Shock waves

Q1. Define Mach number? Classify ultrasonic, subsonic, transonic and supersonic waves
based on Mach number.

Mach number:
Mach number is defined as the ratio of speed of the object to the speed of sound in the given
medium, i.e.,

It is denoted as . Thus if is the object speed and the speed of sound in the medium is ,
then,

It is a pure number hence has no unit.

The speeds of bodies moving in fluids medium are classified into subsonic wave, Transonic
and supersonic and hypersonic waves based on Mach number.
Subsonic wave:
If speed of an object in the fluid is lesser than that of sound,
then such a speed is referred to as subsonic and the wave is a
subsonic wave. In this case the flow of velocity of object at any
point is lesser than the speed of fluid. Therefore sound waves moves
ahead of the object. For subsonic waves Mach no  1
Ex. The speeds of cars, trains and speeds of birds.

Transonic waves:
When speed of the object approaches the speed of sound, the speed is said to be transonic
speed and the waves are called transonic waves.
For transonic waves
Supersonic wave:
When an object moves with speeds greater than the speed of sound in the medium, the
wave is said to be supersonic wave and the speed is called supersonic speed. In this case the
flow of velocity of fluid at any point is greater than the speed of sound in that fluid, the flow is
said to be supersonic flow. For which Mach number >1 and less than 3

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 A body moving with supersonic speed moves
forward by cutting its own sound wave front, leaving
behind a series of expanding sound waves with their
centres displaced continuously along its trajectory.
Ex. Fighter planes move with supersonic speed.

Hypersonic waves.
In supersonic waves, we have a special class of waves called hypersonic waves. They
travel with speeds for which Mach number 5.
Research is being carried out to develop engines named “scram jets” which can fly at
speeds of Mach number 5.

Q2. Define Mach angle.

Mach angle:
A number of common tangents drawn to the expanding sound waves emitted from a body
moving at supersonic speed form a cone called the Mach cone. The angle made by the
tangent with the axis of the Mach cone is called the Mach angle . is related to the Mach
Number „ ‟ through the equation, ( )

SHOCK WAVES

Q3. What are shock waves?

● Shock waves are the sound waves produced by a medium due to sudden dissipation of
mechanical energy in a medium enclosed in a small space.
Any fluid that travels at supersonic speeds, give rise to a shock wave. Shock waves are
produced during earth quakes and lightning. Shock wave cannot be heard, but we can hear a

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booming sound, when velocity of a body increases from subsonic to supersonic. It is called
‘sonic boom’.
When a shock wave is formed, there is a distinct surface created by the medium itself
called shock front. Typical thickness of a shock front is few micrometers. Within the shock
front, the pressure, temperature and density of the gas undergoes sudden changes.
● Shock waves are characterized by sudden increase in pressure, temperature and density of
the gas through which it propagates.

Q4. Distinguish strong and weak shock waves

Shock waves are classified into strong or weak depending on the changes in pressure
and temperature within the shock front.
Strong shock waves Weak shock waves
1 In these waves the compressed regions In a these the compressed regions possess
possess very high pressure & temperature low pressure & temperature than strong
wave.
2 They possess higher values of Mach They possess lower value of Mach number
number. (close to 1)
3 Ex: Shock waves created by lightning, Ex: shock waves created by the explosion of
thunder, bombing and nuclear explosions a cracker, bursting of tyre.
etc.

Q5. State three basic conservation laws related to shock waves

The conservation of mass, momentum and energy are the three fundamental principles
of classical physics. They can be applicable to shock waves also
1. Law of conservation of mass:
“The total mass of any isolated system remains unchanged and is independent of any
chemical and physical changes that could occur within the system”. It is also sometimes
referred to as conservation of matter.

2. Law of conservation of momentum:

“In a closed system, the total momentum remains a constant”. It can also be stated as,
“when two objects collide in an isolated system, the total momentum of the objects before
collision = the total momentum of the two objects after the collision”.

3. Law of conservation of energy:

“The total energy of a closed system remains constant and is independent of any changes
occurring within the system”.

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 REDDY TUBE

Q6. Explain construction and working of Reddy shock tube. How is it used to find Mach
number?

