Metrology & Quality Control First Edition : January 2006 All rights reserved with Technical Publications. No part of this book should be in any form, Electronic, Mechanical, Photocopy or any information storage and retrieval system without prior permission in writing, from Technical Publications, Pune. ISBN 81-89411-86-1 Published by : Technical Publications Pune” Amit Residency, Office No. 1, Stit floor, 412, Shaniwar Path, ‘Of N.C. elkar road, Behind Mandar Lodge, Pune - 414 030 Phone : (020) 24495406 ,Tele/Fax: (020) 24495497 Email : tachnical@vtubooks.comTable of Contents 1.1 Metrology... 41.1.1 Definition of Metrology 1.1.2 Objectives of Metrology PA Tyee OMAN ONG I concen na ermrsnennuneormunmanecersnonommnmenceunetl 4.2 Inspection .. 1.3 Measurement.. 1.3.4 Terminology of Measurement . 1.3.2 Classification of Measuring Methods . ... 1.3.3 Factors affecting process of Measurement. 1.4 Errors in Measurement... 1.4.4 Types of Errors... 1.4.2 Major Causes of Errors in Precision Instruments 1.5 Standards of Measurement... 1.5.4 Types of Standards... ......... 2s eee ee eee eee eee eee eee eee 1.5.2 Line Standards ..... 4.8.3 End Standards 0.2.22... 1.5.4 Wavelength Standards ......... ++ Sosa ean racer amaaeruTTh (1-42) 1.6 Measuring Instruments 1.6.1 General Classification 2 1.6.2 Metrological Properties of Measuring Instruments 4.7 Some Precision & Non-Precision Measuring Instruments 1.1.4 Steel Rule i 4.1.2 Calipers. ... 1.1.3 Dial Calipers 1.7.4 Surface Plate. .ATS Angle Plate ooo... ee eccceeeeeeeseeseeeeseecsesetieesseeeeneeeeee (149) Cc 1.7.6 V-Blocks ... - (1-20) 4.7.7 Straight Edges. (4-20) 1.7.8 Combination Set. - (1-21) 170 Universal Suited GAIGO ule. wists ee dbase Re otis eres a (ODD) 1.7.10 Feeler Gauges (1-23) 1.7.11 Vernier Height Gauge ... - (1-24) 4.7.42 Universal Measuring Instruments ......0...e005 ieee eee ee (1-25) 4.7.43 Miorometers 22.2 (1-26) 1.7.14 Inside Micrometer Caliper - (1-26) 4.7.15 Thread Micrometer Caliper os (1-27) 1.8 Calibration of Measuring Instruments. ssonsseoeeed( 1-28) 1.8.4 Requirement of Calibration System . (1-28) University Question: 1-29) 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Straightness... 2.2.4 Definition of Straightness 2.2.2 Measurement of Straightness . 2.2.2.1 Measurement by Straight Edge 2.2.22 Wedge Method . 22.23 UsingSpitLevel ss. 2.2.24 Using Autocolimator. vw. eee 22.25 Using Beam Comparator... sss. 2.3 Flatness .. 2.3.1 Definition of Flatness.. 2.3.2 Measurement of Flaess 2321 GidNetid 2... SEAR aims «ss ey Sis et (2-6) 2.3.23 Using Optical Flats (26) 2.4 Squareness...2.4.1 Measurement of Squareness 2.4.1.1 Using Dial Gauge . 24.1.2 Indicator Method 24.1.3 Autocolimator Method 2.4.1.4 NPL Square Tester 2.5 Roundness ... 2.5.1 Measurement of Roundness. 2.5.2 Errors in Roundness 2.6 Parallelism 2.6.1 Measurement of Parallelism 2.7 Circularity.. 7 2.7.1 Etrors in Circularity 2.7.2 Measurement of Circularity . University Questions 3.1 Introduction... 3.2 Standard for Angular Measurement. 3.3 Measurement of Angle...... 3.3.1 Engineer's Square........... 3.3.2 Vernier & Optical Bevel Protractor 3.3.3 Universal Bevel Protractor . 3.3.4 Optical Dividing Head 3.3.5 Sine Bars & Sine Principle . 3.3.8 Sine Centers... 3.3.7 Angle Gauges . 3.3.8 Precision Micrometer Clinometers 3.3.10 Angle Dekker. 31311 Darla Belton Pon-Opio! Bor University Guestiois ...4.2 Noted for Limit Gauges ... 4.3 Tolerance, Limits & Fits... 4.3.4 Tolerance & Limits . H 4.3.2 Maximum & Minimum Metal Conditions . .. . 4.3.3 Types of Fits. 4.4 Principle of Interchangeability 4.5 Selective Assembly .. 4.6 Terminology ...... 4.6.1Shaft. 4.6.2 Hole... 4.6.3 Basic or Nominal Si sce : RRR Si iss ci csseive ernie pnerretveen near irenu yen (4-9) 4.6.5 Zero Line. . 4.6.8 Deviation. 4.6.7 Upper Deviation ............ 4.6.8 Lower deviation... 46.9 Fundemental Deviation 4.6.10 Size Tolerance... 4.6.11 Tolerance Grades 4.6.12 Allowance 4.6.13 Basic Shaft . 4.6.14 Basic Hole. 4.7 Shaft Basis & Hole Basis Systems... 4.7.4Shaft Basis Systems 4.7.2 Hole Basis Systems... 4.8 Unilateral & Bilateral Tolerance System: 4.8.1 Unilateral Tolerance Systems........ 4.8.2 Bilateral Tolerance Systems... 4.9 Designation of Holes, Shafts & Fits...4.10 Need for Limits Gauges 4.11 Taylor's Principle of Limit Gauges. 4.12 Gauge Tolerance... 4.13 Wear Allowance ..... 4.14 Types of Gauges... 4.15 Design of Gauges .. 4.16 Principle of Tree Surface Generation University Questions ... 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Characteristics of Comparators... 5.3 Mechanical Comparators 5.3.1 Dial Indicator. 5.32 The Johnson Mikrokator 5.3.3 Reed type Comparator . 5.3.4 Sigma Comparator . 5.3.5 Advantages & Disadvantages of Comparators 5.4 Optical Comparators 5.4.1 Advantages & Disadvantages of Optical Comparators 5.5 Electrical Comparators..... 5.5.1 Advantages & Disadvantages of Electric Comparators 5.6 Pneumatic Comparators .... 5.6.1 Advantages & Disadvantages of Pneumalic Comparators................s.000es (13) 5.7 Mechanical - Optical Comparators... University Questions ... 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Interference of Light..... 6.3 Sources of Light... (6-1) (6-1)6.4 Optical Flats .... 6.5 Calibration of Optical Flats... 6.6 Applications of Optical Flats. 6.6.1 Flatness Testing 6.6.2 Surface Contour Test.............. zi 6.6.3 Checking parallelism of Surface. 6.7 Interferometers... 6.7.1 Michelson Interferometer . 6.7.2 NPL Flainess Interferometer 6.8 Tool Maker’s Microscope 6.9 Profile Projector... University Questions ..... 7.1 Introduction .. 7.2 Terminology of Surface roughness 7.3 Measurement of Surface Finish 7.3.1 Touch Inspection. 7.3.2 Visual Inspection. 7.3.3 Scratch inspection 1.3.4 Microscope inspection . 7.3.5 The Tomlinson Surface Meter. 7.3.6 Taylor Hobson Talysurf. 7.4 Analysis of Surface Traces .... 7.4.1 Maximum Peak to Valley Height of Roughness . 7.4.2 Root Mean Square Value (RMS) . .. 7.4.3 Center Line Average Method (CLA) . University Questions ..... ¢ 8.1 Introduction . 8.2 Instruments required for alignment Test ..621 Dil Gauge siseserceeneieeeesm aire ETE 8.2.2 Test Mancrels, 8.2.3 Stigh Edges & Squares S24 Shalt level, Si.05 vas Slaves Thana aoa 8.2.5 Auto Collimator 8.3 General Acceptance Test. 8.4 Alignment Test of Lathe 11:44 Leveling of ite inebhitie vs; seers es viweveersennassuvseeaesan 8.4.2 True Running of Main Spindle. . 8.4.3 Axial Slip of Main Spindle & True Running of Shoulder Face of Spindle Noise . ” 8.4.4 True Running of Headstock Center. 8.4.5 Parallism of the Main Spindle to Saddle Movement.............+.s+ssseeeseeeee (8-5) 8.4.6 Parallalism of Tailstock Guideways with the Movement of Carriage. ................ (6-6) 8.4.7 Alignment of Both Centers in Vertical Plane ............eeseece0e 8.4.8 Axial Slip of Lead Screw............664 8.5 Alignment Test on Milling Machine ... 8.5.1 Table Surface Parallel to Guideways ........ 8.5.2 T-Slot Parallel to Table Movement & Square to Spindle Axis. 8.5.3 Cross Travel of Table Parallel to Spindle Axis ......... 0.00.6. seceeeeeeeeeeenee 8.5.4 Table Surface Square with Vertical Movement..............6s0eseeeeeeeeenenee 8.6 Alignment Test on Drilling Machine..... 8.6.1 Saddle and Arm Movements Parallel io Base Plate . 8.6.2 Spindle & Feed Movement Square with Base Plat@...................sseseeeee 8.7 Optical Methods of Alignment Testing .. University Questions ..... 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Types of Screw Threads... 9.3 Terminology of Screw Threads... 9.4 Errors in Screw Threads ...9.4.1 Drunken Threads . 9.4.2 Pitch Errors... 9.4.3 Diamettic Errors 9.4.4 Angle Errors . 9.4.5 Diametral Errors . 9.5 Measurements of Thread Elements... 9.5.1 Measurement of Major Diameter. 9.5.2 Measurement of Minor Diameter . 9.5.3 Measurement of Effective Diameter... . . 9.5.4 Checking “Thread Form” & Angle of Thread 9.5.5 Measurement of Pitch University Solved Problems ... University Questions...... 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Involute Curve... 10.3 Terminology in Gears... 10.4 Gear Measurement . 10.4.1 Runout Checking. 10.4.2 Pitch Measurement. 10.4.3 Profile Checking . 10.4.4 Lead Checking .. 10.4.5 Backlash Checking . 10.4.6 Tooth Thickness Measurement. seness 10.4.6.1 Tooth Thickness Measurement by Tooth Vernier Caliper. . (10-10) 10.4.6.2 Constant Chord Method ee . _.. (0-12) 10.4.6.3 The Base Tangent Mathod (10-13) 10.4.6.4 Test Plug Method... . + + (10-5) 10.4.7 Concentricity Measurement _. .- (10-16) 10.4.8 Alignment Checking ... * (10-17) 10.4.9 Checking of Composite Errors . (10-17) 10.5 University Solved Problems .. University Questions ....11.1 Introduction 11.2 Measuring Machines .. 11.2.1 Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM (14-4) 11.2.2 Three Dimensional Measuring Machine.. 0.22... .0c0secceeceeeeeeseeeneees (14-5) 11.2.3 Universal Measuring Machine. . (118) 11.3 Application of Laser in Metrology 11.4 Automatic Inspection Systems University Questions .. 12.1 Introduction .. 12.2 Definitions of Quality . 12.3 Quality Characteristics 12.4 Quality Control .... 12.4.1 Definitions of Quality Control. . . 12.4.2 Objectives of Quality Control. ‘ 12.4.3 Responsibilities of Quality Control... see seeccseeeeceucsetesseuseenseeees (12-4) 12.5 Value of Quality... 12.6 Cost of Quality.. 12.7 Quality Policy 12.8 Quality Assurance 12.9 Causes of variation ... 12.10 Quality Audit... 12.11 Vendor Quality Rating .. 12.12 Quality Mindness.. 12.13 Field Complaint Analysis University Questions ...13.1 Introduction ... 13.2 Variation Theory 13.3 Attributes & Variables. 13.4 Collection & Presentation of Data .... 13.5 Frequency Distribution ... 13.6 Statistical Measures 13.6.1 Mean (X)..... 13.6.2 Median . 13.6.3 Mode. . 13.6.4 Range (R) 13.6.5 Standard Deviation (6) ........0ccccccceesesetecseecseseceeensaeeseees 13.7 Control Charts ... 13.7.1 Chart 13.7.2'R' Chart 13.7.3 Applications of X & R Charts. 13.7.4 The proportionate ‘P’ - Chart 13.7.5 'C’-Chart sua vawTOT EATS 13.7.6 Difference Between Attribute & Variable Charts. 13.7.7 Different Trends in Control charts.........000cccecceeeseeceeeeeeeeeneenes 13.8 Process Capability . 13.9 Advantages of SQC University Solved Problems University Questions ... (13-40) (13-40) 14.1 Introduction ... 14.2 Operating Characteristics Curve .. 14.3 Sampling Plans .... 14.3.1 Single Sampling Plan ...........0.ccceseeceeeeeee eres eee eeeeneneenes 14.3.2 Doubling Sampling Plan . .14.3.3 Multiple or Sequential Sampling Plan... ...........0cseeseeseeeeeeeeeseenee (145) University Solved Problems... University Questions .. 15.1 Introduction 15.2 ISO Series...... 15.3 Advantages of ISO: 9000 Certificat 15.4 Quality Circle 15.5 Total Quality Management (TQM) 15.6 Failure Mode Analysis (FMA) 15.7 Fault Tree Analysis (FTA)... 15.8 Kaizen... 15.9 Six Sigma Concept. 