NEUTRAL GROUNDING

The subject of neutral grounding is a complex one and, whenever it is

discussed by electrical engineers, views are varied and the discussion
lengthy. It can and has been made the subject of entire textbooks, so
that in devoting no more than part of a section to the topic it is only
possible to briefly look at the principal aspects in so far as they affect
transformer design and operation. Practices vary in different countries,
and even within different utilities in the same country. From time to time
over the years individual utilities have had occasion to re-examine their
practices and this has sometimes resulted in detail changes being made
to them. Fortunately for transformer designers, grounding of a system
neutral can only fall into one of three categories. These are:

(1) Neutral solidly grounded (2) Neutral grounded via an impedance (3)
Neutral isolated and because of the problems and disadvantages of the
third alternative, it is unlikely that it will be encountered in practice so
that it is only necessary to be able to design for the first two.

It is intended mainly in this section to examine grounding practices in the

UK, where the guiding principles in relation to grounding are determined
by statute, in the form of The Electricity Supply Regulations 1988.

The above regulations replaced those of 1937 and the Electricity

(Overhead Lines) Regulations 1970 as well as certain sections of the
Schedule to the Electric Lighting (Clauses) Act 1899, and they represent
mainly a rationalization and updating process rather than any major
change of UK practice. Part II of the 1988 regulations contains the
provisions relating to grounding. It says that:

• Every electrical system rated at greater than 50 V shall be connected

to ground.

• How that ground connection is to be made differs between HV and LV

systems.

Low voltage is defined as exceeding 50 V but not exceeding 1000 V and

is mainly referring 415 V distribution networks. In the case of an HV
system, beyond the requirement that it shall be connected to ground, the
method of making the connection is not specified, but for an LV system
the regulations say that 'no impedance shall be inserted in any
connection with ground … other than that required for the operation of
switching devices, instruments, control or telemetering equipment.' In
other words, LV systems must be solidly grounded. The system of
protective multiple grounding, which can be advantageous on 415 V
distribution networks in some situations, is permitted on LVs systems
subject to certain other conditions but this still requires that the neutral
should be solidly grounded 'at or as near as is reasonably practicable to
the source of voltage.'

Grounding of high-voltage systems

As stated above, the statutory requirement in the UK is that basically all

electrical systems should be connected to ground, so a discussion of the
technical merits and demerits is somewhat academic. However, it is
essential that readers of a volume such as this understand these fully,
so they may be set out as follows.

Advantages of connecting a high-voltage system to ground:

• A ground fault effectively becomes a short circuit from line to neutral.

The high-voltage oscillations to which systems having isolated neutrals
are susceptible and which can cause serious damage to such systems,
are reduced to a minimum, and consequently the factor of safety of the
system against ground faults is largely increased. This reasoning applies
to systems having overhead lines or underground cables, though to a
greater extent the former.

• A grounded neutral allows rapid operation of protection immediately a

ground fault occurs on the system. In HV networks most of the line faults
take place to ground. Particularly in the case of underground cables,
were these on a system employing an isolated neutral, these would take
the form of a site of intense arcing activity, which in the case of
multicore cables, would result ultimately in a short circuit between
phases. The grounded neutral in conjunction with sensitive ground fault
protection, results in the faulty section being isolated at an early stage of
the fault.

• If the neutral is solidly grounded, the voltage of any live conductor

cannot exceed the voltage from line to neutral. As under such conditions
the neutral point will be at zero potential, it is possible to effect
appreciable reductions in the insulation to ground of cables and
overhead lines, which produces a corresponding saving in cost. It is also
possible to make similar insulation reductions in transformers and, by
the use of non-uniform insulation, make further reductions in the amount
of insulation applied to the neutral end of HV windings. In the UK, non-
uniform insulation is used for system volt ages of 132 kV and above.
A stable ground fault on one line of a system having an isolated neutral
raises the voltage of the two sound lines to full line voltage above
ground, which is maintained so long as the fault persists. The insulation
of all equipment connected to the sound lines is subjected to this higher
voltage, and although it may be able to withstand some overvoltage, it
will eventually fail. In extra high-voltage systems, because
of capacitance effects, the voltage of the two sound lines may, initially,
reach a value approaching twice the normal line voltage by the same
phenomenon as that of voltage doubling which takes place when
switching a pure capacitance into circuit, and the insulation of the
system will be correspondingly overstressed.