Construction:

❖ Reddy tube is a hand operated shock tube used to produce shock waves by using human
energy. It consists of a cylindrical stainless steel tube of about 30 mm in diameter and of
length about 1 meter.
❖ It is divided into two sections each of length about 50 cm. One is called driver section
and the other one is driven section. The two sections are separated by 0.1 mm thick
aluminium or Mylar or paper diaphragm.
❖ Far end of driver section is fitted with a piston whereas the far end of the driven section is
closed.
❖ A digital pressure gauge is fixed in the driver section next to the diaphragm.
❖ Two piezoelectric sensors S1 and S2 separated by 70 mm are mounted towards the closed
end of the shock tube.
❖ The driver section is filled with a gas called as the driver gas which is held at a relatively
high pressure due to the compressing action of the piston. A port is provided at the closed
end of the driven section for filling the test gas to the required pressure. The gas in the
driven section is termed as driven gas or test gas.

Working

❖ The diaphragm is fitted into the Reddy tube. The end of the driven tube is closed with a
blanking plate. The pressure inside the driven section is reduced by connecting it to a
vacuum pump, and the valve is then closed. The pressure sensors are connected to the CRO
via the coupler & CRO is set for observations.
❖ The driver gas is compressed by pushing the piston towards the diaphragm until it ruptures.
The pressure reading p4 from the pressure gauge in the driver tube is noted.
❖ Due to rupture, the driver gas rushes into the driven section, and pushes the driven gas
towards the far downstream end. This generates a moving shock wave that travels along
length of the driven section. The shock wave instantaneously raises the temperature and
pressure of the driven (test gas) gas when the shock moves over it. Two signals of pressure
rise are seen in the CRO display; the pressure p1 (STP:1atm.) appears when the primary
shock passes the first sensor S1 and the pressure rise p2 when it passes the second sensor S2.
Corresponding temperatures T1 (room temp:300K) and T2 are also noted. From the CRO
display, the time taken„t‟ for the shock to travel between the two pressure sensors is
measured. The distance ‘x’ between the two pressure sensors is measured with a graduated
scale.

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❖ The propagating primary shock wave is reflected from the downstream end. After the
reflection, the test gas undergoes further compression which increases temperature and
pressure to still higher values. The pressure behind the reflected shock p5 is measured from
S2 and p3 from S1.Corresponding temperatures T5 and T3 are also noted.
❖ This state of high values of pressure and temperature is maintained at the downstream end
until an expansion wave reflected from the upstream end of the driver tube arrives there and
neutralizes the compression partially.
❖ Expansion waves are created at the instant the diaphragm is ruptured and they travel in a
direction opposite to that of the shock wave. The period over which the extreme
temperature and pressure conditions at the downstream end is sustained, is of the order of
milliseconds. However, the actual duration depends on the properties of the driver and test
gases and the dimensions of the shock tube.
❖ The pressure rise caused by the primary shock waves and also the reflected shock waves
are sensed as signals by the sensors and are recorded in a digital cathode ray oscilloscope
(CRO).
❖ Since the experiments involve typically 1 millisecond duration measurements, the rise time
of the oscilloscope should be a few microseconds. Hence an oscilloscope with a bandwidth
of 1 MHz or more is required.
❖ From the recording in the CRO and associated calculations; Mach number can be
calculated as follows;

Procedure to find Mach number, temperatures and pressures:

x
❖ Shock speed of primary shock wave is calculated by where „x‟ is distance between
t
S1and S2. „t‟ is time taken by shock wave to travel the distance x.

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 v
❖ From this Mach No. M can be calculated using M
a

Q7.Mention Characteristics of Reddy tube

Characteristics of Reddy tube are
1. The Reddy tube works on the principle of free piston driven shock tube (FPST).
2. It is hand operated device which produces shock waves.
3. Produces shock waves of Mach number greater than 1.5.
4. The pressure of the driver gas depends on thickness of the diaphragm.
5. Pressure and temperature sensors are used on driven part of the tube.
6. Temperatures exceeding 900 K can be easily obtained by the Reddy tube by using
Helium as the driver gas and Argon as the driven gas. This temperature is useful in
the chemical kinetic studies.

Q8. Write a note on Rankine-Hugoniot equations relating to conservation equations of

mass, momentum and energy for shock waves
Consider a shock wave propagating with a speed W in a shock tube.

Consider a shock wave propagating with a speed W in a shock tube. The conditions of the
shock wave at the downstream end can be determined by solving the equations for
conservation of mass, momentum and energy as applied to the shock region. These equations
are known as Rankine-Hugoniot relations.

