Published the book “Architecture in 1804”

8
Industrial Revolution (1769)

The Conservationists and the Park Movement

 Frederick Law Olmsted
 Associated with American park system
 Urban park as an aid to social reform
 In 1859, he designed the Greensward Plan for Central Park in New York
 In 1870, wrote a comprehensive park planning book named “Public Parks and the Enlargement of
Towns”

The Garden City Movement

 Ebenezer Howard
 Showed how workable and livable cities could be formed within a capitalist framework
 Cluster concept whereby a central city of 58,000 people was surrounded by “garden cities” of 30,000
people each separated by permanent green space serving as horizontal fence of farmlands
 Rails and roads would link the towns with industries and nearby towns supplying fresh food
 In 1902, a garden city was established in Letchworth, 35 miles from London (planned by Architects
Barry Parkes and Raymond Unwin)
 Advanced concept of “Social City” – a polycentric settlement, growth without limit, surrounded by
greenbelt
 Advocated high residential density (15 houses per acre)
 Town growth – grow by cellular addition into a complex multi-centered agglomeration of towns set
against a green background of open country

The City Beautiful Era (1900-1945)

 Golden age of urban design in the US
 According to Burnham, city was a totally designed system of main circulation arteries, a network of parks and
clusters of focal buildings or building blocks of civic centers including city hall, a country court house, a library,
an opera house, a museum and a plaza
 His movement spread to embrace all public works including bridges, river embankments, colleges and
universities, railroads with Roman Catholic basilicas, and baths as grand portals to Chicago, New York,
Washington, etc.
 Manifestations in India when the capital was transferred from Calcutta to Delhi (1911)
 The movement gave way to the City Functional concepts including zoning

Town and Country Planning Act of 1947 (Britain)

 Spatial in nature
 Concerned with the spatial impact of many different kinds of problems and the spatial coordination of many
different policies
 Method of Planning – man assumes control over physical and human matter and process it to serve his
defined needs

The Anglo-American Tradition

 Ebenezer Howard (1850-1928)
 Wrote Tomorrow (1898) followed up with Garden Cities of Tomorrow (1902)
 Invented New Town as an answer to the problems of the city with an economist justification
 Industry would locate anywhere if labor was available, community would have to pay the social costs of
poor health and poor housing (Alfred Marshall)
 Three magnets in his paradigm depicted both the city and the countryside had both advantages and
disadvantages
 Creation of jobs and urban services resulted in poor natural environment
 The countryside offered an excellent natural environment but virtually no opportunities of any kind

Daniel Burnham
 Father of American City Planning
 Prophet of City Beautiful Movement in America

9
 Greatest achievement is the Chicago Plan of 1909
 Wrote the Plan for Chicago (1909) and Planning the Region of Chicago (1956)(origins based o boulevards
and promenades of European capitals)
 Criticisms of Chicago Plan
 Based on a business core with no conscious provision for business expansion in the rest of the city
 Planned as an aristocratic city for merchant princess, not in accord with the realities of downtown real
estate development which demanded overbuilding and congestion, utopian
 Beauty stand supreme, commercial convenience significant, no health and sanitation concerns, scant
attention to zoning

The Regional City (1900-1940)

 Started by Patrick Geddes (1854-1932); “Survey before plan”
 The answer to urban congestion is regional planning considering the principles of ecological balance and
resource renewal
 Cities in the scheme become subordinate to region; old cities and new towns alike will grow just as necessary
parts of the regional scheme

Patrick Geddes
 Scottish city planner
 Wrote Cities in Evolution (1915)
 Coined the term “conurbation”
 Planning must start with a survey of the resources of a region, of human responses to it, and of the resulting
complexities of the cultural landscape; emphasis on the survey method
 Urban Conurbation
 Conglomeration of town aggregates, describing the waves of population to large cities, followed by
overcrowding and slum formation, and the wave of backflow
 The whole process resulting in amorphic sprawl, waste and unnecessary obsolescence
 Stressed social basis of the city – concerned with the relationship between people and cities and how
they affect one another
 Inflow, Build up, Backflow (central slums), and Sprawling mass (central blight)
 Famous Books
 1904: City Development: A Study of Parks, gardens and Culture Institutes
 1905: Civics as Applied Sociology
 1915: Cities in Evolution