• On an ungrounded system the voltage to ground of any line conductor

may have any value up to the breakdown value of the insulation to
ground, even though the normal voltage between lines and from line to
neutral is maintained.

Such a condition may easily arise from capacitance effects on systems

having overhead lines, as these are particularly subject to induced
static charge from adjacent charged clouds, dust, sleet, fog and rain,
and to changes in altitude of the lines. If provision is not made for limiting
these induced charges, gradual accumulation takes place, and the line
and the equipment connected to it may reach a high 'floating' potential
above ground until this is relieved by breakdown to ground of the line or
machine insulation or by the operation of co-ordinating gaps or surge
arresters.

If, however, the neutral point is grounded either directly or through a

current limiting device, the induced static charges are conducted to
ground as they appear, and all danger to the insulation of the line and
equipment is removed. No part of a solidly grounded neutral system can
reach a voltage above ground greater than the normal voltage from line
to neutral.

Disadvantages of connecting a high-voltage system to ground

• The only disadvantage of connecting an HV system to ground is that

this introduces the first ground from the outset and it thus increases the
susceptibility to ground faults. This can be inconvenient in the case of a
long overhead line, particularly in areas of high lightning incidence,
however, such faults are usually of a transient nature and normally
cleared immediately the line is tripped so that delayed auto-reclosure of
the line circuit quickly restores supplies.
It is clear, therefore, that the advantages of connection to ground far
outweigh the disadvantages. For transformer designers by far the most
significant advantage is the ability to utilize non-uniform insulation.

Multiple grounding

One notable difference between the Electricity Supply Regulations of

1988 and those which preceded them, is the attitude to multiple
grounding. The regulations of 1937 required that each system should be
grounded at one point only and stated that interconnection of systems
which were each grounded at one point was not permitted except by
special permission of the Electricity Commissioners with the concurrence
of the Postmaster-General, who at that time had statutory responsibility
for telecommunications. The reason for this was, of course, concern that
grounding a system at more than one point would lead to the circulation
of harmonic currents via the multiple ground points. As explained in
Section 2, the third-order harmonic voltages of a three-phase system are
in phase with each other so that if two points of the system are grounded
concurrently, the third-order harmonic voltages will act to produce
circulating currents. The higher-frequency components, in particular, of
these circulating currents can cause interference with
telecommunications circuits and this was the cause of the concern to the
Postmaster-General. Although the current regulations have removed the
statutory limitation on grounding a system at more than one point, the
requirement that the supply system must not cause interference with
telecommunications equipment is covered by the more general
provisions of the European Union's Directive concerning electromagnetic
compatibility which places the onus on all users of electrical equipment
to ensure that it does not cause electromagnetic interference. How this
is achieved is the responsibility of the user of the equipment and there
monthly reports for the month of May'20 i.r.o. Coochbehar 132/33kV
S/SIn the above example it is likely that the transformer providing the
33kV bulk supply would have its primary connected at 132 kV, which, to
take advantage of the use of non-uniform insulation, would have its HV
winding star connected with the neutral solidly grounded. The 33kV
winding would thus probably be connected in delta and hence would not
provide a 33kV system neutral point for connection to ground. Hence a
neutral point must be provided artificially by the use of auxiliary
apparatus specially designed for the purpose.
The two schemes are shown diagrammatically in Figs 6.5 and 6.6. The
interconnected star connection is described in Section 2. It is effectively
a one to-one autotransformer with the windings so arranged that, while
the voltages from each line to ground are maintained under normal
operating conditions, a minimum impedance is offered to the flow of
single-phase fault current, such as is produced by a ground fault on one
line of a system having a grounded neutral. Under normal operating
conditions the currents flowing through the windings are the magnetizing
currents of the grounding transformer only, but the windings are
designed to carry the maximum possible fault current to which they may
be subjected, usually for a period of 30 seconds. The apparatus is built
exactly as a three-phase core type transformer, and is oil immersed.