Consider two regions with reference to the shock front, one which is ahead of the
shock front and the other behind it. Both the regions are at far enough distances from the
shock front so that equilibrium conditions prevail in the teo regions where, the physical
conditions such as pressure, density etc., are uniform.

Let be the values of pressure, temperature, density and enthalpy

before creation of the shock wave. Hence, these conditions prevail in the region ahead of the
shock wave. Similarly, be the corresponding values after the diaphragm
ruptures. Hence they are applicable in the region behind the wave. Then the three
conservation relations which correspond to the three conservation laws are as stated in the
following taking shock stationary frame of reference.

…………………………..(1)

(concerning conservation of mass),

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Where, is the velocity of the fluid ahead of the shock, and

is the velocity of the fluid following the shock.

………………(2)

(concerning conservation of momentum)

And, …………………(3)

(concerning conservation of energy)

These 3 equations along with the equation of state, i.e., ……………………..(4)

Lie at the roots of all the aerodynamic problems & applications.

Using the above equations, the following normal shock relations called Rankine-Hugoniot
equations can be derived in which represent pressure and temperature at the
downstream end behind the reflected shock wave,

[ ( )]

( )
[ ]
( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

[ ]
( )

Q9. Methods of creating shock waves in the laboratory using a shock tube
Shock waves can be created in the laboratory by
1. Using a Reddy Tube
2. Detonation
3. Very high pressure gas cylinder
4. Combustion

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 5. Using small charge of explosives

Q10. Explain in brief about any two applications of shock waves.

Following are some of the applications of shock waves.
1. Cell information
By passing shock wave of suitable strength, DNA can be pushed inside a cell without
affecting the functionality of DNA. This has wide biological applications.
2. Wood preservation
By using shock waves, chemical preservatives in the form of solutions could be pushed
into the interior of wood samples which helps in withstanding the microbial attacks. By this
method the life of ordinary wood can be increased.

3. Use in Pencil Industry:

In the manufacture of pencils, in the industry, the wood needs to be softened by
soaking it in a polymer at 700C for about 3 hours and then dried. It takes days for the wood to
dry.

In the modern process, the liquid is passed into the wood almost instantaneously by placing it
in a liquid and sending a shock wave. The wood is then taken out and it will not take longer
time to dry. The treated wood is ready for the next process without any delay.

4. Kidney stone treatment:

Shock wave is used in a therapy to crush the kidney stones into smaller pieces after
which, they are passed out of the body smoothly through the urinary tracts.

5. Gas dynamics studies:

The extreme conditions of pressure and temperature that can be produced in the shock
tube, helps us to the study of high temperature gas dynamics. This knowledge is useful in the
study of supersonic motion of bodies & hypersonic re-entry of space vehicles into the
atmosphere.

6. Shock wave assisted needleless drug delivery:

By using shock waves, drugs can be injected into the body without using needles. The drug
is filled into a cartridge which is kept pressed on the skin & the shock wave is sent into the
body using high pressure. The drug enters the body directly through pores of the skin. In this
process, the patients do not experience any pain.

7. Treatment of dry bore wells:

Water will be available in the bore wells when water accumulates in the bore well through
a number of seepage points which are porous. Sometimes, such seepage points are blocked by
sand particles. A shockwave sent through such a dry bore well, clears the blockages and
makes the bore well into a water source.

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Question 11: Write a note on nanomaterials, nanoscience and nanotechnology

Nanomaterials:
The materials whose dimensions in the range 1 to 100 nm are called nanomaterials.

In case of nanomaterials physical properties such as surface area, thermal conductivity,

elastic modulus, electrical, mechanical, optical, chemical, and biological properties are
entirely different from that of bulk particles. Nano sized particles exhibit size & shape
dependent properties. Nano materials exists in different shapes and sizes namely; nanocrystals,
nanopowders, nano tubes, nano wires, nano rings, quantum dots etc.

Nanoscience
➢ The science of engineering synthesizing nanomaterials in the range 1 to 100 nm with strict
control over size, shape so as to make nanodevices required in numerous fields including
catalysis, medicine and electronics is called nanoscience.
Nanoscience is not only related to study of physics, chemistry, biology or
engineering; but is in general the study of all of them.

Nanotechnology
The science of engineering making useful devices and applications based on nanomaterials is
called as nanotechnology.