Regional Planning
 Founding of the Regional Planning Association of America
 Published “Survey” – a manifesto containing the concept of a region
 Henry Wright and Clarence Stein
 Produced “The Report of the Commission in Housing and Regional Planning for the State of New York”
 Explained how New York developed from a city of small trade centers to an industrial belt, to a financial
and managerial center

Urban Theorists
 Constantine Doxiades
 Contribution: State problems of modern urbanization with scientific clarity and to propose a rational
method of addressing those problems
 Approaches town planning as a science which includes planning and design as well as contributions
from the sociologist, geographer, economist, demographer, politician, sociologist, anthropologist,
ecologist, etc.
 Ekistics – the science of human settlements
 Lewis Mumford
 Urged that fundamental needs of society be the bases for the judicious use of our technological power;
geared towards harmonious life of civilized social groups in ecological balance with the particular place
occupied
 Recognized the physical limitations of human settlement
 Wrote “City in History” in 1961

10
The New Communities Movement (early 1920s)
 Produced “better communities”
 Discussed community problems and issues
 Endless gridiron tracks wasteful and unnecessary
 Approach was to formulate home building corporations, financed by companies seeking long term
investments
 Radburn or new town idea – to create a series of super blocks (an island of greens, bordered by homes and
carefully skirted by peripheral auto roads), each around open green spaces which are themselves
interconnected.
 Greenways were pedestrian ways
 Creation of neighborhood centers and physical delineation of neighborhood groups

Modern Architecture and Planning

 Charles-Edouard Jeanneret (1887-1965)
 Swiss, popularly known as Le’ Corbusier
 Une Ville Contemporaine (Contemporary City) (923) – a hypothetical plan for a city of 3 million people
 La Ville Radieuse (Radiant City) – anchored on the objective to decongest the centers of our cities by
increasing their densities by building high on a small party of the total grand area; Every great city must
rebuild its center
 Last of the City Beautiful Planners
 City of Chandigarh – the new capital of Punjab, India as his only real achievement on the ground
 Criticisms:
 Shift from planning style to architectural style – shift towards a preoccupation with visual form,
symbolism, imagery and aesthetics rather than the basic problems of Indian population;
 Plan was impervious of economic and human considerations

Urban Renewal In America

 Housing Act of 1949 – focused on urban decay caused by obsolescent land uses; federal aid is needed to
buy blighted property and the cities required to draw up plans for redevelopment
 Jane Jacobs
 Wrote “The Death and Life of Great American Cities” as one of the most influential books in planning
 Argued that there is nothing wrong with high urban densities of people so long as they do not entail
overcrowding in buildings
 She prescribed that neighborhood should have mixed functions and therefore land uses to ensure that
people were there for different purposes, on different time schedules, but using many facilities in
common
 Resulted to “yuppification” of the city

Review of Regional Planning Theories

Regional Planning Theories
 Growth Pole Theory (Perroux and Boudeville)
 Theory of Cumulative Causation (Myrdal)
 Polarization and Trickle Down Effect (Hirschman)
 Core-Periphery Model (Friedman)
 Optimum City (Klaasen)

Growth Pole – Perroux

 Perroux puts forward an explanation of economic growth which is more realistic than that offered by models
which tracked equilibrium growth of economic aggregates
 Observable economic growth is characterized by structural changes
 the appearance or disappearance of industries, the varying proportions of various industries in total
output in the course of successive periods,
 the different rates of growth for different industries during one period and in successive periods,
 the diffusion of the growth of an industry (or group of industries)
 Power is one of the most difficult variables to specify in the social sciences

11
  Theory of economic domination = effect of monopolistic and oligopolistic market structures on price
cutting
 Perroux introduced the concept of “propulsive unit” or “growth pole”
 Propulsive unit or growth pole
 Propulsive unit – type of dominant economic unit which when it grows or innovates, induces growth in
the other economic units
 It may be a firm, a set of firms within the same sector (i.e., an industry), or a collection of firms which
have shared agreement
 Perruxian growth analysis is concerned with identifying the characteristics of propulsive units and their growth
inducement mechanisms
 Relationship of propulsive units with other economic units are examined
 If an economy in which elimination effects occurred is characterized as a “field of forces,” then
propulsive units located within this field maybe described as “poles of growth”
 Growth Inducement Mechanisms Associated with Growth Poles
 Associated with certain industries, within these industries, with certain firms from which the disturbances
then spread over the whole system
 “The growth does not appear everywhere at the same time; it manifests itself in points or ‘poles’
of growth, with variable intensities; it spreads by different channels with variable terminal effects
for the economy as a whole.”
 Transformation of the Growth Pole Concept (To urban growth center)
 In the 70s, the vision of Perroux was considered in the context of regional planning