While the interconnected star grounding transformer is the type most

often used for providing an artificial neutral point, an alternative may be
adopted in the form of an ordinary three-phase core type transformer
having star connected primary windings, the neutral of which is
grounded and the line ends connected to the three-phase lines, while
the secondary windings are connected in closed delta, but otherwise
isolated. Normally, the current taken by the transformer is the
magnetizing current only, but under fault conditions the closed delta
windings act to distribute the fault currents in all three-phases on the
primary side of the transformer, and as primary and secondary fault
ampere-turns balance each other, the unit offers a low impedance to the
cur rent flow. The transformer is rated on the same basis as outlined for
the interconnected star grounding transformer and it is constructed
exactly the same as an ordinary power transformer.
For the purpose of fault current limitation, resistors may be used in
conjunction with either of the above types of grounding transformer, and
they may be inserted between the neutral point and ground, or between
the terminals of the grounding transformer and the lines. In the former
case one resistor is required, but it must be designed to carry the total
fault current, while it should be insulated for a voltage equal to the phase
voltage of the system. On the other hand, the neutral point of the
grounding transformer windings will rise to a voltage above ground
under fault conditions equal to the voltage drop across the grounding
resistor, and the transformer windings will have to be insulated for the
full line voltage above ground.

While in any case this latter procedure may be adopted, it is not

desirable to subject the grounding transformer windings to sudden
voltage surges any higher than can be avoided, as the insulated
windings are the most vulnerable part of the equipment. If, suitably
proportioned resistors are placed between the terminals of the grounding
transformer and the lines instead of between neutral and ground, exactly
the same purpose is served so far as fault current limitation is
concerned, while, the neutral point of the grounding transformer always
remains at ground potential, and the windings are not subjected to any
high voltages.

On the other hand, the insulators must now be insulated for full line
voltage, but this is a relatively easy and cheap procedure. For the same
fault current and voltage drop across the resistors the ohmic value of
each of those placed between the grounding transformer terminals and
lines is 3 times the ohmic value of the single resistor connected between
the neutral and the ground, but the current rating of each resistor in the
line is one-third of the current rating of a resistor in the neutral, as under
fault conditions the three resistors in the lines operate in parallel to give
the desired protection.

Neutral grounding apparatus

The most common device used for connection in the HV neutral is the
liquid neutral grounding resistor or LNER. These are relatively
inexpensive, sturdy and can easily be constructed to carry ground fault
currents of the order of up to 1500 A. They are generally designed to
carry the fault current for up to 30 seconds. The ohmic value of the
resistor is a function of the system volt age to ground and of the
permissible fault current. A minor disadvantage of liquid resistors is that
they require maintenance in the form of ensuring that the electrolyte is
kept topped up and at the correct strength, which might present a slightly
increased burden in hot climates and in temperate climates they require
heaters to prevent freezing in winter. For this reason metallic resistors
are sometimes preferred. These may take the form of pressed grids or
stainless steel wound modules which can be connected with the
appropriate numbers in series and parallel to provide the required
voltage and current rating. These have high reliability and ruggedness,
their only disadvantage being cost.

An alternative to resistance grounding is the use of an arc suppression

coil. The arc suppression coil was first devised by W. Petersen in 1916,
and is hence the generally known as a Petersen coil. Use of an arc
suppression coil enables a power system to benefit from the advantage
normally associated with ungrounded systems without suffering their
disadvantages. Basically, it is a reactor connected between the neutral
of the supply transformer and ground. The reactance of the coil is tuned
to match the capacitance of the power system it is protecting.

As indicated above, the majority of faults on an HV network are ground

faults and most of these involve single phase to ground contact of an
arcing nature. With an arc suppression coil installed, intermittent faults
are made self clearing. This is due to the resonance established
between the capacitance of the system and the inductance of the arc
suppression coil which results in balancing of the leading and lagging
components of current at the point of the fault. Any small residual ground
current sufficient to sustain the arc is substantially in phase with the
voltage of the faulty conductor, and since both pass through zero at the
same instant, the arc is extinguished. The resonance delays the
recovery voltage build-up after arc extinction which enables the dielectric
strength of the insulation at the point of the fault to recover and prevent
re-striking of the arc. FIG. 7 shows a typical oscillogram of recovery volt
age following arc extinction in such an installation.
In the event of a sustained phase to ground fault, the arc suppression
coil allows the power system to be operated in a faulted condition until
the fault can be located and removed. The residual fault current is
normally of the order of 5-10 percent of the total capacitative fault
current. The phasor relationship between the voltages on the three-
phase conductors and the currents through the fault and the arc
suppression coil is shown in FIG. 8. Nowadays, solid-state control
devices can be used in conjunction with arc suppression coils which, in
conjunction with automatic switching of taps on the arc suppression coil
during the fault, enable optimum compensation to be achieved. This
technique is particularly useful for systems with multiple feeders, where
a ground fault on one feeder results in a different magnitude of fault
current to a ground fault on another feeder.