Q12: Explain the difference between Top–down and bottom–up approaches for the
synthesis of nanomaterials.
The nanomaterials are synthesized by various methods. These methods are classified into
„top-down’ and „bottom-up’ approaches.

1) Top down approach:

In top-down approach, the material in bulk form is broken down into smaller and smaller
units until the particles reach nano size by the way of physical, chemical and mechanical
processes.

The few examples for this approach are ball milling, grinding, lithography, erosion, etching,
ion implantation etc.
(2) bottom up approach:

In bottom up approach nano particles are prepared by bringing individual atoms or molecules
together until nano size is reached. This is the major technique involved in the most of the
synthesis methods.

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 A Few examples for this method are: arc discharge, chemical vapour deposition (CVD),
physical vapour deposition (PVD), spray pyrolysis, sol-gel method, hydrothermal method,
combustion etc.

Question14: Explain with diagrams, the two synthesis methods Ball Milling and sol-gel
methods
(a)Ball Milling
Ball milling is a typical example for top down approach used in preparing nanomaterials. The
ball mill consists of hollow cyndrical chamber that can rotate about its axis, the axis may be
horizontal or vertical or at small angle with the horizontal. Hard and heavy balls made of
tungsten, carbide or even rubber along with some air is enclosed into the container and
container is rotated about its axis at high speeds.
When the container is rotated about the axis; the material undergoes rotatory motion as well
as Planetory motion. The material is crushed against walls and also among themselves. Due to
motion of the container, the material is forced to central region of the container, as a result part
of the material may left out without grinding.

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It is as shown in the second diagram. By controlling speed of rotation and duration of milling
it is possible to get nano sized particles. If the container is more than half filled, the efficiency
of milling decreases. A temperature range of 100 to 1000C is expected to produce during the
grinding. Low temperature cooling is done to dissipate excess heat. Few milligrams to several
kilograms of nano powders can be synthesized in this method.
Advantages of ball milling
1. In this method Nanoparticles of size 2 to 20 nm in size can be produced. The size of
the nanoparticles produced depends upon speed and duration of rotation grinding.
2. Suitable for large scale production.
3. It is an inexpensive and easy process.
4. All types of materials can be synthesized by this technique.
Disadvantages of ball milling
1. The Shape of the nano particles are of irregular size. This will adversely affect
properties of the resulting product.
2. The process may add some impurities from the balls and also from the additives like
O2, N2 etc. are other sources of impurities.
(b) Sol Gel method (bottom- up approach)
● Sol-gel is a typical example for bottom up approach used in preparing nanomaterials
● A colloidal suspension of solid particles in a liquid is known as sol. A Continuous
network of solid particles with pores filled with liquid is known as gel. The gel is
capable of maintaining its shape. The process of sol-gel method is shown in Figure.
● The solid particles are dissolved in a suitable liquid to form the sol. The sol can be
dehydrated to form the gel.
● If the gel is subjected to rapid drying, aerogel is formed. Aero gel is a very low density
porous material.
● If the gel is dried slowly, a xerogel is formed which on calcination gives rise to a dense
ceramic. The xerogel is a porous solid which has large density than the aerogel.
● If the sol is sprayed on a substrate or the substrate is dipped in the sol, the gel is formed
on the substrate. On calcination a thin film is formed on the substrate.
● If suitable surfactants are added to the gel, it gets converted to small gelled spheres. on
calcination, the gelled spheres get converted into a nanopowder.

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 ● Highly pure and uniform nano structures can be obtained by this method. This method
is used in making high purity nano particles in powder form and also to deposit on thin
films.
● This method is useful to synthesis ceramics, metal oxides sulphides, borates and
nitrates. This method is economical, low temperature synthesis with fine control over
the product.

Advantages
1. In this method highly pure and uniform nanostructures are produced.
2. It is inexpensive technique with fine control over the size and purity is possible.
3. This process can be used produce different forms of nanomaterials like, ceramic
materials, nanopowder/nanotubes/nano film etc.
Disadvantages
1. Sol gel method involves many chemical reactions and hence an electrical and
optical property of the material varies.
2. Materials prepared by this method are not suitable for electronic and solid state
devices.