Basic economic concepts

 The concept of leading industries and propulsive firms
 Center of growth poles and large propulsive firms belonging to leading industries which dominate other
economic units
 Maybe just a single dominant propulsive firm or a core of them forming an industrial complex
 Maybe due to localization of natural resources and man-made advantages
 Growth points = grafted to existing framework of central places
 The concept of polarization
 Rapid growth of leading industries (propulsive growth) induces polarization of other economic units into
the poles of growth
 Induces agglomeration economies
 The concept of spread effects
 The dynamic propulsive qualities of the growth pole radiate outwards, into the surrounding space
“trickling down” or “spread effects”
 Leading industries
 New and dynamic industry with advanced technology
 High income elasticity of demand for its products
 Strong center – industry linkage with other sectors
 Forward linkage – high ratio of intermediate industry sales to total sales (output of industry)
 Backward linkage – high ratio of intermediary inputs from other industries to total inputs (input to
industry)

Three Types of Agglomeration Economies

 Economies internal to the firm – low production cost per unit
 Economies external to the firm but internal to the industry – reduction in cost per unit output to the firm or
the industry expands at a particular location
 Localization economies – locational proximity of linked firms = large and skilled labor pool; exchange
of materials and products; processing of waste materials; R&D
 Economies external to the industry but internal to the urban area – downward shift in the average cost of
each firm as many industries grow in one place; requires highly developed infrastructure
 Urbanization economies – development of urban labor markets, access to larger markets, provision of
wider range of services by public and private sector

Growth Pole – Perroux

 Definitions of Growth Pole:
 A spatial agglomeration of related industries

12
  A spatial agglomeration of related industries which contains a growing propulsive industry
 A spatial agglomeration of related industries, located in an urban center, which, through their
expansion, induce growth in the surrounding hinterland
 A growing urban center inducing growth in its surrounding hinterland
 A growing urban center
 Growth of population (employment) at a rate greater than that for the regional benchmark
economy
 An absolute growth of population (employment) which is greater by some given percentage to the
total growth of the region
 A growing economic unit, a firm or industry has become a growing spatial unit, a city. And the analysis of
the way in which a propulsive industry may induce growth in other places
 Growth pole – a propulsive unit in a given environment; a propulsive unit within the surrounding
environment

Growth Pole Theory (Perroux)

 Central Features:
 Growth pole as propulsive unit or dominant economic unit which when it grows induces growth in other
economic units
 Growth does not appear everywhere and all at once; it appears in development points with variable
intensities, it spreads along diverse channels with varying terminal effects on the economy
 Growth pole theory is a transformation of the growth pole concept
 The designation of industrial estates has been described as growth pole selection; with small rural villages to
serve as service centers for rural regions, to take one end of the size spectrum, or the promotion of million
plus metropolis as counter magnets to the primate city
 Main Assumptions:
 Leading industries and propulsive firms
 Polarization / agglomeration, with spread effects
 Weakness:
 No spatial dimension
 Strengths:
 Agglomeration
 Less public expenditure
 Spread effects help depressed regions
 Transportation
 Usefulness:
 Led to the adoption of growth center strategy
 Led to the growth pole theory
 Transformed to growing urban centers
 Urban and regional development planning based on central places
 Criticisms:
 Absence of location element
 Absence of explanation for growth and functioning of growth pole
 Absence of explanation on transmission of growth between geographical and sectoral clusters

Growth Pole - Boudeville

 A complex set of activities agglomerated around a propulsive center
 Key to regional development
 Regional pole is a set of expanding industries located in urban areas and including further development of
economic activity throughout the zone of influence
 In a regional setting, a “regional pole” is a geographical agglomeration of activities; towns possessing a
complex of propulsive industries
 Conceptualization of various types of space, region, and nature of geographical and functional
interdependencies
 Economic space - homogeneous in relation to properties and characteristics
 Polarized region – heterogeneous continuous area localized in a geographical space, whose different parts
are interdependent through mutual complementarities and interplay relations around a regional center of
gravity
 Growth pole is both a functional and geographical entity; with propulsive structure
 Two characteristics of propulsive firms:

13
  Direct and indirect dominating influence over all other activities
 Oligopolistic concentration of industry with price leadership and keen sense of anticipation in the moves
of its own sector as well as related branches
 Contribution of Boudeville:
 Growth pole approach as one of the regional operational models
 Central Features:
 “Regional growth pole” refers to “a set of expanding industries locating in an urban area and inducing
further development of economic activity throughout its zone of influence”
 Complex activities around propulsive center
 Main Assumptions:
 Region not very specialized
 Sources of inputs and location of final consumers
 Strength:
 With geographic dimension

Growth Pole Theory

 Usefulness:
 For understanding regional structure
 Method for predicting changes in regional structures and prescribing solutions to certain regional
problems
 Designation of Regional Centers
 Criticisms to Growth Pole:
 Absence of location element – where functional growth poles are or will be localized in the geographic
space;
 Absence of adequate explanation for the growth and functioning of the growth pole; and
 How the transmission of growth in a geographic space (I.e., temporal interaction between geographical
and sectoral clusters) would take place

Growth Center
 Purely spatial growth pole
 Methods of identifying growth centers:
 Central place functions = number of functions
 Nodal location = predominant flows
 Location on the development surface = level of development in different locations
 Population growth rate = population growth rate

Growth Pole Theory and Regional Planning

 Efficient way of generating development – owing to agglomeration economies
 Less public expenditures if investment areas are concentrated in specific growth points
 Spread effects out of the growth point will help solve the problems of depressed regions

Theory of Cumulative Causation – Myrdal

 Central Features:
 Disequilibrium in space economy due to market forces
 Market forces create regional inequalities (dominant in poor countries)
 Circular and cumulative causation
 Change in some variables does not bring the system back to equilibrium = induces supporting
changes farther from the initial state
 Social systems not self-equilibrating (Circular and cumulative causation)
 Backwash effect – retard growth and widen economic gap between regions
 Spread effects – positive effects e.g., raw materials
 Therefore, market forces create regional inequality and widen those which already exist
 A region or country becomes richer, the poor becomes poorer because of cumulative process where forces
work in circular causation to reinforce development or underdevelopment. This is because:
 Market forces, if left alone, tend to increase rather than decrease inequalities between regions
 Regions with expanding economic activity will attract net migration from other parts of the country, thus
favoring the growth regions
 Capital investments tend to have a similar effect: increased demand in centers of expansion spur

14
 investment, which in turn will increase incomes and demand and cause a second round of investments,
etc.
 Trade operates with the same fundamental bias in favor of more progressive regions
 While industrialization is the dynamic force of development, the poorer regions remain agricultural. Also,
manufacturing and agriculture in poorer regions have lower levels of productivity than in the richer regions.
 Poorer regions, unaided, could hardly afford medical care, their people less healthy and hence have lower
production efficiency. Poorer regions have fewer schools that are inferior and which perpetuate the people’s
traditional attitudes which work against further economic pursuits
 All these frustrating effects of poverty are interlocked in circular causation. The opposite effects of rising
economic levels are similarly interconnected, sustaining further expansion.
 Main Assumptions:
 Market forces lead to inequality
 Regions with expanding economic activities attract net migration
 Trade is in favor of more progressive regions
 Poor regions characterized by agriculture, poor production efficiency

Polarization and Trickle Down Effect - Hirschman

 Central Features:
 Growth is communicated from leading sector of economy to others
 Development strategies could concentrate on a relatively few sectors, such being determined by the
ability to induce forward and backward linkage effects
 Growth is unnecessarily an unbalanced process, and takes place through a “chain of disequilibrium,”
the expansion of one industry creating external economies for the other
 Integrating linkages = forward and backward linkages = to establishment of growing point
 As polarization becomes unfavorable, “trickle down” effect will start
 Trickle down effect – process of development of backward areas through product and factor input
demand pulls from developed regions; considered as evolutionary phenomena in Hirschman’s analysis
 Disequilibrium – expansion of one industry creates chain of disequilibrium
 In the long run, public investment will cease to be pulled so heavily into the developed areas, largely
because of considerations of equity and national unity
 Scarce resources can’t be invested everywhere at once, and certain sectors must obviously be selected
for their growth potential; uniform development within a whole country will take place, inevitably but
gradually and will be brought about through trickling down effects
 State will intervene to influence the growth of imbalances wherever the normal market
mechanism proves inadequate
 Strengths:
 Public investment cease to be pulled so heavily in developed regions
 Intervention of the state to decrease imbalance
 Usefulness:
 Selection of areas and sectors with growth potential