15.10 Zero Defect .. University Questions...Introduction 4.4 Metrology 1.1.1 Definition of Metrology:- The word ‘Metrology’ has a long tradition & is derived from the Greek word. ‘Metro’ mean measurement &'logy’ means science. It is well-known saying that the knowledge about anything is complete only when it can be expressed in numbers & some thing is known about it. Thus for every kind of quantity measured, there must be a unit to measure it and express it in numbers of that unit. Measurements piay a vital role in every field of investigation and present day scientific and technological progress resulted from progress in the field of measurements, Metrology, the science of measurement, includes all aspects both theoretical and practical with reference to measurement, whatever if their uncertainty, & in whatever fields of science or technology they occur. Thus metrology is the science of measurement associated with the evaluation of its uncertainty. The Metrologist has to understand the underlying, principle of design and development of new instrument and also of available instrument in the best way. Metrology is also therefore concern with the methods, execution & estimation of accuracy of measurement, the measuring, instrument and the inspectors. Thus Metrology is mainly concern with the following three functions: 1) __ Establishing the unit of measurement, reproducing these units in the form of standards & ensuring the uniformity of measurements. 2) Developing methods of measurements. 3) Analysing the accuracy of methods of measurement. In broader sense, metrology (the science & art of precision measurement testing & evaluation) is the mother science for technological development. The advance in industry depends to a great extent, on the quality & reliability of dimensional accuracy & precision measurement of other physical characteristics. a4Metrology & Measuring Instruments 1-2 Introduction 1.1.2 Objectives of Metrology:- While the basic objective of a measurement are to provide the required accuracy at minimum cost, metrology would have further objective in a modem engineering. Plant with different shop like tool room, machine shop, press shop, plastic shop, etc. Metrology is also applicable to R&D é& engineering department. The main objectives of Metrology can be as under: i) Thorough evaluation of newly developed products, to ensure that components designed is within the process and measuring capabilities are also available in the plant. 5 ; ii) To determine the process capabilities & ensure that these are better than the relevant component tolerances. iii) To determine measuring instrument capabilities. iv) To minimize the cost of inspection by effective and efficient use of available facilities & to reduce cost of rejects & rework through the application of statistical quality control techniques. v) __ Standardization of measuring methods. vi) Maintain the accuracies of measurement. vii) Arbitration and solution of problems arising on the shop floor regarding methods of measurements. viii) Prepare design for all gauges & special inspection fixtures. 141.3. Types of Metrology:- A) Legal Metrology: Legal metrology is the part of metrology which treats units of measurement, methods of measurement & measuring instruments in relation to statutory, technical and legal requirements. It assures security & appropriate accuracy of measurements Legal metrology is directed by a National organization viz. National service of Legal Metrology. The activities of the service of Legal Metrology are: Control — Testing, verification, standardization of measuring instruments. Testing of prototypes / models gf measuring instruments. Examination of a measuring instrument to verify its conformity to the statutory requirements. B) _ Deterministic Metrology: This is a new philosophy in which part measurement is replaced by process measurement. In this technique full advantage is taken of the deterministic nature of production machines (ie. machine with automatic controls) and all automatic subsystems are optimised to maintain deterministic performance within acceptable quality levels.Metrology & Measuring Instruments 1-3 Introduction 1.2 Inspection In order to determine the fitness of anything made, man has always used inspection. But industrial inspection is of recent origin & has scientific approach behind it, It comes into existence because of the mass production system in which the principle of interchangeability of parts is used. In short inspection is a process to compare the performance of the test workpiece with designed one. The inspection process may consist of checking the physical dimensions of the part and compare it with the decided one or may be evaluation of the different characteristics related to the performance of that part. |RejectRework| Fig. 1.1 Process of inspection 1.3. Measurement Measurement is a complex of operation carried out by means of measuring instruments to determine the numerical value of the size which describes the object of measurement. A physical measurement could be defined as the act of deriving quantitative information about a physical object or action by comparison with a reference. The process of measurement consist of important elements viz. measurand ie. the physical quantity or property like length, angle etc. being measured; comparator i.e. the means of comparing measurand with some reference é& the reference i.e. the physical quantity or property to which quantitative comparison are made. 1.3.1 Terminology of Measurement: a) Indicated size: This is the size indicated by the scale of measuring instrument when a measurement is being taken. It makes no allowance for incorrect use of instrument, such as application of excessive force.Metrology & Measuring Instruments 1-4 Introduction b) ° d) e) 1.3.2 Reading: This is the operator's interpretation of the indicated size. Vernier scale is easily misread in bad light. Reading value: This is the smallest increment of size which can be read directly from the scales of the instrument. Measuring range: This is the range of size between largest and smallest dimension which can be read by measuring instrument. Measuring accuracy: This is the accuracy of the measurement expected from a measuring instrument after taking into account all the factors affecting the process. Classification of Measuring Methods: ‘There are numerous ways in which the given quantity can be measured. Any method of measurement should be defined in such detail & followed by such standard practice that there is a little scope for uncertainty. The nature of the procedure in some of the common methods is described below: @ Gi) iv) Direct method of measurement: In this method, the value of the quantity is obtained directly by comparing the unknown with the standard. This does not include any mathematical calculation to arrive at the result. For example, measurement of length by means of measuring tape. This method is not very accurate because it depends on human viewing accuracy while taking reading. Indirect method of measurement: In this method, the quantities which are related to quantity to be measured are measured directly & then the value is calculated by mathematical relationships. For example, to calculate velocity we require to measure distance & time required. The ratio of distance & time is velocity only. Fundamental method of measurement: This is also called as absolute method of measurement; it is based on the measurement of the base quantity used to define the quantity. The quantity is measured according to the definition of that quantity. Comparison method of measurement: In this method the quantity to be measured is compared with the known value of same quantity.Metrology & Measuring Instruments 1-5 Introduction ) a) Gi) (iii) (iv) ) (vi) Substitution method of measurement: In this method, the quantity to be measured is measured by direct comparison on an indicating device by replacing the measuring quantity with some other known quantity, which has same properties to be measured. Factors affecting on Process of Measurement: Following various factors affect the measurement. Measuring instrument: The accuracy or exactness of the measurement process is mainly depending on the various static & dynamic characteristics of measuring instrument. Static characteristics includes readability, range, accuracy, precision ete. While the dynamic characteristics includes sensitivity, repeatability etc. Temperature: As per the international practices, temperature in test laboratories should be maintained at 20°C. Temperature affects the linear dimensions of the specimen as well as instrument performance. The sate of change of temperature: ‘The rate of change of temperature must not exceed than 1.5°C per hour to avoid the distortion of measuring instruments etc. Relative humidity: It is usually maintained at 45 + 10%. It may be understood that lower RH results in build up of static charge which can damage & invalidate measurement. Higher RH can cause erroneous measurement, leakage, affects corrosion resistance & reduces insulation resistance. Barometric pressure: It is recommended to maintain a +ve air pressure (10-20 N/m?) in laboratory relative to outside area to eliminate dust entering to Lab. Electrostatic precipitators should be placed at corners to attract magnetic particles if any. Air velocity & air distribution: Air velocity affects the temperature distribution air should ingress in lab. at a rate of 0.71 £0.28 m/min, The more factors which affect the process of measurement are vibration & shock, acoustic noise, illumination, electromagnetic interference, stray magnetic fields & ionization interference. 1.4 Errors in Measurement Measurement Error is the difference between the indicated & actual value of measurand. The error could be expressed either as an absolute error or on a relativeMetrology & Measuring Instruments 1-6 Introduction scale, most commonly as a percentage of full scale. It is important to examine the different errors in measurement which causes uncertainty. 1.41 Types of Errors For statistical study and study of accumulation of errors, errors are categorized as controllable errors and random errors: a) Systematic or controllable errors: Systematic error is just a euphemism for experimental mistakes. These are controllable in both their magnitude and sense. After proper analysis these can be determined and eliminated. These errors have a definite value or may be changed by following some typical format or equation. These types of errors may be caused due to following reasons: id Calibration Errors: The actual value of the length of scale or standard length of slip gauges may be different than actual value by small amount. The instrument cannot able to reproduce the same value due to some reasons like hysterisis effect or may be due to loss of signal in case of electrical & electronics measuring instrument. While calibrating the instrument, these kinds of effects should be taken into consideration. ii) Ambient conditions: As discussed in Section 1.3.3 the ambient conditions while measurement is being carried out should be as per the internationally agreed standard. The temperature should be 20° at barometric pressure of 760 mm of mercury. iii) Stylus pressure: Errors due to extra stylus pressure are also appreciable. The extra stylus pressure applied may led to the deformation of workpiece or the measuring instrument itself. iv) Avoidable errors: These errors are due to parallax & misalignment of the workpiece center of measurement. Also the measuring instrument should be located at proper place. While measuring air temperature the thermometer must not be exposed to sun light. b) Random errors: ‘These errors occur randomly & it is very difficult to find the cause of these types of errors. These are due to large no. of unprediciable & fluctuating causes that cannot be controlled by the experimenter. Hence they are sometimes positive or negative. They are caused by friction & play in the instruments hinges or estimation ofMetrology & Measuring instruments 1-7 Introduction fractional part of a scale division or may be due to mispositioning the object. The frequency of occurrence of random errors depends on the occurrence probability for different values of random errors. Random error show up as various indication values within the specified limits of errors in a series of measurement for a given Quantity. 