12. Describe various quantum structures. Explain density of states (DOS) in these
structures
There are four types of quantum structures in the size range of 1-100nm. Large clusters/
Particles in 3-dimensions (3-D), thin films and layers (2-D), Rods and Wires (1-D),
Small Clusters or Quantum Dots (0-D).These structures can be obtained as follows.
➢ Bulk material of 3-dimensions without making any reduction is called bulk quantum
structures or three dimensional structures (3D).
➢ Bulk material of 3-dimensions, when reduction is made in one dimension; the resulting
structure in 2 dimensions is called a film or two dimensional structures (2D).

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➢ Bulk material of 3-dimensions, when reduction is made in two dimensions the resulting
structure is in 1 dimension; it is called quantum wire (1D).
➢ If the reduction is in all the 3 directions the resulting structure is called quantum dot.
These structures are shown in the diagram.
Density of states in 1D, 2D and 3D structures:
Considering free electrons as electron gas expression for energy density of states can be
obtained. The density of states; (DOS) the numbers of energy levels present between the
energy levels E and E+dE per meter 3of the material for the various quantum structures as a
function of energy are shown in figures.
(1) According to quantum theory, 3dimensional solid consists of 1026 / m3 energy levels.
Energy density is represented by g(E)dE. For a 3-D structure the DOS denoted as g(E) varies
1
 8 2 Xm3 / 2 
  E 2 dE
as parabolic in shape. g(E)dE =  h3 
 

2) For a 2-D structure the DOS denoted as D(E) varies as step function. There is sudden rise
in D(E) at energy values E1 and E2 etc. It is because the energy progress of the first sub-band
continues even when the energy levels of second sub-bands starts, therefore in the second sub-
band in addition to its own energy states there are additional energy levels contributed from
first sub-band. Hence the DOS rises at once at the beginning of second sub band. Again the
combined energy levels of first and second sub bands enter into the third sub band and DOS
rises further at the commencement of third sub-band and so on. The overall variation takes a
staircase shape. The locus of all the corners of the steps will be a parabola.

If thickness of the 2-D material is increased, more sub-bands will be overlapped,

which results in decrease of the step width. If the thickness increases continuously then in the
limiting case, the material becomes 3-D; which results in large number of steps would be seen
merged into an envelope of parabolic variation of DOS.

The density of States for 2-D structure is of the order / eV.

m*
The dos for sub bands in a 2-D structure is given by D (E) dE =
h 2
 H ( E  E ) dE
i

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 Where is the effective mass of electron in the structure and H(E- ) is a step
function called Heaviside function, its values are zero for E< and 1 for .

is the energy level in sub band.

For a quantum wire of 1-D structure, the DOS variation is smooth there are density peaks
at energy values , ... and decreases rapidly in the range in between. The DOS is given by

2m ni H ( E  Ei )
2 
 ( E ) dE  dE
h ( E  Ei

Where H(E- )is Heaviside function, is degeneracy factor. The density of the order of
/m eV.

4) For a 0-D structure, the permitted energy values are not continuous but form discrete
bunches of various densities. This is because of quantum confined condition for the electrons.
Hence densities of energy levels appear as discrete lines. In real quantum dots size distribution
leads to broadening of the lines.
Carbon nano-tubes

Question (15): What are carbon nanotubes? Write a note on arm chair, zig-zag, and
chiral types of CNT’S.
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are long, thin cylinders of carbon discovered by Iijima in
1991. A CNT is a sheet of carbon atoms joined in the pattern of hexagons rolled into a
cylinder. A single sheet of graphite is called graphene. Therefore by rolling a graphene sheet
carbon nanotubes are produced.
The carbon nano tubes are of two types: single walled nanotubes (SWNTs) and
multiwalled nanotubes (MWNTs).SWNTs have only single layer of graphene cylinders; while

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MWNTs composed of multiple coaxial SWNTs. Many of MWNTs consisted of several co-
axial cylinders. The number of co-axial tubes may vary from 2 to 30 with inner layer spacing
of 3.4 Ao. They are 10,000 times thinner than human hair.

Single walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs)

❖ SWNTs are cylinders of carbon consisting of single graphene sheet rolled/wrapped up
to form a tube with fullerene type cap. The structure of a SWNT is uniquely characterized by
the roll up vector of helicity Ch=na1+ ma2 (n, m) where a1 and a2 are the graphene primitive
vectors and n, m are integers. By counting the number of hexagons along unit vector a1 and a2,
the values of n and m can be obtained. In nano-tubes conducting properties depend upon how
the two ends of the sheets meet.
In case of SWNT‟S Graphene sheets can be rolled about an axis called roll up factor
denoted by T. T denotes axis about which the sheet is rolled. There are 3 different types of
SWNT‟S (a) arm chair (b) Zig-zag, and (c) chiral.