Core-Periphery Model – John Friedman

 Central Features:
 Two Spatial Sub-systems:
 Core = dynamic propulsive heart of system; replaces concepts like metropolitan areas, growth
poles and growth centers
 Periphery = remaining system existing in state of dependence and subservient to the core;
hinterland or fringe areas
 Stages of Spatial Organization:
 Pre-industrial (independent local center)
 Beginning of industrialization (single strong center)
 Industrial maturation (single national center)
 Final outcome (functionally interdependent system of cities)
 Usefulness:
 Creation of spatial organization capable of sustaining transition to industrialization

Optimum City – Klaasen

 The concept of “optimum city”

15
  City should have limit on population size
 Minimum size as growth pole; 200,000 to 600,000 inhabitants
 Relationship between problems of economic development and urbanization
 Urbanization as incentive to economic growth

Theories of Industrial Location

Theories and Concepts on Location of Industries
 COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE
 VON THUNEN’S THEORY OF AGRICULTURAL LOCATION
 INDUSTRIAL LOCATION THEORY

Comparative Advantage
 Compares alternative sites considering the tendency to produce goods and services in areas with the greatest
ratio of advantage on the least ratio of disadvantage
 But sites near metropolitan areas enjoy very high comparative advantage
 Factors to Consider in Site Selection
 natural endowments - climate & natural resources
 favorable production combination
 transportation - distance to ship raw materials and finished products
 institutional advantages
 amenity factors
 interaction of comparative advantage factors

Von Thunen’s Theory Of Agricultural Location

 Land rent differentials are based on the basic principle that activities compete for space and land rent
determines land efficiency
 The choice of a commodity for a site located at a specific distance from the center will yield the highest
possible land rent
 The combination of commodities in each zone is determined by 3 factors:
 transport cost per unit of commodity per unit distance
 yield and production cost per unit area of land
 value of the product per unit area of land

Industrial Location Theory

 Three Approaches:
 LEAST COST APPROACH
 MARKET AREA ANALYSIS APPROACH
 PROFIT MAXIMIZING APPROACH

Least Cost Approach (Weber)

 Choosing a location where the costs are least
 If the sources of raw materials are found at a single site and the principal market in another site, the location
of the firm should be at the market or some site between the source of raw material and the market.
 Three factors to influence location:
 general regional factors (transport cost and labor cost)
 geographic framework
 agglomerative or deglomerative forces
 Variant of Weber Approach (Hoover)
 divide transport cost into transport for procurement and for distribution
 more emphasis on institutional factors (e.g., local taxes) to impact on locational decision
 Weakness: Overemphasis on the input side

Market Area Analysis (Losch)

 Optimum location is the place where profits are maximum (i.e., revenues exceed costs by largest amount).

16
 The analysis incorporated demand into the theory and that optimum location is a function of aggregate
demand.

Profit Maximizing Approach (Isard and Greenhut)

 States that both costs and revenues vary with location
 The optimum profit maximizing location maybe neither the least cost nor the maximum revenue location
 Problems in deriving profit maximizing location:
 There is locational interdependence.
 There is difficulty in evaluating relevant variables (e.g., costs, market conditions, policy of rival firms)
 The existence of large modern corporations poses a problem.
 It is possible that firms do not maximize profits.
 Behavioral factors affecting location have been neglected.