The insulation level of all the plant and apparatus on the system on
which arc suppression coils are installed must be adequate to allow
operation for a period with one line grounded, and it is generally found
uneconomic to install them on systems operating above 66 kV. Up to
this voltage, the standard insulation level, without grading, is likely to be
employed for all transformers. It is recommended that a higher insulation
level should be considered if operation of the system with one line
grounded is likely for more than 8 hours in any 24, or more than 125
hours in any year.

The choice of whether to continue operation with a sustained fault on the

network lies with the operator. Although it has been shown that arc
suppression coils allow this, other factors must be considered, the most
important being the safety of personnel. For example, the fault may have
been caused by a broken line conductor which would clearly constitute a
danger. Should the utility decide not to operate with sustained faults the
faulted section must be isolated as soon as a sustained fault is detected.
Previously it was common practice to short circuit the arc suppression
coil after a specified time to allow protection relays to operate. When the
coil is short circuited a significant in-rush of fault current may occur,
which would cause a voltage dip. Now, using modern protection devices,
it is possible to leave the arc suppression coil in service. Isolation of the
faulted section can be carried out, for example, using admittance
sensing relays which can determine changes in the admittances of the
lines, instead of overcurrent relays as traditionally used.

Ground connection

When dealing with the question of neutral point grounding it is important

to give careful attention to the ground connection itself, that is, to the
electrode buried in the ground for the purpose of obtaining a sound
ground. If the grounding system is not carefully installed and maintained,
then serious danger may occur under fault conditions from touch and
step potentials (see below).

For obtaining a direct ground contact copper or cast iron plates, iron
pipes, driven copper rods, copper strips or galvanized iron strips may be
employed. It is not always appreciated that it is very difficult to obtain
resistance values of less than about 2 Ohm from a single ground plate,
and often it is still more difficult to maintain the value after the grounding
system has been installed for some time.

On account of this it is usual to install several ground plates, pipes, etc.,

in parallel, so that the combined resistance of the installation is reduced
to a reasonably low value of 1 Ohm or less. Where a parallel
arrangement is employed, each plate, rod, etc., should be installed
outside the resistance area of any other. Strictly, this requires a
separation of the order of 10m which, however, can often be reduced
without increasing the total resistance by more than a few percent.
The chief points to be borne in mind when installing a grounding
equipment are, that it must possess sufficient total cross-sectional area
to carry the maximum fault current, and it must have a very low
resistance in order to keep down to a safe value the potential gradient in
the ground surrounding the plates, etc., under fault conditions. As most
of the resistance of the grounding system exists in the immediate vicinity
of the plates, etc., the potential gradient in the ground under fault
conditions is naturally similarly located, and in order that this shall be
kept to such a value as will not endanger life, the current density in the
ground installation should be kept to a low figure either by using a
number of the plates, pipes, etc., in parallel, or else by burying to a
considerable depth, making the connection to them by means of
insulated cable. The former arrangement is one which can best be
adopted where there are facilities for obtaining good grounds, but in
cases where, on account of the nature of the ground, it has been difficult
to obtain a good ground, driven rods have been sunk to a depth of 10 m
and more. The maximum current density around an electrode is, in
general, minimized by making its dimensions in one direction large with
respect to those in the other two, as is the case with a pipe, rod or strip.

Ground plates are usually made of galvanized cast iron not less than 12
mm thick, or of copper not less than 2.5 mm in thickness, the sizes in
common use being between 0.6 and 1.2 m^2. If a ground of greater
conductivity is required, it is preferable to use two or more such plates in
parallel. Ground pipes may be of cast iron up to 100 mm diameter, 12
mm thick and 2.5-3 m long, and they must be buried in a similar manner
to ground plates. Alternatively, in small installations, driven mild steel
pipes of 30-50 mm diameter are some times employed.

Where the driving technique is adopted, copper rods are more generally
used. These consist of 12-20 mm diameter copper in sections of 1-1.5
m, with screwed couplers and a driving tip. Deeply driven rods are
effective where the soil resistivity decreases with depth but, in general, a
group of shorter rods arranged in parallel is to be preferred.