1.4.2, Major Causes of Errors in Precision Instruments:- There are various ways by which an error can be appeared in the measurement. Some of the major causes are discussed below along with what care should be taken to avoid that type of errors. () Effect of environment: As discussed in earlier article, the atmosphere Conditions i.e. temperature, pressure, humidity, presence of dust particles etc. play an important role in process of measurement. Temperature has its direct effect in the process of error generation. The allowable value of temp. during the time of measurement as per the International Standard should be 20°C, The temp variation also has its adverse effect in the value shown by instrument. It must be noted that infrared rays from direct sunlight on gauge would tend to heat it even in an air-conditioned room. Soaking of gauges, masters & workpieces in heat sinks are essential for precise measurement. (ii) Effects of Supports: In case of long measuring bars, straight edge, these have been supported as beam. Thus due to their own inertia they tend to bend & deflect by some amount which causes errors in measurement. To avoid the deflection of such element they must be supported at proper location without causing effect on their performance. Slope and deflection at any point can be calculated by means of theory of bending. For a bar of length L, supported equidistance from center on support by distance ‘I’ apart, then for no slope at end, I/L = 0.577 & for minimum deflection of beam, I/L = 0.554. (ii) Effect of alignment: Abbe's principle of alignment should be followed in measurement to avoid cosine, sine errors. According to principle, the axis of line of measurement of measured part should coincide with the measuring scale or the axis of measurement of the measuring instrument. Cosine error occurs in measuring the length of any part with a scale is the measuring scale is inclined to the true line of dimension being measured.Metrology & Measuring instruments 1-8 Introduction Actual measurement be 2=Cosine 0 b=aCosineo ') E= Effective length lof arm Pear-shaped stylus ‘constant contact point Diameter (b) (9) Fig. 1.2 Errors due to misalignmentMetrology & Measuring Instruments 1-9 . Introduction In Fig. 1.2 (a), where the workpiece has moved the distance ‘b’ while the indicator records the movement asa distance ‘a’ where b = acos@ é& thus error again is a(1-cos0). In some of the lever type instruments like in Fig.1.2 (b), their stylus are designed to be at 30° to the line of measurement, an error would result if it were set with stylus normal to line of measurement. The combined sine & cosine errors will occur when the measuring faces of micrometer are not square with the axis of measured component as shown in Fig 1.2 (c). The correct diameter is mcos@ - dsin0. Errors of above nature can be avoided by using the anvils with spherical shapes as shown in Fig. 1.2 (d). Contrary to general belief, such gauges need not be aligned accurately when used in combination. (iv) Dirt: Presence of dirt in atmosphere may change reading by a fraction of micron. When greater accuracy is desired, electrostatic precipitators need to be incorporated in the lab oradd more filters in the air ducts. (v) _—_Exrors due to vibrations: For consistent & repetitive readings a gauge should be subjected to minimum vibration as possible. Vibration can be avoided by keeping the lab,away from vibrating, sources & slipping cork. Antivibration pads should be used »sherever possible. (vi) Metallurgical effects: The material for gauges should be proper and should be stable after heat treatment. Change in temperature, pressure & humidity in air may change the material properties which may cause etror in measurenent. (vii) Contact point penetration: Penetration is the bending, depressing, deforming é& yielding of surface of the workpiece under the pressure of gauging contact. The gauging pressure does not exceed than limit which causes penetration at point of contact. Also it must not be less than limit which causes looseness & hence an error in measurementMetrology & Measuring Instruments. 1-10 Introduction Stylus of measuring instrument Workpiace deformation a Combined deformation’ Stylus deformation Workpiece: Fig. 1.3 Effect of contact pressure on measurement 1.5 Standards of Measurements Metrology concern itself with the science of measurements and nearly all measurements in workshop involve measurement of dimension. Production Engineer is specially concern with the measurement of the length & angle. Length is of fundamental importance as even angles can be measured by combination of linear measurement. It is well known fact that without standards of fundamental units, (length, mass, time), it would not be possible for civilization to exist. 1.54 Types of Standards:- Depending on the importance of standards, standards are divided into following subgrades: a) b) ° Primary standards: These are fundamental standards like meter that does not change their value & it is strictly followed & precisely defined there should be one and only one material standard preserved under most careful conditions. Secondary standards: These are close copies of primary standards as regards design, material & length. Any error existing in these bars is recorded by comparison with primary standards after long intervals. Tertiary standards: Tertiary standards are reference employed by National Physical Laboratory (NPL) & are the first standards to be used for reference in laboratories & workshops.Metrology & Measuring Instruments 1-11 Introduction d) Working standards: These are also line standard (see 1.5.2) & having same design as all above. But these are of less cost & are made from low grade materials. These are used in general application in metrology laboratories. 1.5.2 Line Standard:- When the distance is measured between two parallel lines, this standard is called as line standard. Example of line standard is meter tape in which the distance is measured between the line which matches with 0 & the line which matches with the point which is to be measured. Workpiece {—Steel rule or meter tap WNIT 67 wos ge TE t r L = Measured lengih Fig. 1.4 Length Measurement 1.5.3. End Standa Most of the times engineer is concern with the measurement between the two surfaces. When the distance is measured as a separation of two parallel surfaces, then this is called as end. standard. The main difference between line standard & end standard is that, in case of line standard we take every value of line engraved into consideration & then only conclusion is drawn. But in end standard only two faces are taken into consideration & no importance is given to any intermediate value or reading between that two parallel faces. Limit gauges are the examples of end standards.Metrology & Measuring Instruments 1-12 Introduction ag Workpiece | Snap gauge Fig, 1.5 Diameter Measurement 1.5.4 Wavelength Standard: This uses the wavelength of monochromatic light which is natural & invariable unit of length. Here the standard of length relative to meter is expressed in terms of the wavelength of the red radiation of cadmium. According to this standard meter is defined as 1650763.73x wavelength of radiation corresponding to the transition between the level 2pi—5ds of the krypton 86 atom in vaccum. 1.6 Measuring Instruments In the process of measurement, the given quantity to be measured is compared with standard or some reference with some device which is called as measuring instrument. For each type of mearurement, there are different types of measuring instruments. 4.6.1. Classification:- Depending on the use or function of the instrument, these are classified as: i) Length measuring instruments ii) Angle measuring instruments ii) Instruments for checking the deviation from geometrical form. iv) Instruments for determining the quality of surface finish. Depending on the accuracy, the measuring Instruments are classified as: i) Most accurate instruments: These works on the principle of light interference. ii) Less accurate instruments: This type consists of tool room microscopes, comparators, optimeters ete. iii) Very Less accurate instruments: These types consist if still less accurate measuring instruments like dial indicators, vernier, calipers, steel rules etc.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Metrology & Measuring Instruments 41-14 Introduction This time difference is due to the inertia of the different elements of the different part of the measuring Instrument. The following curve shows the behaviour of the instrument. ‘emissible dynamic error (8) t Error indication Time(t)—» Fig. 1.6 First order response (due to inertia) If the Inertia is not measurable, then due to elastic property of elements the instrument will show the second order response. Depending on elastic property, there exist three conditions: a) Over damped system: b) Under damped system: ) Critically damped system: b t— Permissible 4 dynamic Error Fig. 1.7 Second order response (due to elasticity)Metrology & Measuring Instruments: 1-15 Introduction vii) Repeatability: Itis the ability of the measuring instrument to give the same value every time the measurement of given quantity is taken. viii) Precision & accuracy: These terms are related to the measuring process. Precision is defined as, repeatability of a measuring process while accuracy is the agreement of the result of a measurement with the true value of the measured quantity. When number of readings are taken then if each reading taken is close to each reading ie. there is less deviation of every reading taken from its adjacent reading, the instrument is said to be precise, Precision does not take into account whether the readings taken are close to true value of quantity being measured. ‘Accuracy is the property of showing the correct or true value of the instrument when a set of readings is taken. This can be well clear from following diagram. x x ‘a x x ‘Average x x nore J true value Error —__— Dimension True value Dimension % x Frequency —— Frequency—> (a) Precise but not accurate {b) Accurate but not precise Je x 8 Zane ve 7 Frequency —= (c) Accurate & precise Fig. 1.8 Precision & accuracyMetrology & Measuring Instruments 1-16 Introduction 1.7 Precision Measuring Instruments: 1.7.1 Steel Rule:- This is also called as scale. It is simplest & most common measuring instruments used to measure length. This work on the principle of line standard. It consists of a strip of hardened steel having line graduations etched or engraved at interval of fraction. The scale can be graduated one side or both sides with different units of measurement. The scales are available in the sizes of 150 mm, 300 mm, 600 mm & 1000 mm. This is not accurate measuring device é& can be used in general measurement in foundry, steel factories, fabrication works etc. Hardened steel strip Engraved scale 012345 67 Reference end Fig. 1.9 Steel Rule 4.7.2. Calipers: For the parts which cannot be measured directly with the scale can be measured by using calipers. The caliper consists of two legs hinged at top, the ends & legs span the part to be inspected. The span is maintained & transferred to the scale. Calipers can be either spring type or with firm joint. These can be also inside type & outside type. In spring calipers spring tension holds the caliper leg firmly against the adjusting nut. These are more accurate & permit accurate sense of touch in measuring.Metrology & Measuring Instruments 1-17 Introduction Oni (0) Firm jolt Outaide Caliper (©) Firm ole tnalde Caliper Fuicrum roller Spring ‘Solid nut washer urd sod at Ball Adjusting Leg {6} Outside Spring Caliper {@) Fim joint inside Caliper. Fig. 1.10 Caliper 1.7.3 Dial Calipers:- ‘These can measure the dimension up to least value of 0.02 mm. These are quite flexible, offering a typical measuring range of 150 mm.Metrology & Measuring Instruments 1-18 Introduction Fig. 1.11 Dial Calipers These are also called as mechanical comparator. The translation of the linear form of the workpiece is accomplished by referring the caliper jaws to measurement scale by mechanical, means. The workpiece variation is assessed by a gear — train & lever mechanism. 