MT 221: 9.

0 Introduction to Hydrometallurgy 2019

9.0 Introduction
Hydrometallurgy involves getting the desired mineral from the ore, concentrate or other material into an aqueous solution followed
by purification and then winning of metal out of solution. The main stages of hydrometallurgy are leaching, purification,
concentration of leach solutions and metal recovery out of solution, as shown in figure 9.1.

Figure 9.1 Simplified flow-chart for Leach-Solvent Extraction – Electrowining process

Advantages of hydrometallurgy
1) Metals may be obtained directly in a pure form from the leach solution. E.g. by precipitation with hydrogen under pressure,
cementation or electrolysis.
2) High-purity metals maybe recovered from impure leach solutions.
3) The siliceous gangue in the ore is unaffected by most leaching agents; whereas in pyrometallurgical smelting processes,
this gangue must be slagged-off
4) Corrosion problems are relatively mild in hydrometallurgy compared with the deterioration of refractory linings in furnaces,
and the necessity for periodical shut down and replacements.
5) Most hydrometallurgical processes are carried out at room temperature and therefore, no consumption of large amounts of
fuel as in pyrometallurgy.
6) Handling of leach products is much cheaper and easier than handling molten mattes, slags and metals.
7) Hydrometallurgical processing is especially suitable for the treatment of low grade ores.
8) Hydrometallurgical plants rarely pollute the environment as does smelters.
Disadvantages of hydrometallurgy
1) No precious metal recovery with some systems.
2) The need to source sulphuric acid, Nitric acid etc.
3) Economics of sulphuric acid consumption for acid consuming minerals such as carbonates may make the cost prohibitive.
4) Hydrometallurgical processes are usually slower than pyrometallurgical processes as the latter are done at high
temperatures.
5) Small amounts of impurities may greatly affect the process.
6) Some metals such as iron cannot be extracted commercially by hydrometallurgy.
9.1 Leaching theory
In Zambia, the percentage of copper in the ore is usually around 2 % on average. Hence, the mineralization and situation of the
ore are important in deciding what method of treatment is to be applied. Sulphide ores are generally sent to the smelter because
they are easily concentrated and smelted. If there’s no convenient smelter, sulphide concentrates may be treated by roast-leach-
electrowin process. In this method, copper sulphide concentrate is roasted in a fluidized bed roaster at around 700 oC to convert

Leonard Kabondo Page 1 of 12

 MT 221: 9.0 Introduction to Hydrometallurgy 2019

sulphides to sulphates. The resulting calcine is leached with sulphuric acid at pH 1.8-2 to produce a pregnant solution from which
copper is recovered by electrowinning. However, high grade ores are generally smelted whether oxide or sulphide.
On the other hand, oxide ores are generally more suitable for leaching since it is difficult to concentrate and smelt oxides. The ore
is simply crushed and screened to about 1cm (vat leach) or ground to 60 % passing minus 75 microns (agitation leach). The
leaching reagent used is dilute sulphuric acid at ambient temperature and pH of 1.8-2. After solid-liquid separation, the pregnant
solution is sent to electrowinning where copper is recovered in form of cathodes. In some plants, the leaching of low grade oxide
ores or sometimes tailings produce a pregnant solution which is too low in copper (e.g. in the order of 4 gpl Cu in solution) to be
sent directly for electrowinning. Such liquors are concentrated by solvent extraction before it can be sent to electrowinning. There
are a number of leaching methods currently being used in industry today and may include but not restricted to; Insitu leaching,
Dump or heap leaching, Percolation or vat leaching, Agitation leaching either ambient or high pressure and Bacterial leaching.
Typical leaching examples may include:
 Gold - Cyanide solution ( NaCN or KCN)
 Aluminium - Sodium hydroxide ( NaOH)
 Copper and Zinc- Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
 Uranium - Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) or Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)
What makes a successful leaching system?
 The valuable metal must be soluble in an economically usable solvent.
 Ideally, the solvent should be inexpensive and if possible selective for the desired metal.
 It must be technically possible to remove any impurities which are co-extracted during leaching from the desired metal.
 The metal must be economically recoverable from solution.
9.1.1 Leaching Methods
9.1.1.1 In-situ leaching
In-situ leaching (ISL), also called in-situ recovery (ISR) or solution mining, is a mining process used to recover minerals such as
copper and uranium through boreholes drilled into a deposit, in situ. The process initially involves drilling of holes into the ore
deposit. Explosive or hydraulic fracturing may be used to create open pathways in the deposit for solution to penetrate. Leaching
solution is then pumped into the deposit where it makes contact with the ore. The solution bearing the dissolved ore content is
then pumped to the surface and processed. This process allows the extraction of metals and salts from an ore body without the
need for conventional mining involving drill-and-blast, open-cut or underground mining. Main problem related to this process is
the recovery of pregnant solution lost to groundwater. These losses can have a significant environmental impact.
9.1.1.2 Heap leach
The mined ore is usually crushed into small chunks and heaped on an impermeable plastic and/or clay lined leach pad where it
can be irrigated with a leach solution to dissolve the valuable metals. While sprinklers are occasionally used for irrigation, more
often operations use drip irrigation to minimize evaporation, provide more uniform distribution of the leach solution, and avoid
damaging the exposed mineral, as shown in figure 9.2.