In cases where high-resistivity soil (or impenetrable strata) underlies a

shallow surface layer of low-resistivity soil a grounding installation may
be made up of untinned copper strip of section not less than 20 by 3 mm
or of bare stranded copper conductor.

If a site can be utilized which is naturally moist and poorly drained, it is

likely to exhibit a low soil resistivity. A site kept moist by running water
should, however, be avoided. The conductivity of a site may be
improved by chemical treatment of the soil, but it should be verified that
there will be no deleterious effect on the electrode material. To ensure
maximum conductivity, ground electrodes must be in firm direct contact
with the ground.

It is most important that the connections from the neutral or auxiliary

apparatus to the ground installation itself should be of ample cross-
sectional area, so that there is adequate margin over the maximum fault
current, and so that no abnormal voltage drop occurs over their length;
the connections to the grounding structure having ample surface
contact.

Grounding of low-voltage systems

As indicated in the introduction to this section, low-voltage systems are

defined in the UK as being above 50 V but below 1000 V and this is
mainly intended to embrace all industrial three-phase systems operating
at 400 V and domestic single-phase 230 V systems supplied from one
phase and neutral of the 400 V network. Although the recent
development of the ground leakage circuit breaker has resulted in some
changes to safety philosophy, these systems are still mainly protected
by fuses, and in order to provide maximum protection to personnel by
ensuring rapid fuse operation and disconnection of faulty equipment, the
systems are designed to have the lowest practicable ground loop
impedance.

This means that a solid neutral ground connection must be provided.

The fundamental importance of the solid ground connection is

underlined by its embodiment in the 1988 Supply Regulations and also
the benefits of the sys tem of protective multiple grounding in assisting
the achievement of low ground loop impedance in areas where this
might not otherwise be possible is acknowledged by the inclusion of a
clause setting down how this is to be carried out.

The requirement for solid grounding of the LV neutral also aims to

ensure that the likelihood of the presence of any voltage above normal
appearing in the LV circuit is reduced to a minimum since, in the event of
insulation breakdown between HV and LV windings of the step-down
transformer the resulting ground fault on the HV system should ensure
rapid operation of the HV system ground fault protection. The exception
is when the HV side of the transformer is connected to ground through a
continuously rated arc suppression coil. In this case the point of fault
between windings remains at close to its potential determined by its
location in the LV winding, that is the voltages on the LV system change
very little from those occurring under healthy conditions, and the
distribution of voltages on the HV side is adjusted accordingly. In
practice, breakdown between HV and LV windings of any transformer
connected to an HV system is such an unlikely occurrence as to be
discounted in the carrying out of any risk assessment.

Grounding system design

At the start of this section the view was expressed that the subject of
neutral grounding was a complex one, so that, clearly, the design of
grounding systems is not a topic to be covered in a few paragraphs in a
textbook dealing with transformers. However, it is necessary to say a
little about the subject of grounding system design, at least to explain the
philosophy, which has changed some what in recent years and, in
particular, since earlier editions of this work were written. The most
significant change is that now the grounding system must be designed to
ensure that the potentials in its vicinity during a fault are below
appropriate limits. Previously it was established practice to design the
grounding system to achieve a certain impedance value.

When a ground fault occurs and current flows to ground via a ground
electrode, or system of electrodes, the potential on the electrodes or any
equipment connected to them will rise above true ground potential. This
potential rise can be particularly substantial, of the order of several
thousand volts in the case of large substations subjected to severe
faults. The objective in seeking to obtain a satisfactory grounding system
design is to ensure 'safety to personnel' by avoiding the creation of
dangerous touch, step or transferred potentials, whilst acknowledging
that the ground potential rise under severe fault conditions must
inevitably exist.

The philosophy will be made clearer by definition of the above terms.

Interpretation of the definitions will be made clear by reference to FIG. 9.

When the potential rise of a ground electrode occurs due to a fault, this
will form a potential gradient in the surrounding ground. For a single
electrode the potential gradient will be as shown in the figure. A person
in the vicinity of this electrode may be subjected to three different types
of hazard as a result of this potential gradient:

• Step potential: person 'a' in the figure illustrates 'step potential.' Here
the potential difference V1 seen by the body is limited to the value
between two points on the ground separated by the distance of one
pace. Since the potential gradient in the ground is greatest immediately
adjacent to the electrode area, it follows that the maximum step potential
under ground fault conditions will be experienced by a person who has
one foot in the area of maximum rise and one foot one step towards true
ground.