1.7.4 Surface Plates:- The basic reference of all the measuring process is the flat plane. This references plane can be created in workshops & inspection laboratories by surface plates. {a) Cast Iron Surface Plate (b) Surface plate Fig. 4.12Metrology & Measuring Instruments 1-19 Introduction Surface plates are the plane surfaces which are of rectangular or square area having length to width ratio as 4:3. These are made from various materials depend on its use & accuracy required. But most of the surface plates are made from cast iron, ribbed, at under side as shown in fig. 1.12 (b) to avoid the distortion. The castings are stress relieved and then the top surface is scraped to obtain the required surface finish. During the last few years, true, flat smooth surfaces have been polished on granite blocks and granite surface plates have found easy popularity. Surface plate forms the basis of measurement & is a must for metrology laboratory where inspection work is to be carried out. It provides datum or reference surface for measurement. It is also used to check flatness of other surface. The big surface plates usually rest on four leveling screws with the help of which its surface can always be kept horizontal. The top surface is scraped to true flatness while the bottom surface is provided with ribs to give strength to plate & also to avoid distortion. A wooden cover is always placed over it, after use. Grease must be applied to top surface when it is not in use. 1.7.5 Angle Plate:- This is an accessory needed with surface plate for measurement purpose. The two surfaces are perpendicular to each other. It is made from C1. & its surfaces are scraped well. These are available in various sizes & designs. Longitudinal edge Interior face Ly (@) Angle plate (b) Important dimensions of angle plate Fig. 1.13Motrology & Measuring Instruments 1-20 Introduction C.L angle plates are widely used in workshops & inspection laboratories. These are made from close grained Cl. & a minimum hardness of 180 HB. These are available in two grades as Grade: 1, Grade: 2 depending on their accuracy required. Usually all the finished surfaces and edges of the plates are protected against climatic conditions by applying suitable corrosive preventive’ preparation on them. These are provided with T-slots & long holes so that they can be clamped to machine tables or workpieces can be clamped to them. 1.7.6 V-Blocks:- These are widely used for roundness checking for cylindrical workpieces. Generally the V angle is 90°. These are available in variety of shapes & sometimes clamps are used to secure the work to them. These are supplied in pair of similar size and same grade of accuracy. Depending on accuracy IS: 2949 specifies V-blocks in two grades as Grade: A & Grade: B. Side Leface End face Fig. 1.14 V-Block V-blocks are furnished by hand scraping process till they have bearing area of not less than 20%. The major purpose of V-blocks is to hold cylindrical pieces or move to the point, to establish precisely the centre line or axis of cylindrical pieces. Any V-block should be checked periodically for basic accuracy. If it has rusted or wom out or warped little, it must be machined again. 1.7.7 Straight Edges:- These are used for checking straightness and flatness of parts in conjunction with the surface plates and spirit levels. These may be made from steel or cast iron. Steel straight edges are available with 2m long & their edges are beveled. C-I edges areMetrology & Measuring instruments 1-21 introduction available upto 3m & used to check the machine slide ways. These are heavily ribbed & bow shaped to prevent distortion. p>}: — a oe a) ol Fig. 1.15 The straight edges are classified as follows: i) Tool-maker's straight edge. Wide edge straight edge Angle straight edge iv) Box straight edge. 1.7.8 Combination Set: This is most adaptable & widely used non-precision instrument in layout & inspection work. Graduated Protracior head Fig. 1.16 Combination Set The centre head attachment is used with the scale to locate the centre of bar stock. ‘The combination set consists of scale, squaring head, protractor and centre head, It consists of a heavy scale, which in grooved all along its length. It is on thisMetrology & Measuring Instruments. 41-22 Introduction groove that sliding squaring head is fitted. One surface of the squaring head is always perpendicular to the scale & it can be adjusted at any place by a locking bolt & nut. The squaring head also contains a spirit level which is used to test the surfaces for parallism. For laying out dovetails an included angle is also mounted on the scale. It can slide to any position & can be locked there. The squaring head & scale can be used for height & depth measurement. 1.7.9 Universal Surface Gauge: Post Straight end used for scribing lines parallel to datum Inclination of post is adjustable Rocker arm Spindle nut OLA | with a ‘surface plate Fig. 1.17 Universal Surface Gauge This is most versatile instrument used in non-precision measurement. This is mostly used with surface plate for layout work. It consists of heavy rigid base whose bottom surface in perfectly flat. A spindle carrying scriber in a universal clamp is attached to the base. The spindle can be inclined to the base in any position & can be clamped by tightening nut. The finer adjustment can be done by fine adjusting screw. The scriber can be slide up & down the spindle at can be tipped back & forth to any position. Fine adjusting screwMetrology & Measuring Instruments 1-23 Introduction 1.7.10 Feeler Gauges:- These are used to measure width of the gap between two parallel flat faces. Such as to measure the gap between cylinder & piston. A feeler gauge consists of a narrow sitip of sheet steel with given thickness. There are many gauges of different thickness assemble together to common hinge & can be brought into use independently. There are called as feeler gauges because these are neither forced to enter to gap or nor to slide freely, but the user should feel its correctness by himself. One or more gauges can be used together to get any value. Fig. 1.18 Engineer's taper, wire and thickness gauge Feeler gauges generally comprise of a series of gauging blades of different grades & thickness from 0.003 to 1mm. assembled in protective sheath. The blades are made of heat treated bright polished tool steel having a tensile strength of about 170 Kg/mm?. Generally the blades are available in overall length of 100mm. These are 12mm wide at heel & taper in cuter part. These are hinged in the sheath on a screw & nut on both sides. The sheath is designed to fully protect the blades when not in use. The same principle is used by angle é& pitch screw gauges. In angle gauges, a set consists of 18 blades with their ends out at various angles from 2 to 45 degree. In pitch screw gauge, the leaves having various pitch cut are matched with the teeth on work.Metrology & Measuring Instruments 1-24 Introduction 1.7.11 Vernier Height Gauge:- This is also a sort of vernier caliper equipped with a special base block & other attachments which makes the instruments suitable for height measurements. Along with the sliding jaw assembly, arrangement is provided to carry a removable clamp. The upper & lower surfaces of the measuring jaws are parallel to base. Guus tee [>] som ce SAB | L— Beam Fine adjustment 1 Fe rat Vemvior sosies Urperiace ro 4 bog — stesso sc Server. SONI ee | ae Doph of nn moseunng jaw a Bgse Fig. 1.19 Vernier Height Gauge The vernier height gauge is mainly used in the inspection of parts and layout work. This can also be used as scribing instrument.Metrology & Measuring Instruments 1-250 4 Introduction 1.7.12 Universal Measuring Instrument:- Fig. 1.20 Universal Measuring Instrument Universal Measuring Instrument enables even an unskilled operator to quickly measure height, diameters, center distances, squareness, grooves, concentricity, runout, parallism, straightness, flatness, axial trueness as well as setting & checkingMetrology & Measuring Instruments 1-26 Introduction the machine tools, instruments, toolings, applications with ease of accuracy. fixtures & almost an unlimited range of It shows the reading in digital form. It also has automatic computational capabilities which saves time dramatically & eliminates the possibility of operator's error due to separate calculation. 1.7.13 Micrometers The micrometer screw gauge consists of an accurate screw having about 10 or 20 threads per cm and revolves in a fixed nut. The end of the screw forms one measuring tip & the other measuring tip is constituted by a stationary anvil in the base of the frame. The screw is threaded for a certain length & is plain afterwards. The plane portion is called sleeve & its end is the measuring surface. The spindle is advanced or retracted by turning a thimble connected to the spindle. The spindle is slide fit over the barre! & barrel is the fixed path attached with the frame. The barrel is graduated in the unit of 0.005 cm. The thimble has got 25 divisions around its periphery on circular portion. Each division corresponds to 0.002 cm. A lock nut is provided for locking a dimension by preventing the motion of the spindle. Lock nut | lal Barrel Thimble ‘\ Spindle Frame Fig. 1.21 1.7.14 Inside Micrometer Calipers:- This micrometer caliper has U-shape frame & spindle. The measuring tips are constituted by the jaws with contact surfaces which are hardened and ground to a radius. One of the jaw is held stationary at the end and second one move by the movement of the thimble. A lock nut is provided to check the movement of the movable jaw.Metrology & Measuring Instruments 1-27 Introduction Measuring jaw ee Fig. 1.22 Inside Micrometer Caliper 4.7.1 Thread Micrometer Caliper:- This is same asa micrometer only the anvil & spindle is of different shape. The anvil has an internal V-shape which fits in the thread. The anvil in this case is not fixed but is free to rotate. Thus vee of the anvil can accommodate itself to any rake range of thread. The spindle on the other hand has the ground conical shape. When the conical spindle brought into contact with vee of anvil, micrometer reads zero. Different set of anvil is provided for different threads sizes. Component Fig. 1.23 Screw Thread Micrometer Caliper Thread micrometer is used for the measurement of the pitch diameter but the accuracy is influenced by the helix angle of thread.Metrology & Measuring Instruments 1-28 Introduction Firm joint calipers work on the friction created at the junction of legs. These become loose after certain use. 1.8 Calibration Market forces demand industry to ensure environment for supply of quality products to customers. Accurate measurement plays a crucial role at each stage in the development & production of quality products. The aim of establishing calibration system is to develop internal metrology and calibration programmes to assure that the test & measuring instruments are maintained within desired accuracy. Systematic periodic checking of test & measuring instruments is thus becoming increasingly important to the development é& maintenance of market competitiveness. This process of periodic checking against measuring instruments / standards of high accuracy is called as “calibration”. 