Leonard Kabondo Page 2 of 12

 MT 221: 9.0 Introduction to Hydrometallurgy 2019

Figure 9.2 (a) Heap leaching illustration Figure 9.2 (b) Drainage pipes and channels
The solution percolates through the heap and leaches both the target and other minerals. This process, called the "leach cycle,"
generally takes from one or two months for simple oxide ores (e.g., most gold ores) to two years (for nickel laterite ores). The
leach solution containing the dissolved minerals is then collected, treated in a process plant to recover the target mineral and in
some cases precipitate other minerals, and then recycled to the heap after reagent levels are adjusted. Ultimate recovery of the
target mineral can range from 30 % of contained (run-of-mine dump leaching sulfide copper ores) to over 90 % for the easiest to
leach ores (some oxide gold ores). Heap leach is used for ores which may be marginal using conventional processing methods.
Examples include; gold, silver, copper. In order to maximise on grade and recovery of the contained minerals, heap leaching can
also be done in a counter current operation where a fresh solvent is introduced onto the old heap and allowed to flow from on e
heap to the next until the last one before returning to the initial heap, as shown in figure 9.3. This process ensures maximum
recovery of the valuable contained mineral before the pregnant leach solution can be sent for further metal recovery.

Figure 9.3 Counter-current heap leach operation

9.1.1.3 Tank/Vat Leaching
Tank and vat leaching involves placing an ore, usually after size reduction and classification, into large tanks or vats at a mbient
operating conditions containing a leaching solution and allowing the valuable material to leach from the ore into solution. In tank
leaching, the ground, classified solids are already mixed with water to form a slurry or pulp, and this is pumped into the tanks.
Leaching reagents are added to the tanks to achieve the leaching reaction. In a continuous system the slurry will then either
overflow from one tank to the next, or be pumped to the next tank. Ultimately the “pregnant” solution is separated from the s lurry
using some form of liquid/solid separation process, and the solution passes on to the next phase of recovery.
In vat leaching, the solids are loaded into the vat, once full, the vat is flooded with a leaching solution. The solution drains from
the tank, and is either recycled back into the vat or is pumped to the next step of the recovery process. Vat leach units are
Leonard Kabondo Page 3 of 12
 MT 221: 9.0 Introduction to Hydrometallurgy 2019