• Touch potential: person 'b' in the figure illustrates 'touch potential.' Here
the potential difference V2 seen by the body is the result of hand-to-both
feet contact. Again the highest potential will occur if there were a metal
structure on the edge of the highest-potential area, and the person stood
one pace away and touched the metal. The risk from this type of contact
is higher than for step potential because the voltage is applied across
the body and could affect the heart muscles.
• Transferred potential: the distance between the high-potential area and
that of true ground may be sufficient to form a physical separation
rendering a person in the high-potential area immune from the possibility
of simultaneous contact with zero potential. However, a metal object
having sufficient length, such as a fence, cable sheath or cable core may
be located in a manner that would bridge this physical separation. By
such means, zero ground potential may be transferred into a high-
potential area or vice versa. Person 'c' in FIG. 9 illustrates the case of a
high potential being transferred into a zero potential area via the amour
of a cable. If the amour is bonded to ground at the substation, that is the
fault location, the voltage V3 will be the full 'rise of ground potential of
the substation.' In the case illustrated the person at 'c' is making
simultaneous contact hand to hand with the cable sheath and true
ground. However, if the person is standing on true ground then the
voltage V3 seen by the body could be hand-to-both-feet contact. Person
'd' represents the case of zero potential being transferred to a high-
potential area via a cable core which is grounded at the remote point. In
this case, the voltage V4 is lower than V3 which represents the
substation rise of ground potential, because person 'd' is located some
distance from the main ground electrode and therefore benefits from the
ground potential gradient. Clearly, if person 'd' had been on or touching
the main electrode he would have experienced the full rise of ground
potential V3.

It will be apparent from the above that transferred potentials can present
the greatest risk, since the shock voltage can be equal to the full rise of
ground potential and not a fraction of it as is the case with step or touch
potentials.

Historically limits on transfer potentials have been set at 650 and 430V
in the UK, depending on the type of installation, above which special
precautions are required. The higher value is normally taken to apply for
high reliability systems having high-speed protection. No limiting
clearance time is quoted for these systems but it is generally accepted
that these will clear in 0.2 seconds. The lower figure is for systems
protected by overcurrent protection, and although again no limiting
clearance time is specified, a time of 0.46 seconds is generally
assumed.

If the ground electrode system cannot be designed to comply with the

above criteria, then the type of special precautions which might be
considered to protect against transferred potentials is the provision of
local bonding to ensure that all metalwork to which simultaneous contact
can be made is at the same potential. Consideration might also be given
to restricting telephone and Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
(SCADA) connections with remote locations to those using fiber optic
cables. Guard rings buried at increasing depths around an electrode can
be used to modify the ground surface potential to protect against step
potentials.

INTERCONNECTED STAR GROUNDING TRANSFORMERS

On a number of occasions in the preceding sections, for example

in Section 6.2, mention has been made of the use of interconnected star
grounding transformers to provide a neutral point for connection to
ground on a system which would otherwise not have one. This
requirement commonly arises at a grid bulk supply point where
transformers stepping down to 66 or 33 kV from the 132 kV or higher-
voltage system will need to have one winding connected in delta and,
since the HV must be the star-connected winding to enable non uniform
insulation to be used, the delta winding must be the LV. Transformers for
stepping down from the 66 or 33 to 11 kV are normally required to be
connected in delta on their higher voltage, that is 66 or 33 kV, windings
in order to provide a neutral for grounding purposes on the 11 kV side,
as well ensuring that the 11 kV system has the required zero phase shift
relative to the 400 kV system reference. Hence the 66 or 33 kV system
is without a neutral. The situation also arises where a 13kV delta-
connected tertiary is provided on a star/ star or star auto-connected
transmission transformer for connection to a shunt reactor for VAr
absorption.

This section examines a little more closely the technical requirements

and constructional features of interconnected star grounding
transformers which are used in these situations.