1.8.1 Requirement of Calibration System:- i) The measuring equipment should be capable of the desired accuracy & precision. ii) The calibration system should provide the way to directly or indirectly trace assigned value of measurement equipment to values in terms of nationally recognized standards. iii) Calibration should be carried out using measurement systems having adequate accuracy, stability & range. iv) The calibration procedure may be a document prepared internally, or by another agency or by the manufacturer or composite of the three. v) _Alll the test & measuring equipment should be securely & durably labeled, coded to indicate date of lost calibration date due for calibration & the authenticity of calibration. vi) Test & measuring equipment should be calibrated at periodic intervals with desired accuracy & quality. vii) Records should be maintained for all test & measuring equipment included in the calibration system. | REVIEW QUESTIONS: i) What is difference between Accuracy & Precision? ii) Explain Accuracy of Measurement. iti) Explain important characteristics of measuring instruments. Liv) Classify methods of measurementMetrology & Measuring Instruments. 1-29 Introduction ») Differentiate between line standard & end standard. vi) Define wavelength standard. vii) Classify measuring instruments & list the various instruments. University Questions:- 1. Explain the term ‘Sine & Cosine Errors’ giving suitable example, (May-2000, May-2004, Dec-2004) 2. Describe the use of four balls & height gauge for finding diameter of bore. (May-2000) 3. State Abbe's principle of Alignment. Explain it with suitable examples. (Dee- 2000, May-2004, Dec-2004) 4. The imperial standard Yard & International prototype meter are now merely museum pieces Comment. (May-2001) 5. Write a short note on Standard of Length. (Dec-2001, May-2004) 6. What are standards of measurements? Explain classification of various standards. (Dec-2003) 7. Differentiate between: i) Precision & Accuracy ii) Systematic & Random errors iti) Line & End Standards (Dec-2003, Dec-2004, May-2005, Dec-2005) oooNOTES (4 -30)Straight, Flatness, Squareness and Roundness Measurement 2.1 Intreduction We know that for the parts to be fit correctly in assembly, they should be manufactured within the given tolerance limits. But later it comes to know that only the tolerance limit is not the sufficient constraint for proper assembly for example, diameter can be defined as the distance between the opposite two points on any circular part. But if we consider the following fig. in which the distance measured between two any opposite points is same i.e Di = Dz = Dy, still this part is not fit for correct assembly. Fig. 2.1 Shaft Diameter Thus only the tolerance limits are not sufficient to define the size & shape of the parts but there is need to define their geometry in different way. That is why the terms like flatness, straightness, roundness etc. comes into picture. This chapter consists of these concepts & different methods to check these features. 2.2 Straightness It is not easy to define exactly what is meant by straightness although a straight line may be defined as the shortest distance between two points. It is generally understood that, for the shortest distances commonly met with in this typé of work, a ray of light is straight.Metrology & Quality Control -2 Straight, Flatness, Squareness and Roundness Measurement 2.2.1 Definition of Straightness:- A line is said to be straight over a given length, if the variation of the distance of its points from two planes perpendicular to each other é& parallel to the generation direction of the line remains within the specified tolerance limits; the reference plane being so chosen that their intersection is parallel to the straight line joining two points suitably located on the line to be tested & the two points being close to ends of the length to be measured. Deviation from straightness — Reference Test surface straight line Y Fig. 2.2 Straightness The tolerance on the straightness of a line is defined as the maximum deviation in relation to the reference straight line relation going the two extremities of the line under examination. 2.2.2 Measurement of Straightness We shall now consider some of the important methods for measuring the straightness. 22.2.1 Measurement by Straight Edge Estimation of the straightness is very often made by placing a true straight edge in contact with it and viewing against a light background. It is not often appreciated, how small gap can be seen or how difficult it is to estimate the width of the gap. Against a background of white light, a gap of 0.002 mm is clearly visible. As the gap reduces, the longer wavelengths are gradually cut off until, when the gap is about 0.0005 mm wide, only blue light is seen. This effect can be demonstrated by placing two toolmakers’ straight edges on a light box, touching each other at one end separated at the other end by a 0.04 mm feeler. If the edges are 150 mm long, the gap is 0.002 mm at about 7.5 mm from the touching ends & this is clearly visible. If the brightness of the background light is varied, the apparent size of the gap also varies which adds to the difficulty of judging its widthMetrology & Quality Control 2-3 Straight, ressneess ‘Squareness and = undness Measurement 2222 Wedge Method In this method, the straight edge is supported at the points for minimum deflection on two unequal piles of slip gauges which rest on a surface which is straight or which is to be check. The difference between the slip values is made definite, say 0.1 mm. The distance between the two piles is divided into number of equal parts as shown in Fig. 2.3. Fig. 2.3 Testing of Straight edge by wedge method The distance 0.1 mm can be divided in 10 equal parts ie. each division will become 0.01 mm. If the straight edge is true & if the surface is straight, then piles of slip gauges of different sizes will touch at exact points. For example say pile of 10.05 mm is made by adding slip gauges skid the pile below the straight edge. If the given surface is exactly straight then, the set of piles will exactly touch at mark No.5 whose height above the surface is 10.05 mm. Thus the different combination will give the idea regarding the straightness of the given surface. Care must be taken that, the slip gauges must not wring to surface; otherwise all sensitivity will be lost. 222.3 Using Spirit Level An excellent method to check straightness of a horizontal surface of any length is by means of a sensitive level to underside of which are fastened two feet at a convenient distance apart. The feet may consist of equal slip gauges wrung on to the base or the level may be mounted in a carrier having two flat projections on its base. Spirt level i or A 5 dp FE F™G Fig. 2.4 Straightness testing by spirit levelMetrology & Quality Control Straight, Flatness, Squareness and Roundness Measurement ‘The level is moved along the surface to be tested in steps equal to the pitch of the feet & at each position the reading of the one end of the bubble is noted. Variation in the bubble position represents angular variations in the surface and these are converted into differences in height of the two feet. Thus, by stepping the level along the whole length of the surface, the heights above or below the acting point are determined & a graph can be drawn showing contour of surface. 2.2.2.4 Using Autocollimator The principle of this method is same as that of level method. Only the apparatus used is different. This consists of a block with two feet carried a plane mirror having its reflecting surface approximately at right angles to the line joining feet. As the block is stepped along, the angular variations are measured by means of an autocollimator set to receive the reflection from the mirror. The readings of the angle of tilt are converted into differences in height of the feet (Imin = 0.03 mm) & the contour is plotted as in previous method. Autocollimator Mirror Test surface Fig. 2.5 Straightness test by Autocollimator 222.5 Using Beam Comparator The instrument used in this method consists of a light, rigid beam on the undersidé, of which are two fixed ball ended feet, one at the centre & other near one end. At the other end of the beam a dial gauge is fitted such that the plunger axis being vertical é& in line with the two fixed feet. The central foot is positioned so that it is accurately midway between the other fixed foot & the dial gauge plunger. To prevent the instrument falling over side-ways two additional feet are placed at the centre, one at each side of the central foot & slightly higher than it. 23. Flatness 2.3.1 Definition of Flatness Flatness is defined as the minimum distance between two planes which covers all irregularities of the Surface under examination.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Metrology & Quality Controt Straight, Flatness, Squaroness and 2-6 Roundness Measurement 20 to 30mm —+|_ |— 2010 30mm Fig. 2.7 Flatness test by Grid Method Each intersection point is noted. Now the point A is taken as datum point and then height at each corner is measured w.r.t. this datum level. The more than datum, is recorded as +ve & less than datum height is recorded as~ve as shown below. If the variations into reading are more than we can say that the surface is not flat & vice versa. 23.2.2 Liquid Wedge Method In optical industry, circular plates or tools are tested for flatness by a method which can readily be applied to other surfaces. A piece of polished glass plate is Placed on the surface with one long edge raised about a tenth of a millimeter by the insertion of a piece of paper thereby forming a thin wedge. A piece of cotton wool or a brush dipped in methylated spirit is stroked quickly along the contacting edge. The liquid is drawn into wedge by capilarity & after being left for few minutes to settle, the edge of the liquid adjusts itself along a line of uniform thickness. Any departure from straightness of this liquid edge represents, therefore, a departure from straightness of the surface to be tested. The amount of variation from straightness at any point can be determined by measuring the distance from the liquid edge toa light straight edge laid on the glass & multiplying by the angle of the wedge. 2.32.3. Using Optical Flats: A sensitive method of checking the flatness of a surface which has been lapped & polished is by means of an optical flat, making use of phenomenon of optical interference. The elementary theory of this is explained in chapter of interference of light.