rectangular containers (drums, barrels, tanks or vats), usually very big and made of wood or concrete, lined with material resistant
to the leaching media. The treated ore is usually coarse. The vats are usually run sequentially to maximize the contact time
between the ore and the reagent. In such a series the leachate collected from one container is added to another vat with fres her
ore. In most cases, tanks are equipped with agitators to keep the solids in suspension in the vats and improve the solid to liquid
to gas contact. Agitation is further assisted by the use of tank baffles to increase the efficiency of agitation and prevent centrifuging
of slurries in circular tanks.
Tank leaching is usually differentiated from vat leaching on the following factors:
1) In tank leaching, the material is ground sufficiently fine to form a slurry or pulp, which can flow under gravity or when
pumped. In vat leaching, typically a coarser material is placed in the vat for leaching, this reduces the cost of size reduction.
2) Tanks are typically equipped with agitators, baffles, gas introduction equipment designed to maintain the solids in
suspension in the slurry, and achieve leaching. Vats usually do not contain much internal equipment, except for agitators.
3) Typically, the retention time required for vat leaching is more than that for tank leaching to achieve the same percentage of
recovery of the valuable material being leached.
9.1.2 Factors that influence Extraction efficiency in Tank/Vat leaching
9.1.2.1 Retention time - Refers to the time spent in the leaching system by the solids. This is calculated as the total volumetric
capacity of the leach tank/s divided by the volumetric throughput of the solid/liquid slurry. Retention time is commonly measured
in hours for precious metals recovery. A sequence of leach tanks is referred to as a leach "train", and retention time is measured
considering the total volume of the leach train.
9.1.2.2 Ore Size - The ore must be ground to a size that exposes the desired mineral to the leaching agent (referred to as
“liberation”), and in tank leaching, this must be a size that can be suspended by the agitator. In vat leaching, this is the size that
is the most economically viable, where the recovery achieved as ore is ground finer is balanced against the increased cost of
processing the material.
9.1.2.3 Slurry density - The slurry density (percent solids) determines retention time. The settling rate and viscosity of the slurry
are functions of the slurry density. The viscosity, in turn, controls the gas-mass transfer and the leaching rate.
9.1.2.4 Number of tanks - Agitated tank leach circuits are typically designed with no less than four tanks and preferably more to
prevent short-circuiting of the slurry through the tanks.
9.1.2.5 Dissolved gas - Gas is often injected below the agitator or into the vat to obtain the desired dissolved gas levels – typically
oxygen, in some base metal plants, Sulphur dioxide may be required.
9.1.2.6 Reagents - Adding and maintaining the appropriate amount of reagents throughout the leach circuit is critical to a
successful operation. Adding insufficient quantities of reagents reduces the metal recovery but adding excess reagents increases
the operating costs without recovering enough additional metal to cover the cost of the reagents.
9.1.1.4 Bioleaching
Bioleaching is the extraction of a metal from sulfide ores or concentrates using materials found native to the environment; namely,
water, air and micro-organisms. In other words, bioleaching is the commercialization of the ability of certain bacteria found in
nature, to catalyze the oxidation of sulfide minerals. It is the leaching of sulfide minerals that distinguishes bioleaching from
conventional acid leaching wherein only oxidized minerals are leached. Bioleaching involves the use of microorganisms to catalyze
the oxidation of iron sulfides to create ferric sulfate and sulfuric acid. Ferric sulfate, which is a powerful oxidizing agen t, then
oxidizes the copper sulfide minerals and the copper contained is then leached by the sulfuric acid formed.