Other perspectives in Analyzing Industrial location

 Behavioral
 based on intuition
 states that there can be sub-optimization considering a combination of money profit and psychic income
 Organizational
 arose from the dev’t. of capital and the trend toward bigness
 there is better control of uncertainties of the environment
 mergers, vertical integration, horizontal integration, internalized agglomeration through holding
companies
 such controls maybe specific to the firm and industries, geographic areas, socio-politico-economic
conditions
 Structural
 considers the wider context of the global market
 determination of industrial location according to global phenomenon
 affects the expansion of an industry or situating in other locations

Practice and Divergence from Location Theory

 Internal Pressure
 due to need for expansion of floor space given the growth in output
 External Pressure
 increase in wages by competing firms
 government intervention (planning controls and taxation policies)

Some Definitions
Industrial Estate (IE)
 tract of land subdivided and developed according to a comprehensive plan under a unified continuous
management
 with provisions for basic infrastructure and utilities; with and without SFBs
 minimum size of 50 hectares of contiguous land with facilities to accommodate at least 5 locators

Special Economic Zone (Ecozone)

 selected areas with highly developed or potential to be developed into
 agri-industrial
 industrial
 tourist
 recreational
 commercial
 banking
 investment and financial center

 boundaries fixed or delimited by presidential proclamation

 may contain any of the following :
 industrial estates

17
  export processing zones
 free trade zones
 tourist and recreational centers

Export Processing Zone (EPZ)

 a specialized IE located physically and/or administratively outside the customs territory
 predominantly oriented to export production
 enterprises allowed to import capital equipment and raw materials free from duties, taxes and import
restrictions

Countryside Agri-Industrial Development

 Features of CAIDS
 modernization and increase in productivity in agriculture
 industrial competitiveness
 growth and dispersal through agri-based industrialization
 integration of economic activities with private sector participation

Industrialization in the Philippines

 POLICY ON INDUSTRIAL DISPERSAL
 SPATIAL STRATEGIES
(Regional Industrial Center, Growth Corridor, Countryside Agri-industrial Development)
 PROGRAMS AND PROJECTS

Dispersal of industries
 means the promotion of new industries or the expansion of existing industries in areas outside of Metro
Manila
 these are selected urban centers having superior industrial potential and / or better infrastructure for
accelerated industrial development
 the national development strategy of government since late seventies

Regional Industrial Centers (RICs)

 a strategy to operationalize dispersal of industries outside Metro Manila
 one RIC per region where the full range of infrastructure needed are to be established
 make at least one location per region highly competitive for locators
 Selection Criteria for RICs
 proximity to market and/or business district
 population of the area
 availability of labor
 availability and cost of land
 proximity to airport and seaport
 proximity to source of raw materials
 proximity to social services and utilities
 infrastructure and facilities
 expansion area
 peace and order
 zoning
 Also called Regional Agri-industrial Centers (RAICs)
 center of factories and industrial estates in each region
 intended to be primarily private sector undertakings with minimum government intervention
 A total of 21 RAICs/RICs:
 7 Operational
 Baguio City EPZ
 Bataan EPZ
 Cavite EPZ
 Mactan EPZ
 PHIVIDEC IE
 Hacienda Espina IE

18
  Ayala de Zamboanga IE
 10 with FS Completed
 4 with FS Being Prepared

Special Economic Zone

 4 Laws Creating ECOZONEs
 R.A. 7227 - Bases Conversion Dev’t. Act
 R.A. 7903 - Zamboanga City Special Economic Zone Act of 1995
 R.A. 7916 - PEZA Law
 R.A. 7922 - Cagayan Special Economic Zone Act of 1995
 Criteria for Identifying ECOZONE Sites:
 Identified as Regional Growth Center
 Existence of required infrastructure
 Water source and electric power
 Land for future expansion
 Trainable labor force
 Incremental advantage over the existing economic zones
 Situated in area where controls can easily be established

Growth Network / Corridor

 semi urbanized areas along major transportation axis
 aims to expand the development impact radiated by the RAICs
 consistent with the “growth center concept”
 Characteristics:
 belt form of continuously developed urban areas
 requires strong transportation axes composed of several major roads and other transportation modes in
one direction
 based on a single strong road or on a combination of a major road and an expressway
 Growth Corridors in the Phils.
 CALABARZON
 Cagayan - Iligan Growth Corridor
 Northwestern Luzon Growth Quadrangle
(Laoag - San Fernando - Dagupan - Baguio)
 South Cotabato-Davao-Zamboanga
 West Central Luzon
(Bulacan - Pampanga - Bataan - Zambales)
 Naga-Iriga-Legazpi
 Tuguegarao-Ilagan-Cauayan