The resulting molecular structure defined by

(a) armchair
If T is parallel to C-C bonds the resulting structure is called ‘armchair’. All nano tubes with
arm chair structure conduct like metals.

b) Zig-zag and c) chiral

To obtain other two structures graphite sheet is rolled with T at certain angles to C-C bond. In
other two structures conducting property varies with angles made by T with bond angle. Zig
zag nanotubes have small band gap, therefore they may be either semi metallic or
semiconductors and chiral nanotubes are semiconductors or low conductors. Hence about one

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third of Zig-zag and chiral structures conduct like metals and the remaining two third
exhibits less conductivity, some like semiconductors.

Question (16) Mention Properties and uses of carbon nanotubes

Carbon nanotubes exhibit extraordinary mechanical, electrical, thermal physical and chemical
properties.
1. Mechanical: CNTs are strongest, stiffest and more flexible
(a) CNTS are highly elastic. In case of carbon nanotube Young‟s modulus is 1800 GPa where as
in steel 210GPa.
(b) CNT‟S can withstand larger strains than steel. They can be bent without breaking.
(c) The weight of CNT is only one sixth of the steel.
(d) They are 100 times stronger than steel.
2. Electrical.
a) Their electrical conductivity is high i.e six times that of copper.
b) Due to high length to diameter ratios, CNTs are excellent field emitters
c) Energy gap found to decrease with decrease of diameter of CNT‟s.
d) At low temperature their resistance decreases with increasing magnetic field applied
across the CNT. This effect is known as magneto resistance.
3. Thermal conductivity:
CNTs are very good conductors of heat. Their thermal conductivity is more than twice of
diamond. Thermal conductivity also varies with direction. The conductivity is very good
along the axis of the tube and very low in perpendicular direction.
4. Physical properties: Carbon nanotubes are of light weight, corrosion resistant and low density.
5. Chemical properties: CNTs are chemically more inert compared to other forms of carbon.

Applications of CNT’S
1. CNT‟S can store lithium due to which they can be used in batteries.
2. They are used in the tips of atomic force microscope probes.
3. They are being used to develop flat panel displays for television and computer monitors.
4. They are being used as light shield for electromagnetic radiation.

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 5. Field effect transistors are being developed using semiconducting CNT‟S which can be
used to build faster processors for computers. It is estimated that these processors will
be 104 times faster than the present processors.
6. They are used in chemical sensors to detect gases.
7. CNT-based nano biosensors may be used to detect DNA sequences in the human body.
8. CNT based nano sensors can be used in eye surgery, respiratory devices,inhalers,kidney
dialysis etc.
9. CNT,S have been used in super capacitors producing a power density of 30kW/kg.
10. Ultra small single walled nanotubes are found to exhibit superconductivity below 2K.

Question (17): Explain Fabrication of carbon nanotubes by arc discharge method.

● The experimental set up consists of a vacuum chamber in which two graphite rods are
mounted on two supports.
● The electrodes anode and cathode made of graphite rods are separated by 1-2 mm. Usually
anode is long rod of approximately 6mm in diameter and cathode is much shorter of
diameter 9mm.
● The tube is evacuated and pressure is of about 500 torr. is maintained and helium is
circulated inside the chamber. Helium can be replaced by argon , hydrogen or methane.
● By passing a direct current of 50 to 100 A, under the potential difference of 20-40 V, high
temperature discharge is created between two electrodes. carbon atoms are evaporated from
Anode. Carbon atoms in the form of carbon nanotubes are deposited on the cathode
electrode.

● If nickel, cobalt or iron are used as catalyst in the central region of the positive electrode,
single walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNT,s) around 1nm are produced.
● In the absence of catalyst multi walled carbon nanotubes (around 4-20nm) are formed.