Leonard Kabondo Page 4 of 12

 MT 221: 9.0 Introduction to Hydrometallurgy 2019

The majority of copper minerals are sulfides, with chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) being the most abundant and thus economically the most
important. Others of economic importance are bornite (Cu 5FeS 4), chalcocite (Cu 2S) and covellite (CuS). Sulfide minerals are
insoluble in water or acid solutions unless they are first oxidized. While exposure to air is sufficient to oxidize these minerals, the
process is slow and inefficient. The kinetics of the oxidation process are vastly improved by the introduction of Thiobacillus
ferrooxan and Thiobacillus thiooxan bacteria to the system. The former catalyzes the oxidation of iron whereas the latter catalyzes
the oxidation of sulfur. In the case of uranium, the ferric sulfate oxidizes tetravalent uranium oxide, which is insoluble in acid, to
hexavalent uranium oxide, which is then leached by the sulfuric acid. There are two dominant views on the mechanisms involved
in bioleaching and can be summarized as follows:
 The first is that the overall leaching process occurs by the microbial oxidation of ferrous to ferric ions followed by the chemical
oxidation of the sulfide mineral by the ferric ion. This is known as the indirect mechanism.
 The second view envisages the microbial catalysis of the overall dissolution of the mineral. It has been proposed that the
microorganisms interact with the mineral directly, enhancing the rate of oxidation, over and above that achieved by chemical
oxidation. This is known as the direct mechanism.
However, regardless of the mechanism, it is the enhanced oxidation of the mineral created by the microorganism that creates the
acid-solubility required for leaching to take place. The overall chemical reactions for chalcopyrite are:
4CuFeS 2 + 11O 2 + 6H 2O Thiobacillus ferrooxan >> 4CuSO 4 + 4Fe(OH) 3 + 4S
2S + 3O 2 + 2H 2O Thiobacillus thiooxan >> 2H 2SO 4
Bioleach processing differs depending on the type of resources to be processed. It is used today in three different regimes
dependent upon the raw material types to be processed:
1) Waste dump leaching uses mesophilic (ambient temperature) microorganisms, i.e., bacteria.
2) Heap leaching of ore may involve mesophilic or thermophilic (high temperature) microorganisms, i.e., archaea, depending
on the mineral species present and the physical chemistry of the leach environment.
3) Leaching of chalcopyrite and concentrate leaching requires thermophilic microorganisms. (Chalcopyrite can be leached
using mesophilic bacteria; however, recovery is low and retention time is several years).
However, while bioleaching offers several advantages, such as ability to economically process run-of-mine low grade sulfide ore
and ability to process ores that may not be feasible to be smelted for environmental reasons, it is safe to say that bioleaching will
not completely replace smelting for at least three reasons:
 Bioleaching does not recover the precious metals in the ore. The precious metals are often an important component in the
profitability of the operation.
 The requirement for the smelter to produce acid for conventional leaching and to supplement bioleaching if the ore body is
high in acid consuming minerals. Sulfuric acid is in short supply and expensive to deliver to remote locations.
 Conversely, some ore bodies are not sufficiently high in acid-consuming minerals causing the residual acid that is generated
to have to be neutralized external to the leach process - a costly alternative. In such a case, smelting would be the only
viable processing means.

Leonard Kabondo Page 5 of 12

 MT 221: 9.0 Introduction to Hydrometallurgy 2019

9.2 Solvent Extraction

After leaching, the leach liquor must normally undergo concentration of the metal ions before further recovery in electrowinning.
Additionally, undesirable metal ions sometimes require removal. Solvent extraction (SX) is a chemical process in which a chemical
extractant can exchange hydrogen ions for specific metal ions across an organic - aqueous interface. The Liquid–liquid
extraction (LLE) consists of transferring one (or more) solute(s) contained in a feed solution to another immiscible liquid (solvent).
The solvent that is enriched in solute(s) is called extract. The feed solution that is depleted in solute(s) is called Raffinate, as
shown in figure 9.4.