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Metrology & Quality Control Straight, Flatness, Squareness and 2-10 Roundness Measurement contact between the edge to be tested & the straight edge to be tested & the straight edge. The micrometer reading is noted. Now the opposite edge of the test surface is brought into contact with the straight edge & again the reading is noted for the same. The difference between these two reading is the error in squareness. Surface to be tested Tung Straight edge frame Micrometer Knife | oe Nob Surface plate Fig. 2.12 N.P.L Square Tester 24.1.4 Autocollimator Methods Autocollimator provides the most sensitive means to measure the Squareness. In this method, a set of slip gauges is held against the surface to be test & which act as reflectors. The autocollimator is then adjusted to focus on this block of slip gauge as shown in fig. Slip gauge Auto collimator Reference surface Fig. 2.12 Squareness by Autocollimator Readings are taken on either surfaces & the error in Squareness can be easily detected.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Metrology & Quality Gontro! ‘Straight, Flatness, Squareness and 2-14 Roundness Measurement (b) Periodical axial slip When a shaft rotates in its journals, sometimes an axial movement of the shaft is observed. This is known as axial slip. This can be checked to some extent by applying a certain opposite force to the axial direction. Periodical axial slip represents the extent of reciprocating motion of rotating component along its axis of rotation when the influence, of the minimum axial play is eliminated by applying the axial pressure in a given direction. Fig. 2.18 Determination of periodical axial step in case of solid shaft Periodical slip is determined by applying a slight pressure to the spindle in the direction of measurement & arranging the plunger dial gauge along the center of front face as far as possible along the axis of rotation. () — Camming: Camming is the defect which is caused when a plane surface rotating about an axis, does not remain ina plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation. This defect is due to loose fittings of the surfaces some component of unwanted force acting upon the surface when it is rotating, Nature of surface Fig. 2.19 Camming of plane surfaces in rotationaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Metrology & Quality Controt Straight, Flatness, Squareness and 2-18 Roundness Measurement True cylinder Diameter D Radius r Fig. 2.24 The concept of lobed surface 2.7.2. Measurement of Circularity (a) Testing a lobed surface Ifa compound with a tri-lobed surface were to be rotated on a plane surface undemeath a dial test indicator, the relative recordings would show no variations. This test is therefore not suitable. Other method can be used as, first place the component in a suitable V-block & slowly rotate it about the diameter to be checked using a dial test indicator to record any variations in dimensions due to its possible mis-shape. Fig. 2.25 Lobed surface Testingaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Metrology & Quality Control 3-2 Angular Measurements methods, instruments & techniques are used to measure the angle of given workpiece. Each equipment will have its specific use. In next few articles, important measuring equipments & techniques are described. 3.3.1 Engineer's Square (Try Square) It is not generally appreciated that 90° is an angular measurement, and there are few engineering components that do not have faces or edges at 90° to each other. Two surfaces or lines at right angles to each other are said to be: ¢ Mutually perpendicular * Square toeach other * Perpendicular to each other. The engineering try square is an essential & much used instrument in workshops. Fig.3.1 shows the terminology & the constructional features of the commonly used try squares. Weight lightening holes Bevelled edges (L=300 mm) {L = 450 mm to 600 mm) @ (b) Fig. 3.1(a,b) The Engineer’s Square or Try Square Whenever possible, a try “quare should be used fron a datum face. Fig. 32 shows a typical application. For accurate work master square is used, tt use of diffused light, source is made. With the stuck of the square on a datum face, errors in Squareness can be detected by observing the amount and position of light passing between the workpiece and blade of the square.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Metrology & Quality Control 3-6 Angular Measurements It is used for measuring the laying out of angles accurately and precisely within 5 minutes. The protractor dial is slotted to hold a blade which can be rotated with the dial to the required angle & also independently adjusted to any desired length. Bevel protractor is of two types: (i) Mechanical bevel protractor (ii) Optical bevel protractor. Following fig.3.6 shows the use of bevel protractor for different application. 3.3.4 Optical Image of the VOSS Re Giass arc recording Ss in minutes (The equivalent Projection lens. Mirror of the degree circle ‘displacement Glass arc e ) divided into a'2" intervals Lamp Optical displacement of lignt beam from degree Optical circle micrometer Condenser lens Optical: micrometer pivot )bjective lens Glass circle (deg. circle) Fig. 3.7 Optical system of optical dividing headaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Metrology & Quality Control 3 To check the angle cf the various faces of heavy components, the setup is made as shown in fig.3.11 the height over rollers can be measured by Vernier height gauge. If ‘h’ is the difference between the readings of the vernier height gauge, then the angle can be calculated by formula = an(4) 7 3.3.6 Sine Centers When the angle of circular conical parts is to be measured, it can be placed on inclined sine bar because it is rolling down. Sine centers are the sine bar only with a facility for holding the parts between their centers as shown in fig.3.12 10___ Angular Measurements. Block = : 200 or 300 mm ! Support plate Sine bar cee Fig. 3.12 Sine Centre 3.3.7 Angle Gauges:- We know the various combination of slip gauges help us to give any distance to be measured. In the same way Dr. Tomlinson of National Physical Laboratory use the combination of conical blocks having different angles to get the different values of angles. These conical blocks with various angles are called as angle gauges. With the help of different angle nearest to 3” can be set. Angle gauges are made from hardened steel & seasoned carefully to ensure permanence of angular accuracy & the measuring faces are lapped and polished to a high degree of accuracy & flatness like slip gauges. The gauges are about 3 inch (76.2 mm) long, 5/8 inch (15.87 mm) wide with their faces lapped to 0.0002 mm & angle between the two ends to #2 seconds. The secret of this system in having any angle in step of 3” is the adoption of a mathematical series of the values of the anglesaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.3-14 Principle of Autocollimator can be stated as further. A cross line “Target” graticule is placed at the focal plane of a telescope objective system with the intersection of crossline on the optical axis ie. at the principle focus. When the target graticule is illuminated, rays of light diverging from the intersection point reach the objective via a beam splitter & are projected from the objective as parallel pencils of light. in this mode, the optical system is operating as a “collimator”. A flat reflector placed in front of the objective & exactly normal to the optical axis reflects the parallel pencils of light back along their original paths. They are brought to focus in the plane of the target graticule & exactly coincident with its intersection. [\ Reflected image Scale it Na - Measured angle Fig. 3.19 A proportion of the returned light passes straight through the beam splitter & the return image of the target cross line is therefore visible through the eyepiece. If the reflector is tilted through a small angle, the reflected pencils of light will be deflected by twice the angle of tilt & will be brought to focus in the plane of the target graticule but linearly displaced from the actual target cross lines by an amount 20 x F. Linear displacement of graticule image in the plane of the eyepiece is therefore directly proportional to reflector tilt & can be measured by an eyepiece graticule. 3.3.10 Angle Dekkor:- Angle dekkor works on the principle of autocollimator. In fact angle dekkor is the vertical arrangement of autocollimator. We know that autocollimator can be used to measure the small angle. The same principle is used in angle dekkor.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Motrology & Quality Control 3-18 Angular Measurements reflected through 90°. Actually the ray bend as they move from rare to dense medium & similarly when coming out, but their effect is nullified and finally the beams are at right angles. REVIEW QUESTIONS 1) What are various angle measuring methods? 2). Write short notes on a. Sine bar b. Sine centers c. Autocollimator d. Angle dekkor 3) What is the standard of angle measurement? UNIVERSITY QUESTION 1. The angle of Taper plug gauge is to be checked using angle gauges and angle dekkor. Sketch the setup & describe the procedure (May-2000) List various angle-measuring instruments & state their accuracy & range of| measurement. (Dec-2000) Describe angle gauges and state the applications in which they are used (May-2001). Write a short note on Constant Deviations prism. (May-2001, Dec-2001) Explain the method of checking the angle of a taper plug gauge using rollers, slips & outside Micrometer. (Dec-2001) Write a short note on Angle Dekkor (May 2002) Write a short note on Sine Bars & Sine centers. (Wec-2002) oo00aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Metrology & Quality Contro! 4-11 Design of Limit Gauges 4.7 Hole Basis & Shaft Basis System 4.71 Shaft Basis System This is a system of fits in which the required clearances or interferences are obtained by associating holes of various tolerance classes with shafts of a single tolerance class. In other words, in shaft basis system the max. limit of shaft is kept constant and the size of hole is varied to obtain required type of fit. Zera line Zid Re Shafi "h* na an Basic size Fig. 4.13 Shaft — basis system of fits 4.7.2. Hole Basis System Fig. 4.14 Hole basis system of fitsaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Metrology & Quality Control 15 Design of Limit Gauges" atT T= Tolerance {a) Go gauge (b) Not Go gauge Fig. 4.17 Taylor's Principle : (a) Go gauge(b) Not-Go Gauge 4.12 Gauge Tolerance Gauges like any other product requires standard manufacturing procedure like any other products, it is very difficult to manufacture the gauges to the exact required dimensions. The theoretical gauge size as determined from the maximum & minimum limits of the component need some modification to allow for reasonable imperfections in the workmanship of the gauge-maker. Thus the tolerance on gauge allowed to cater for workmanship of a gauge maker is known as Gauge makers allowance or tolerance or simply Gauge tolerance. Logically the gauge tolerance should be kept as small as possible. There is unfortunately no universally accepted policy or some standard mathematical formulae which will give the value for gauge tolerance. Limit gauges are made 10 times more accurate than the tolerances they are supposed to control. This means the value of gauge tolerance should be 1/10" of the work tolerance. Disposition of the gauge tolerance relative to the Nominal gauge size requires a policy decision. For instance, if the gauge tolerance increases the size of a Go plug gauge from 50.0 to 50.1 mm, & decrease the size of the Not Go gauge from 51.0 to 50.9 mm. shown in Fig,, them depending upon the actual size of these two gauges, some of the acceptable work (From 50.0 mm onwards to the actual size of the Go gauge) will be rejected by the Go gauge. This rejection will reach its maximum value when the Go gauge size is 50.1 mm. Similarly when the Not-Go gauge size is 50.9 mm the acceptable work (50.9 to 51mm) will be rejected. The % of rejection depends upon the machine setting. If the machine has been set to midway between the two limits (ie. at 50.5 mm) the percentage rejects will be comparatively less. If the machine has been set of 50.5, many of the pieces will be between 50.0 to 50.Imm & the percentage of the rejects touches a higher figure. However it is obvious that by disposing the gauge tolerance in the above manner, certain percentage of acceptable work will be rejected by these gauges.