An interconnected star grounding transformer is a conventional three-

phase oil-filled transformer except that it requires only a primary winding
in order to provide the required neutral point. FIG. 22 shows a phasor
diagram and connection diagram of such a transformer. Each 'half-
phase' is effectively a complete winding for construction purposes so
that the transformer is built as if it were a double-wound transformer.
Core frame size, flux density and number of turns necessary will
probably mean that 66 and 33 kV grounding transformers at least will
need to have disc windings throughout, although it is possible that at 13
kV helical windings may be used. Particularly at 66 or 33 kV there will be
a need to consider lightning impulse strength. Each winding end will
constitute a discontinuity from the point of view of surge impedance and
will probably require some form of stress control. In the case of disc
windings at 66 or 33 kV a shield between end sections or a dummy
strand as described in Section 4.4 will probably be used.

Under normal conditions the steady-state voltage applied to grounding

transformers is the LV voltage of the step-down transformer with which
they are associated. This voltage is likely to have a maximum value of
10 percent above the system nominal voltage so that a flux density of
1.7 Tesla may be permitted for the grounding transformer without the
risk of saturation. It is not usual to provide the transformer with tappings.
However, it is common practice to provide an auxiliary winding, usually a
star-connected 415 V winding, to provide a three phase and neutral
supply for substation services. Generally, the rating of this auxiliary
winding is up to about 200 kVA. The rating of the grounding transformer
is however determined by the current it is required to carry in the neutral
for 30 seconds (the short-time rated current) in the event of an HV line-
to-ground fault, and not the rating of any auxiliary winding.

As explained in Section 6.2 it is normal practice to select the impedance

of the system ground connection to such a value as will result in the flow
of rated full load current for the supply transformer in the grounding
transformer HV neutral in the event of a line-to-ground fault on the HV
system, which itself has negligible impedance. It is usual to place a
minimum value on this fault current which varies according to the HV
system voltage. Values of minimum rated short time currents are listed in
Table 1. At the end of 30 seconds the maximum temperature of the
copper must not exceed 250ºC. The starting temperature is taken as
maximum ambient, 40ºC, plus any temperature rise resulting from
operation at the continuous maximum rating of the auxiliary winding. The
calculation is performed in the same manner as when determining the
temperature rise of a transformer on short circuit described in Section
4.7. Expression (4.3) is used except that the time must be increased to
30 seconds. The same assumption is made that, for the time for which
the fault current flows, all the heat is stored in the copper. Although this
will be slightly less true in the case of a 30 seconds fault compared with
one for 2 seconds, it is nevertheless introducing a small degree of
pessimism which is no bad thing. The transformer will also be required
to withstand the mechanical forces resulting from carrying the short time
fault current and these two requirements usually result in a transformer
which is considerably more generously proportioned than would be
determined by any requirement to supply the auxiliary loading alone.
Table 1 -- Minimum rated short-time current through the neutral of
interconnected star grounding transformers in relation to voltage of
delta-connected winding of main transformer

An important factor in determining the HV system single phase to ground

fault current is the zero-sequence impedance of the grounding
transformer. This is calculated in the same way as the positive-sequence
value between half-phases treating these as if they were separate
windings and using the expression (2.1). It is usual to quote a minimum
value for this, that is with no negative tolerance and a 20 percent plus
tolerance and it is also necessary to convert this into a value in ohms per
phase rather than in percentage terms, the reason being that the
grounding transformer does not have a true continuous rating against
which to relate a percentage impedance and it is the ohmic value of
impedance which dictates the system ground fault current. If the
grounding transformer is provided with a secondary or auxiliary winding,
the impedance between the interconnected star winding and the
auxiliary winding is normally between 4 and 6 percent based on the
auxiliary winding rating and is calculated in the normal manner.

Grounding transformers for 66 and 33 kV generally have HV bushings

for line and neutral terminations of the 66 or 33 kV windings. Air
connections of cop per bar or tube can then be brought across from the
LV terminals of the main transformer and the neutral bushing is usually
connected in a similar manner, via any protective current transformers,
to a liquid or metal element neutral grounding resistor. The 415 V
auxiliary winding will probably be brought out via a weatherproof fuse-
switch unit incorporating a bolted neutral link arranged for glanding and
terminating a four-core cable to take the auxiliary supply to its
associated distribution board. FIG. 23 shows a 33kV grounding
transformer with a 415 V auxiliary output and the associated 132/33 kV
bulk sup plies transformer is discernible in the background.