Countryside Agri-Industrial Development (CAIDS)

 conceptualized in 1989
 strategy aimed at achieving rapid, sustainable and equitable growth of the economy
 aimed at creating the hub for modern agro-industrial villages scattered throughout the countryside
 Features of CAIDS
 modernization and increase in productivity in agriculture
 industrial competitiveness
 growth and dispersal through agri-based industrialization
 integration of economic activitieswith private sector participation
 Modes to Implement CAIDS
 Agro-Industrial Development Area (AIDA): (Government - led)
 Components:

 Capability Building
 Livelihood Development Component
 Rural Infrastructure Support
 A Variation of the AIDA Concept (Private sector - led)
 Components:
 Family Farm School

19
  Rural Development Center
 Small Scale Agro-processing Industries
 Other Modes:
 Other modes
 People’s Industrial Estates (PIEs)
- focused on the establishment and viable operation of appropriate processing centers as well
as common service facilities by organized private sector groups
 LEAD Program
 DAR-DBP Window No. 3
 DAR-AIDA Direct Funding Scheme
 Key Production Areas (now SAFDZs)
 Agrarian Reform Communities (ARCs)
 Integrated Social Forestry (ISF)
 Nucleus Estate-Outgrowers Project

Theories of Urban Structure

Theories of Urban Structure
 Concentric Zone Theory (Burgess)
 Sector Theory (Hoyt)
 Concentric Zone Sector Theory (Mann)
 Multiple Nuclei Theory (Ullman and Harris)
 Axial Development Theory

Concentric Zone Theory

 Application of Von Thunen’s theory of agricultural location
 Any city extends radially from its center, to form concentric zones and that as distance from the center
increases, there would be a reduction in accessibility, rent and densities
 Criticisms
 Land uses within many parts of the urban area are heterogeneous – shops, offices, factories, and
housing may all be located close to each other although they may have notionally different sites and
locational requirements
 There maybe many possible locations for different activities which do not conform with idealized model
 Accessibility maybe an unimportant consideration for many uses especially housing and commercial
uses
 Disregards purchasing of sites for future development with current use being at a sub-optimal value
 It ignores physical features, takes little account of industrial and railway use, and disregards the effect of
radial route ways upon land values and uses

Axial Development Theory

 Star shaped pattern of land use
 Travel time rather than transport cost an important determinant of land use
 Takes into account the effect of route ways

Sector Theory (Hoyt)

 Growth along a particular transport route way takes the form of land uses already prevailing and that each
sector of relatively homogenous use extends outwards from the center
 Compatible land uses lay adjacent to each other; incompatible land uses repelled
 Relates accessibility, land use and values

Concentric Zone – Sector Theory (Mann)

 Urban area large enough to have distinct internal differentiation, but not too large to exhibit the complexities of
a conurbation
 Main feature: commuter village separated from built up areas

20
Multiple Nuclei Theory (Ullman and Harris)
 Based on the assumption that urban growth takes place around several distinct nuclei
 Initially related to cities within US where the gridiron road patterns separated land uses geometrically

Theories of Urban Growth (Reasons why urban areas grow)

 Central Place Theory
 Von Thunen
 Alonso (Bid Rent Curve)
 Chrystaller
 Rank Size Rule
 Range and Threshold

Von Thunen (1896)

 Features:
 Around a central town, rural land of constant fertility assumed different forms; land use diminishes
intensely in inverse relationship with increased distance from the town
 Defines land use pattern
 Land with greatest demand is the one nearest to the market because of low transport cost, with highest
rent and value of land per acre
 The highest rent would be gained from this advantage and highest value of output per hectare would
accrue
 In the outer belt, there will be little demand for land because of high transportation cost , rent would be
low, and the value of extensive production would be correspondingly low
 Established the distance-cost relationship and became the basis for urban location theory
 Main Assumptions:
 Constant fertility of land assumed different forms
 Isolated state
 Village type of settlement
 Uniform climate, soil, topography, transportation and facilities
 Products produced will be hauled in the city
 Weaknesses:
 Unlikely condition of production taking place in isolated market and soil being of constant fertility
 Usefulness:
 Looked at the effect of transportation and location on markets
 Basis for urban location theory