Figure 9.4 Liquid-Liquid Extraction

Liquid–liquid extraction also known as solvent extraction and or partitioning, is a method used to separate compounds based
on their relative solubilities in two different immiscible liquids, usually water and an organic solvent. It is an extraction of a
substance from one liquid into another liquid phase. The aqueous phase and organic phase must be immiscible to effect
separation. The process is used to treat Copper, Uranium, Zinc, Nickel, Cobalt, PGMs and nuclear materials.
9.2.1 Process theory
In the solvent extraction is a mixture of an extractant in a diluent which is used to extract a metal from one phase to another. This
mixture is often referred to as "organic" because the main constituent (diluent) is some type of oil. The process is done continuously
by pumping an organic and aqueous stream into a mixer. This mixes the organic (oil like solution) component with the aqueous
(water based solution) component. Contact of the two liquids allows ion transfer between them. The mixing continues until (near)
equilibrium is reached. Once the ion transfer is complete, the mixture (emulsion) flows into a separator, with the lighter component
(organic) floating to the top. The main objective of this process is to concentrate the copper in the pregnant leach solution by the
transfer of copper through the organic to the electrolyte for subsequent valuable mineral processing operation, i.e. electrowinning.
There are basically two main processes that comprises solvent extraction in most cases and these include Extraction and
Stripping.
9.2.1.1 Extraction Process
Extraction is a process in which the extractant releases hydrogen ions in exchange for metal ions. In this process, the PLS
(pregnant leach solution) of concentration of about 3-7 gpl Cu from a leaching process is pumped to a primary mixer/settler where
it is contacted with organic material. The copper is extracted from the aqueous (PLS) to the organic. The emulsion that is formed
then overflows from the primary mixer into a secondary mixer for further agitation then to the settler through a launder where the
organic and aqueous phases separate and overflow into the organic and aqueous weirs respectively. Depending on the amount
of contained copper in the aqueous phase, this material will either be sent to the pond as raffinate of <300 ppm Cu or sent b ack
to the extraction circuit for further copper extraction. Then the loaded organic is later sent to the stripping circuit.
[2RH]Org + [Cu2+ SO42-]Aq ═ [R2Cu]Org + [2H+ SO42-]Aq
9.2.1.2 Stripping Process
In the stripping circuit, the spent (lean) electrolyte from the tankhouse (Electrowining) of concentration of about 30-38 gpl Cu and
165-185 gpl acid is contacted with the loaded organic from the extraction circuit in mixer/settlers, where the copper is transferred
from the organic to the electrolyte before being fed to copper tankhouse as advance electrolyte with concentration of about 38-50
gpl Cu and 140-160 gpl acid. After stripping of the organic, it is later fed back to the extraction circuit for more copper extraction.
Leonard Kabondo Page 6 of 12
 MT 221: 9.0 Introduction to Hydrometallurgy 2019

Stripping: The process in which the extractant releases metal ions in exchange for hydrogen ions. It is basically the reserve of
extraction process.
[R2Cu]Org + [2H+ SO42-]Aq ═ [2RH]Org + [Cu2+ SO42-]Aq

9.2.2 Measures of effectiveness

9.2.2.1 Distribution ratio
In solvent extraction, a distribution ratio is often quoted as a measure of how well-extracted a species is. The distribution ratio
(Kd) is equal to the concentration of a solute in the organic phase divided by its concentration in the aqueous phase. Depending
on the system, the distribution ratio can be a function of temperature, the concentration of chemical species in the system, and a
large number of other parameters. After performing liquid-liquid extraction, a quantitative measure must be taken to determine the
ratio of the solution’s total concentration in each phase of the extraction. This quantitative measure is known as the distribution
ratio or distribution coefficient.
9.2.2.2 Separation factors
The separation factor is one distribution ratio divided by another; it is a measure of the ability of the system to separate two solutes.
For instance, if the distribution ratio for nickel (DNi) is 10 and the distribution ratio for silver (DAg) is 100, then the silver/nickel
separation factor (SFAg/Ni) is equal to DAg/DNi = SFAg/Ni = 10.
9.2.2.3 Decontamination factor
This is used to express the ability of a process to remove a contaminant from a product. For instance, if a process is fed with a
mixture of 1:9 cadmium to indium, and the product is a 1:99 mixture of cadmium and indium, then the decontamination factor (for
the removal of cadmium) of the process is 0.11 / 0.01 = 11.
9.2.2.4 Slopes of graphs
The easy way to work out the extraction mechanism is to draw graphs and measure the slopes. If for an extraction system,
the D value is proportional to the square of the concentration of a reagent (Z) then the slope of the graph of log 10(D) against
log10([[Z]]) will be two.