Advantages:

1. Ability to produce CNT‟s in large quantity.

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 2. Growth temperature in arc discharge is high, therefore crystallinity of CNT,s produced
from this method are high and yield per unit time is also large.
Question (18): Explain Fabrication of carbon nanotubes by pyrolysis method (Chemical
vapour deposition-CVD)

Pyrolysis is decomposition of a material at high temperature. The st up for the synthesis of

CNT‟S using chemical vapour deposition is as shown. It consists of a quartz tube kept in a
furnace. The quartz tube is connected to acetylene (C2H2) and nitrogen. The substance
containing Cobalt, iron and nickel which act as catalyst is kept in a quartz plate as shown. The
quartz tube is provided with an outlet for the gas. The temperature inside the quartz tube is
maintained at about about 400 – 8000C.

Due to high temperature in the quartz tube, acetylene breaks down into carbon atoms. When
these carbon atoms come near the substrate, they get adsorbed and get converted into
nanotubes due to presence of catalysts. This method produces multiwalled carbon nanotubes.

Question (19): Describe the principle, construction and working of scanning electron
microscope. Mention a few uses of SEM.
Scanning Electron microscope: Principle, working and applications:

PRINCIPLE

In optical microscope, visible is light is used to illuminate objects, where as in

electron microscopes, electrons waves are made to illuminate objects. Wavelength of visible
light is of the order of 10-7m and that of electron is of the order of 10-12m.Thus wavelength of
electrons is 10-5 times smaller than visible light. As a result resolving power of electron
microscope is 105 greater than that of optical microscope.

h
Wave length associated with accelerated electrons is given by  12.27 Å
(2meV )

Where m=mass of electron, e=charge of electron, h=Planck‟s constant,V=accelerated voltage.

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CONSTRUCTION
The apparatus consists of an evacuated chamber; inside of which there is an electron gun to
emit electrons, two magnetic lenses, one is called converging lens and other is called objective
lens accompanied by a scanning coil. A flat surface called stand is provided at the bottom to
place the sample. The objective lens is used to focus the scanning beam on a desired spot on
the sample.
When high energy electrons incident on a surface of a sample, the sample is scanned
by beam of electrons. This gives rise to secondary electrons, back scattered electrons and X-
rays. The intensities of secondary electrons, back scattered electrons and X-rays are recorded
using detectors. The images are displayed on TV monitor.
The secondary electrons give topographical information of the surface. Back scattered
electrons give topographical information and chemical composition; X-rays give elemental
composition.
Working
● The sample to be investigated is placed on the stand.
● Accelerated electrons emitted by the gun is made to incident on the sample. The converging
lens, converges the light on to the sample.The beam then passes through the objective
aperture where size of the beam is controlled. The objective lens focuses the beam on the
desired position of the sample.
● The set of coils called scan coils placed along with the objective lens enable the beam
to scan the sample.
● When the high energy electron beam strikes the sample, some electrons are scattered
due to elastic scattering which give rise to back scattered electrons,some electrons are
knocked off (secondary electrons) and some electrons penetrate deep into the inner shells of
the sample atoms to knock off inner shell electrons due to which X-rays are produced. These
are detected using detectors and the signals are amplified and displayed on a TV monitor.
Samples are required to be conducting. Non conducting samples are coated with a thin
conducting material.
● Unlike optical and transmission electron microscopes, image magnification in SEM is
not a function of the power of the objective lens. In a SEM, display screen has a fixed size,
higher magnification results from reducing the size of the raster on the specimen and vice
versa. Therefore magnification in SEM is controlled by the current supplied to the scanning
coils, or the voltage supplied to the deflector plates, and not by objective lens power.

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Applications of SEM
1. SEM images give information about the surface features of the sample. This information
can
be used to study properties like reflectivity and roughness.
2. SEM images give information about the elements and compounds present in the sample.
3. This is used to study properties like hardness and melting point.
4. SEM is used to study morphology of biological specimens.
5. SEM is used to study corroded layers on metal surfaces.
5. Used to study structure of virus and bacteria.
6. Used in industry to study structure of textile fibers, composition of papers, composition of
metals etc.
7. Used to study atomic structure and structure of crystals.

Problems
1. Evaluate speed of sound in helium gas at 350K.Given, for helium=1.667,R=2008JKg-
1 -1
K
Solution: speed of sound, a=

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2.In an experiment using a Reddy shock tube, it was found that, the time taken to travel
between the two sensors is 195μs.If the distance between the two sensors is 100mm find, M,
p2,T2,P5 and T5.Given, velocity of sound, a=340ms-1,ambient temperature is 300K, and =1.4.

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