Alonso (1960s)
 Central Features:
 Urban location theory based on the principle that rent diminishes outward from the center of a city to
offset both lower revenue and higher operating cost, not the least transport cost
 Rent gradient would emerge, consisting of a series of bid rent curves
 Gradient is determined by rent and influenced by location and corresponds to density (distance to
market)
 Different land uses would have different rent gradients, the rent with the highest gradient prevailing
 A change of land use could be expected to take place through the price mechanism when one gradient
falls below another
 Main Assumption:
 Does not specify type of land use associated with each bid rent gradient
 Urban area has a single nucleus
 Assumed perfect land markets
 Limitation:
 Does not specify the type of land use associated with each bid-rent gradient and based on the
assumption that urban area has a single nucleus and land market is perfect
 Usefulness:
 Analyze location of activities

21
Chrystaller
 Central Features:
 There is a hierarchy of service activities, ranging from “low order” services found in every center – city,
town or village – to “higher order” services found only in major centers
 Each service activity would have a threshold population and a market range
 Threshold population – minimum population necessary to support the service activity
 Market range – of a service or activity is that distance which people are willing to travel to reach
the services
 Maybe a simple function of linear distance but will more likely be influenced by time and cost
factors
 Central Features:
 Distribution of centralized services accounts for the spacing, size, and functional pattern of urban
centers
 Systematic pattern of centralized service centers
 Number of settlements follow a geometric progression
 Hexagonally shaped market areas
 Hierarchy of centers evenly spaced and surrounded by hexagonally shaped market areas
 High order in major centers
 Main Assumptions:
 Urban settlements located on a uniform plain
 Centralized services would be distributed evenly in a systematic pattern
 Market areas sphere or sphere of influence take hexagonal form
 Man form each town supplies goods and services to the countryside (town and country being
interdependent)
 Assumptions:
 There is specialization
 Hierarchy of centers
 Towns with the lowest level of specialization would be evenly spaced and surrounded by their
hexagonally shaped market areas
 Lowest ranked centers were likely to be located 7 kilometers apart
 Number of settlements follow a geometric progression
 Weaknesses:
 Ignores variable topography
 Ignores influence of manufacturing industry; past, present and below a large scale
 Production of goods and services for other areas not considered; local specialization
 Did not consider growth of industrial suburbs
 Did not consider effect upon the size of towns of large in-migration and labor
 Usefulness:
 Stresses relevance of market area to the size of a town’s population
 Introduces urban hierarchy
 Led to the introduction of the rank-size rule
 Basis for administering urban regions and for allocating resources (for investment decisions)
 Provides framework for understanding regional spatial structure
 Evolution of the Hierarchy of Central Places
(a) Farmers willing to travel up to point a, to purchase from the other farmers
(c) With improved transport and communication, consumers willing to travel further to (b)
(d) Market areas with radius c overlaps: white area = exclusive; shaded area = more than one center
(e) Development of hexagonal market areas around a system of central places; tangential = more efficient
(f) Creation of “higher order” and “lower order” services

Rank Size Rule

 Central Features:
 Population of a given urban area tends to be equal to the population of the largest city divided by the
rank of the population size into which the given urban area falls, the population of settlements thus being
arranged according to the series 1, ½, ¼, etc.
 Based on the study of actual population data
Descending order of population 1  n

22
 Pn = P1
q
n
th
Pn = population of n settlement
P1 = population of largest settlement
n = settlement rank
q = exponent which usually approximates unity

 Weaknesses:
 In most countries, the largest city is larger than the rule would suggest
 Considers only service elements and not localization of natural resources
 Usefulness
 Model for future planning, in the allocation of resources and in administration

Berry and Garrison (Range and Threshold)

 Central Features:
 Suggested that the concepts of “range and threshold” control the distribution of central places
 Range of G/S – refers to the distance by which people are prepared to travel to obtain the product
 Threshold – refers to the minimum amount of purchasing power necessary to support the supply of G/S
from a central place
 Upper Level – degree of competition from other central places supplying the same product
 Lower level – threshold necessary to permit its functions
 Weaknesses:
 Assumes uniform distribution of population
 Consumers to patronize nearest centers fro relevant centers
 Static
 Distribution due to domination of large cities
 Problem of ranking central places

23