Leonard Kabondo Page 7 of 12

 MT 221: 9.0 Introduction to Hydrometallurgy 2019

9.3 ELECTRO-WINNING OF METALS

9.3.1 Introduction to Electrochemical Considerations for Metal Dissolution
For metallic materials, the dissolution process is normally electrochemical, that is, a chemical reaction in which there is transfer
of electrons from one chemical specie to another. Metal atoms characteristically lose or give up electrons in what is called an
oxidation reaction. The site at which oxidation takes place is called the anode; is sometimes called an anodic reaction. For
example, the hypothetical metal M that has a valence of n (or n valence electrons) may experience oxidation according to the
reaction:

In which M becomes an n_ positively charged ion and in the process loses its n valence electrons; e_ is used to symbolize an
electron. The electrons generated from each metal atom that is oxidized must be transferred to and become a part of another
chemical species in what is termed a reduction reaction. That location at which reduction occurs is called the cathode. Any metal
ions present in the solution may also be reduced; for ions that can exist in more than one valence state (multivalent ions), reduction
may occur by;

In which the metal ion decreases its valence state by accepting an electron. Or, a metal may be totally reduced from an ionic to a
neutral metallic state according to;

Hence, an overall electrochemical reaction must consist of at least one oxidation and one reduction reaction, and will be the sum
of them. Often, the individual oxidation and reduction reactions are termed half-reactions.
9.3.2 Introduction to electrowinning of metals
In electrowinning, a current is passed from an inert anode through a liquid (leach solution) containing the metal so that the metal
is extracted and deposited onto the cathode plates. The most common electrowon metals are lead, aluminium, copper, gold,
silver, zinc, aluminium, chromium, cobalt, manganese, and the rare-earth and alkali metals.
Electrowinning basically refers to the process of using electrolysis to extract a metallic element from the compounds in its ore. In
the electrowinning stage of copper extraction, the solution containing the copper ions is pumped through a series of tanks.
Suspended in these tanks are sheets of lead alloy (anodes) alternating with cathodes made of either thin copper starter sheets or
stainless steel blanks. The electrolytic cells (constructed from resistant concrete or polymer) are rectangular cells designed to
house 20-50 negative electrodes and a similar number of positive electrodes. The electrodes are designed to rest on busbars that
supply electricity for both the positive and negative electrodes. In the tankhouse, there is a multiple system of practical sections
with the banks of cells connected in series and parallel to obtain optimum use of the electrical power derived from the recti fiers,
while keeping the voltage at a level that does not pose a risk to personnel. An external power supply is used to pull electrons out
of the anode and push them to the cathode. The animation figure 9.5 represents one of these electrolytic cells using copper starter
sheets. The anode been positive electrode and made of lead alloy plates is where oxidation occurs and can be represented as
follows;

2OH-(aq) → H2O + ½O2(g)+ 2e-

Leonard Kabondo Page 8 of 12

 MT 221: 9.0 Introduction to Hydrometallurgy 2019

Electrons flow from anode to cathode. Cathode (negative electrode) made of thin copper sheets (starter sheets) or stainless steel
sheets (blanks) is where reduction occurs and can be represented as follows; Then solid copper is deposited at the cathode.
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- → Cu(s)
However, note that H+ is not reduced to H2(g) at the cathode due to the fact that Cu2+ lies below H+ in the table of standard
reduction potentials, it is a stronger oxidant than H+ and Cu2+ is more easily reduced than H+.

Figure 9.5 Electrowining animation

9.3.3 Applications
 The most common electrowon metals are lead, copper, gold, silver, zinc, aluminium, chromium, cobalt, manganese, and
the rare-earth and alkali metals.
 For aluminium, this is the only production process employed.
 Several industrially important active metals (which react strongly with water) are produced commercially by electrolysis of
their pyrochemical molten salts.
 Many electroextraction systems are also available to remove toxic (and sometimes valuable) metals from industrial waste
streams.