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Metrology & Quality Control 4-23 Design of Limit Gauges (@ Gauge for Taper A taper is tested using taper plug gauge or ring gauges. The important thing in taper checking is to gauge diameter & change of dia. per unit length. For correct testing, three equidistant light lines along the length are drawn with persian blue on the shaft & is assembled in gauge & rotated twice or thrice. If the persian blue marks do not rub off evenly, the taper is incorrect. Not Go eo (a) Taper plug gauge (b) Taper ring gauge Fig. 4.24 Taper plug & ring gauge (i) Position Gauge A position cannot be generalized. Its shape & size depend upon the feature to be checked. Its shape in most of the cases is of that of length gauge. A simple gauge for checking the location of a recess in relation to flat surface is shown in Fig.4.25 Location of tecess to be cheked Reference surface Position gauge Fig. 4.25 Position gaugeaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Matrology & Quality Control 4-33 Design of Limit Gauges Also H8 Hole basis system: Lower limit of hole = 90,000 mm & Upper limit of hole = 90.05255 mm. Lets design plug gauge for hole, Now, Gauge Makers Allowance= 10% work Tolerance = 0:10x 005255 = 0.005255 mm. We can draw diagram for hole as below, [77 Gauge atowance SO.00aSS NO GO Work tolerance Pa pone allowance 90.000 Fig. 4.35 Deposition diagram for plug gauge From fig, we can have, 0.005285 ForGo gauge = 9or0moo so0osess NoGogauge = 90.05255'° Now for shaft we have, Tolerance = I= 401 = 40x 0.002102 mm. = 0.08408 mm. Gauge makers allowance = 10% work tolerance = 0.008408 mm. For shaft ‘e’, Fundamental deviation= FD = -11D -11(89.4)4" = -0.06941mm.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Metrology & Quality Control 4-39 Design of Limit Gauges Tolerance = 0.020mm Gauge Makers Allowance = 0.1 x 0.020 = 0.0020 mm. 24.970 SO E_9,0020 Work tolerance = 0.020 NoGo ¢-0.0020 24.950 Fig. 4.44 Deposition diagram for ring gauge From Fig. we have, -2000 Ring Gauge GoGauge = 24977 sono No Go Gauge = 24,950°°% ‘\* EXAMPLE4.6] Sketch a progressive type Go & No Go plug gauge suitable for 25H7 Hole. Wear é& manufacturing allowance need not to be considered. For 25H hole fundamental deviation is zero & IT7 is21 microns. (Dec-2004) Solution: The value of IT7 is given as 21 microns. ie. Tolerance = 21 = 21x10°mm. = 0.021mm. Fundamental deviation = 0 Shaft sizes: High Limit = 25mm Low Limit = 24979mm. Gauge makers allowance = 10% of Work Tolerance = 0.1 x0,0021 = 0,0021 mm.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Metrology & Quality Control 5 This consists of a moving member & a fixed member connected by flexible strips alternately at right angles to each other. If an external force is applied to moving member, it would pivot as would as high about the line of intersection of the strip. This hinge is suitably pretensioned to allow it to rotate with the range of the instrument scale. A forked arm (Y form) attached to the moving member of the high transmits rotary motion to the indicator driving drum through a bronze band wrapped round the drum radius r. Comparators If R is the length of pointer & x is the distance of movable block from the hinge, y is the length of forked arm, then magnification of the comparator can be given as; First magnification = Second magnification= x wh almKis< a7 .: Total magnification= The instrument is damped by a horse shoe magnet fixed to the frame & non- frames (Aluminium) disc fixed to the pointer spindle. 5.3.5 Advantages & Disadvantages of Comparators ‘Advantages . i) These instruments are cheaper than other types. ii). No power is required to operate this instrument like other type. iii) Scale used is mostly linear. iv) These easy to handle with robust & compact structure. v) Being portable & easy to use they can be used in day to day activities. For example, dial gauges. Disadvantages i) Being a Mechanical member there exists friction which may make these less accurate than other types. ii) Improper assembly of moving parts may reduce the accuracy. iii) Due to presence of more inertia of mechanical parts these are very sensitive to vibrations. iv) Presence of backslash, wear may affect the accuracy of the parts. v) These are having limited range. vi) Error due to the parallax may exists.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Metrology & Quality Controt 5-14 . Comparators Error magnets Comparator height Thin stee! strips adjustment hanc ‘Annatirs Component i Recording head hoad el H Sy Reading — Work table Electrical mans —1Q ©} v Puunger ' (a) Principle of working (b) Electrical comparator Fig. 5.9(a, b) Electrical Comparator These instruments can provide magnification up to 5000 or may be up to 10,000. These provides measuring accuracy up to 0,01 mm.*Such accurate & sensitive instruments are used to check accuracies of slip gauges. 5.5.1 Advantages & Disadvantages of Electric Comparators Advantages i) The measuring unit can be remote from the indicating instrument. These are having high magnification with small number no. of moving parts. iii) The mechanism carrying the pointer is light & not sensitive to vibration. iv) On A.C. supply, the cyclic vibration reduces errors due to sliding friction. v) The measuring instruments are compact. Disadvantages i) There requires electric power for operations. ii) Heating of coil may cause error into measurement. iii) These are more expensive than mechanical type. 5.6 Pneumatic Comparators The use of air as a means of magnification in metrology was originally developed by the Solex Company in France for the calibration of carburetor. Pneumatic comparators works on the principle that of an air jet is in close proximity with a surface of flow of air out that jet is restricted. This can result in a change of pressure in the system supplying the jet. The system can provide a magnification about 30,000.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Interferometry 6.1 Introduction In 1829, a French physicist Babinet suggested the use of light ray as a natural standard of length. The interferometrically calibrated reference grade slip gauge forms the bases for controlling the size of subsidiary length standards, such as inspection & workshop grade slip, gauges, setting masters, etc. used in manufacturing organizations and is therefore fundamental importance in metrology. 6.2 Interference of Light Light is a form of energy which moves from one place to another in the form of electromagnetic sinusoidal waves. The wavelength (A) determines the colour & amplitude (a) determines the intensity of the light. White light is a combination of all the colours of the visible spectrum, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo & violet each colour band consisting of a group of similar wavelengths. For measurement of length by Interferometry, the light form with multiple wavelength is of no use. To overcome this problem substantially monochromatic light source such as mercury isotope 198 discharge lamp is used. A ray having a single frequency & wavelength is called as monochromatic light. ge a v U~X A (a) In phase (b) Out of phase Fig. 6.1 Monochromatic Light ray (6-1)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Metrology & Quality Control 6-5 Interferometry The working surfaces of each type B flat are inclined to each other by about 5 minutes. In these the thickness & grade are important. 6.5 Calibration of Optical Flats Type A optical flats are tested for flatness of working face and type B for flatness of working faces, parallelism of working faces and thickness. (i) Flatness Testing for Optical Flats The flatness of the working surface of an optical flat is tested by comparing its flatness with a master flat of known flatness or by comparing the working surface of three separate flats of unknown flatness. The testing is usually carried out by observing the interference fringes using monochromatic light source, the incident rays from which may be either diffused or parallel. Monoctworatic light Diftusing screen (Soaium, mercury or helium Direction of discharge lamp) viewing Master optical Reference surface Optical flat So @ tested Fig. 6.4 Flatness test for optical flats In testing with master flat whose flatness is known, the master flat is placed over the working surface of the flat surface under test in such as manner as to form a wedge shaped air film between the two flats. If the optical flat under test has a perfectly flat surface then the fringes observed will be straight lines parallel to each other. If there is error in flatness then either the fringe pattern is convex or concave, the fringes are generally observed in a telescope which carries a micrometer eye piece and in which the deviations of fringes are easily measured in terms of fringe width by means of the cross wires.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Metrology & Quality Control 6-10 Interferometry placed on the top of both the blocks. In fig.6.10 A is the standard reference gauge & B is the gauge block under test. ad A 8 LLL Gauge Gauge fe, A S Optical flat = @ 8) @ a) 0 0-0 0 Fig. 6.10 Parallelism test of surface ‘The distance L between the two gauges is measured very accurately. In case A & B are perfectly flat, but different in height; then there will be equal wedge shaped air layers between the gauges A & B, & the optical flat & hence equal no. of fringes will be seen on both the gauge surfaces. In case the surfaces are not parallel, the angles formed by the surfaces of the two gauges with the optical flat will be different. Let the angles be 0 and 0’ respectively. If the width of the gauge block | is same for both, then number of fringes per unit width will be different. These possibilities have been shown in figure. 6.7Interferometers There ate optical instruments used for measuring flatness & determining the length of the slip gauges by direct reference to the wavelength of light. The interferometer incorporates the extension of the application of the optical flat. 6.7.1 Michelson Interferometer This is oldest type of interferometer which has subsequently been modified in several respects and lot of sophistication introduced. The basic Michelson interferometer consists of a monochromatic light source, a beam splitter & twoaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Metrology & Quality Gontro! 