Leonard Kabondo Page 9 of 12

 MT 221: 9.0 Introduction to Hydrometallurgy 2019

REVIEW THOUGHTS

1. What is electrowinning?
Electrowinning is a process in which metal ions present in an electrically conductive solution are separated using a direct current.
This is achieved when a direct current is applied across an anode and cathode that are submerged in an electrically conductive
solution causing the metal to deposit on the cathode. We say that metals like these were electrowon.

2. What are electrically conductive solutions?

Electrically conductive solutions are solutions that are formed when an electrolyte is dissolved in a polar solvent, for example
water. When the electrolyte is put into a polar solvent, it is dissolved into negatively charged anions and positively charged
cations. When a direct current is applied to the solution, the anions are drawn to the positively charged electrode (or anode) and
cations are drawn to the negatively charged electrode (or cathode). The clue is pretty much in the name; electrically conducting
solutions are solutions capable of conducting electricity for manipulating the movement of the ions formed by dissolving the
electrolyte.
3. What are the differences between electrowinning and electrorefining?
Electrorefining utilizes anodes comprised of impure metal. When the current is passed through the solution, the anode is corroded
into the solution, causing the metal cation to migrate over to be re-plated onto the cathode. In electrowinning, on the other hand,
the metal is already dissolved into solution hence the anode is inert.
4. Why do we need electrorefining and electrowinning processes?
A lot of metals, especially non-ferrous metals are hard to find in nature in their purest form. Usually, these metals are found in
their mineralized forms, so they need to be reduced to their metallic forms for further usage. Electrowinning is both cost a nd
energy-efficient way of doing this. This is why these are commonly used processes for pure metal production and recovery.

5. What are the most commonly electrowon metals?

The most commonly electrowon metals are copper, gold, silver, zinc, cobalt, and nickel. Electrowinning as an extraction process
is especially important for copper and silver. And with advanced “vortex” emew electrowinning technology the process is even
more efficient ensuring the purity of metal can be plated to as high "Five Nines" (99.999%) along with the ability to deplete
metals down to low concentrations (< 10 ppm).
6. Where can electrowinning processes be used aside from mining?
Electrowinning processes can also be used for wastewater treatment and general recycling. The principle is still the same, an y
impure material can be leached into a conducting solution, then the DC voltage is applied through the solution and the desired
material can be extracted (of course, there are certain limitations such as metal concentration, temperature, acidity levels,
chemical components, and more). When it comes to wastewater treatment, electrowinning is a win-win situation. Less soluble
metals make their way to landfill along with the recovery of valuable metals which can be sold to offset the processing cost.

7. How is electrowinning used for recycling and why?

Electrowinning can be used as a processing step for recycling of non-ferrous metals. Non-ferrous metals can be recycled infinitely
without losing any of their properties. This feature makes electrowinning an ideal process to recover pure metals from complex,
mixed metal feeds. In many cases, it is cheaper to recycle metals instead of mining ore, processing it and extracting the pur e
metals. And this is especially true considering continuously decreasing metal grades in existing mines and deposits.

8. Which process is more frequently used, electrowinning or electrorefining?

Deciding on what process to opt for will depend on the situation. Electrorefining is used when an anode is cast from impure
metal. Electrowinning is employed when the metal is already dissolved into solution, or when it is more feasible to employ a
hydrometallurgical digestion step as opposed to casting impure anodes. Electrowinning can also be done on a smaller scale and
for more niche applications. Both electrowinning and electrorefining can produce very high purity metals exceeding 99.99%.

9. What are the issues of the conventional electrowinning?

For the most part, electrowinning is a rather straightforward and simple process. As the process advances, the concentration of
the target metal is depleted from the solution as the metal is plated onto the cathode. As the concentration of metal decreas es,
Leonard Kabondo Page 10 of 12
 MT 221: 9.0 Introduction to Hydrometallurgy 2019

so-called depletion zones start to form next to the cathode. These are the zones where the concentration of the targeted metal is
lower than in the bulk solution. This can be problematic as if there are other metal ions present in the solution they will s tart to
plate onto the electrode resulting in impurities and low current efficiency.

10. Is it possible to improve the electrowinning process?

Luckily advances in electrowinning have overcome these problems. Vortex emew electrowinning technology offers an alternative
approach to conventional electrowinning ensuring much better results. The emew electrowinning technology uses cylindrical cells
in which the electrolyte is rapidly circulated past the electrodes at very high velocities which overcomes the issues associated with
depletion zones, and enables depletion of metal to much lower concentrations while still achieving the highest purity of metal
possible. On top of that, emew electrowinning cells are closed systems that completely eliminate acid mist and other noxious
gasses making it a much safer place to work.

Homework

1) A copper electrowinning tankhouse operates at current density 300 A/m2 and the average cell voltage between the anode
and the cathode is 2.2 V. Calculate copper deposition current efficiency when the copper electrowinning energy consumption
is 1.89 kWh/kg.

2) A copper electrowinning tankhouse operates at current density 300 A/m2. Assuming that the fraction of standard electrode
potential difference (Cu reduction and O2 evolution) is 40% of the whole cell voltage, calculate the copper electrowinning
energy consumption in kWh/kg when copper deposition current efficiency is 96%.

3) In copper electrowinning tankhouse, the cathode plates are made of stainless steel, and copper is deposited on them and
removed mechanically after the plate has sufficient thickness. Using current density 300 A/m2, what is the cathode weight
when it is stripped after 7-day deposit period? Cathode surface area is 0.95 m2.

4) Using current density 300 A/m2, how long does it take to deposit 85.2 kg on cathode, which has surface area of 2.5 m2? Note
that the surface area includes both sides of the cathode.

5) Calculate fresh electrolyte flow rate to electrowinning cell to maintain copper balance, when the current density can be
adjusted between 300-350 A/m2. The current efficiency is 95%. Cell consists of 35 cathodes that have surface area of 2 m 2
each (two sides depositing). The electrowinning cell is 1.2 m wide and 1.5 m deep, and the length of the cell is 5 m. The fresh
electrolyte contains 50 g/l copper. The decrease of copper concentration from fresh electrolyte entering the cell to the outlet
of the cell, also the delta-copper, is 15 g/l.

Assignment due on 15.05.2020

1. Metallurgy 2nd year – Leaching Process (Identify a case study)
Identify a typical copper leaching active plant or a mineral processing plant that incorporates a leaching process and discuss
their operation by including their critical plant operating parameters. Clearly indicate critical data collected at each stage and
show how effectiveness of each unit is established. Clearly show the measured and response variables of each process
stage.

Coordinators
Kunda Tashani and Kabwe Bwalya

2. Geology 2nd year – Solvent Extraction (Identify a case study)

Identify a typical solvent extraction active plant or a mineral processing plant that incorporates a solvent extraction process
and discuss their operation by including their critical plant operating parameters. Clearly indicate critical data collected at each
Leonard Kabondo Page 11 of 12
 MT 221: 9.0 Introduction to Hydrometallurgy 2019

stage and show how effectiveness of each unit is established. Clearly show the measured and response variables of each
process stage.
Coordinators:
Ngandwe Mapalo and Shili Sabe

3. Mining 3rd year – Electrowinning (Identify a case study)

Identify a typical copper electrowinning active plant or a mineral processing plant that incorporates an electrowinning process
and discuss their operation by including their critical plant operating parameters. Clearly indicate critical data collected at each
stage and show how effectiveness of each unit is established. Clearly show the measured and response variables of each
process stage.
Coordinators:
Mukuwa Acacious and Malichi Felix

Leonard Kabondo Page 12 of 12