6-15 Interferometry For the most effective manipulation, magnified image of the work is compared through the eyepiece super imposed on a prepared background engraved on a glass disc in an eyepiece. There are several interchangeable eyepiece units. The protractor unit is prepared with radial é& cross setting lines. This may be rotated by a knurled screw for setting any one of the line with the work or image é reading of the protractor may be made to 1 minute by means of a scale which divides each degree into 60 parts. The chief applications of Tool Room microscope are as follows: i) Determination of relative position of various points on work. ii) Measurement of angle by using projector eyepiece. ili) Comparision of thread forms with master profiles engraved in the eyepiece, measurement of pitch & effective diameter. 6.9 Profile Projector i ‘Screen > Magnification lens Work table Micrometer @ Condensing lens Light source Fig. 6.15 Profile Projector This is also an optical instrument which is having same basic structure as that of Tool maker's microscope. The basic difference between profile projector & Too! maker's microscope is that, in profile projector, we get the magnified image of the object projected on screen. This essentially consists of a light source placed in a cabinet at extreme lower part or base of the instrument. The ray if monochromatic light then passes through theaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.lity Ce 7-3 Surface Fini xd) Traversing length This length of profile necessary for the evaluation of the surface roughness parameters. xii) Sampling Length This is a length of profile necessary for the evaluation of the irregularities to be taken into account. This is also called as cut-off length in regard to the measuring instruments. It is measured in a direction parallel to the general direction of the profile. It is very difficult to specify any value for spacing. For majority of the work 0.8 mm is generally considered to be quite satisfactory for instrument cut-off. xiii) Center line of profile It is a line parallel to the general direction of the profile for which the areas embraced by the profile above & below in line are equal. Center line of profile Ay +Ag+A3 = 8, +B, Fig. 7.2 Surface texture AitAotAs = Bi+Bz Then AB can be called as center line of profile 7.3 Methods of Measuring Surface Finish There are two methods used for measuring surface finish: i) Surface Inspection of Comparison Methods ii) Direct Instruments Measurementsaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.(HCLA value of surface roughness (iv) Sampling length (May-2005) 8. Write a short note on Taylor Hobson Talysurf (May-2004) roughness (Dec-2005) 000aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Metrology & Quality Contro! 8-4 Machine Tool Metrology -—-4-|—-+-f—- Fig. 8.2 Runout of spindle The dial indicator is fixed to the carriage & the factor of the indicator touches the locating surface. The surface is then rotated on its axis & indicator should not show any movement of needle. 8.4.3 Axial Slip of Main Spindle & True Running of Shoulder Face of Spindle Noise Axial play means indispensable freedom of spindle movement in axial direction to prevent it from seizing by heating, The spindle is supported between two bearings. Due to running of spindle, there will be rise in temperature & thermal expansion of spindle will be there. If no axial play is allowed, it would try to bend, Thus there will beno adverse effect of axial play if the direction of cutting forces remains constant. Fig. 8.3 Axial slip of spindle Axial slip is defined as the axial spindle movement which follows the same pattem & is due to manufacturing error. To test this, the feeler of dial gauge rests on the face of the locating spindle shoulder & the dial gauge holder is clamped to the bed. The locating cylinder is then rotated & the change in reading is noted down. 8.4.4 True Running of Headstock Center Headstock center is a live center & the workpieces has to rotate with them. If it is not true with the axis of movement of the spindle, eccentricity will be caused whileaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.NOTES (8-18)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.urement Metrology & Quality Control 9-4 Screw Thread M Groat truncation | j Aterex) Crest 5 é g 3 3 cise z zl g & z 3 5 Root “ty truncation Fig. 9.3 Terminology of Screw Threads (10) Flank Angle The angle between individual flanks & the perpendicular to the axis of the thread which passes through the vertex of the fundamental triangle. It is generally half of the thread angle. (10) Pitch This is the distance measured, parallel to the axis of thread between two consecutive crests or roots. (12) Lead This is the distance advanced by screw thread in one complete revolution. For single start thread, it is equal to pitch & for multi-start thread it is the product of pitch & no. of starts. (13) Lead Angle This is angle made by the helix of the thread at the pitch line with plane & perpendicular to axis. The angle is measured in axial plane, (14) Helix Angle Helix angle is an angle made by the helix of the thread at pitch line with the axis.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Metrology & Quality Control 9-8 ‘Screw Thread Measurement Similarly errors in flank angles also requires corresponding reduction in effective diameter of the screw for perfect fitting with ring gauge of same nominal size. If 801 & 802 are errors in flank angles in degree, the corresponding virtual change (increase or decrease) in effective diameter of the thread in case of bolt, or nut is given by, SE = 0.0105 x P(SA: + 50>). Where P= Normal pitch ‘Thus, it means that the error in pitch é& angle can be accounted by suitable alteration in effective diameter. Now how much dia. should be increased or decreased that can be evaluated mathematically as under. Lets imagine a perfect thread (bolt), having some pitch error & it has to enter in a nut of perfect form & pitch. Pitch of bolt Pitch of nut Fig. 9.7 Effect pitch error It will not be possible without experiencing a lot of strain, as the error has to be accommodated by the strain. ‘The other way is to increase the effective diameter of nut. Let 8p be cumulative pitch error over the length of engagement. Nut of perfect 1/2 Increase in effective form and pitch diameter Screw with pitch error Ed for screw with pitch error Ed for perfect nut Fig. 9.8 Increase virtual dia. to remove pitch erroraa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Metrology & Quality Control 9-19 Screw Thread Measurement The second carriage is then locked. The stylus, by virtue of ingenious mounting device, is capable of free movement riding up & down, the thread Flanks on linear movement of the screw thread by rotation of micrometer head. The stylus is now traversed along the thread, pitch by pitch, reading being taken each time the indicator is set at zero. The micrometer can be fitted with a series of graduated dials that can be changed quickly. With the proper dial for the pitch that is to be measured the reading of the errors are obtained from the displacement of the lines on the disc. University Solved Problems ‘ Example 9.1] For measuring the effective diameter of Go gauge of thread plug gauge for M10 x 1.5 threads, wire of diameter 0.895 mm were used. The floating, carriage micrometer readings were: i) Reading on 8mm standard cylinder wire mounted = 2.4326 mm ii) Reading on gauge with wire mounted = 30708 mm. Calculate effective diameter (May-2001) Solution: Effective diameter = E = T+P Now, T = D#(R-Rn) = 8+ (3.0708- 2.4326) = 8.6382mm. & P = 0866p-d = 0,866(1.5) - 0.895 = 0.404 mm. E = T+P = 8.6382 + 0.404 E = 9.0422 mm “+ Example 9.2] Derive an expression for best wire size. Calculate diameter of best size wire for M20 x 2.5 screw thread: (May-2002, 2004) Solution: —_For derivation refer book Best size wire diameter = Bsee( 2) 2s = = 039) dy = 1.4434 mmaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Metrology of Gears 10.1 Introduction Gears are most important transmission elements, They have upperhand over friction & belt drives in that they are positive in action, a feature which most machinery require, since exact speed ratios are required. The transmission efficiency in case of gears is about 99 percent. In order to have perfectly uniform relative motion between driving & driven shaft, it is essential that both gears be of perfect geometrical form & be perfectly mounted on perfect shafts running in perfect bearings. It is obvious that the degree of accuracy of gears during manufacturing should be high. Hence during manufacturing the inspection process included must be of higher accuracy. The most commonly used forms of gear teeth are (i) Involute (ii) cycloidal. The involute teeth is derived from the trace of the point on a straight line, which rolls without slipping around a circle, which is the base circle or it can be defined as the locus of a point on a piece of string which is unwounded from a stationary cylinder. ‘The cycloidal teeth are derived from the curve which is the locus of a point on a circle rolling on the pitch circle of the gear. Generally following types of gears are used for different applications: spur, helical, spiral, bevel, worm & worm wheel. 10.2 Involute Curve ‘An involute curve is defined as the locus of a point on straight line which rolls around a circle without slipping. It can be defined also as the locus of a point on a piece of string which is unwound from a stationary cylinder. (10 - 4)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Metrology & Quality Control 10-5. Metrology of Gears progressively around the gear from heel to toe, toe to heel. Appreciable difference in runout near the limits is an indication of wobble. 10.4.2 Pitch Measurement: Pitch in gear can be defined in various ways: a) Base Pitch b) Circular Pitch c) Diametral Pitch ‘The base pitch can be measured, but circular & dimetral pitches are compound. ‘The measurement of base pitch can be carried out in two ways: a) Measuring distance from a point on one tooth to the corresponding point on the next tooth. b) Measuring the position of suitable point on a tooth after gear has been indexed through a suitable angle. Inone method, uses a portable hand held instrument to measure pitch errors, Now consider a fig.10.3 shown below. Let point A: is the extremity of taut card unwinding from the base circle, which describes the involute (1). Now it is evident that any other point such as Az or As will also describes the parallel involutes. Now length of the arc between these points is also the distance between the tangents drawn at these points. Thus base pitch can be measured directly by measuring the distance between these tangents. Ay) Ae | As \7 Fig. 10.3 Base pitch One commonly used instrument to measure base pitch is shown below. It has three tips, one fixed é& other is sensitive tip whose position can be adjusted by a screw and the further movement of it is transmitted through a leverage system to the dialaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Metrology & Quality Control 10-14 Metrology of Gears Considering one gear tooth, the theoretical values of w & d can be found out which may be verified by the instrument. In fig.10.11 it may be noted that w is a chord AOB, but tooth thickness is specified as an arc distance AEB. Also the distance d adjusted on instrument is slightly greater than the addendum CE, w is therefore called chordal thickness & d is called the chordal addendum. From above fig. w= AB = 2AD Now ZAOD= 0=360/4N Where, N = No.of teeth. w= 2AD = 2A0sind@ = 2Rsin 300 aN Now, module(m) = a Co awe Apne 2 aN w Nansin( 2) N Now we required to evaluate value of'd’. From fig.10.11,d = OC-OD But OC =OE+Addemdum = OE+m = Rtm and, OD= Reosd = cosa Once the value of d is known we can maintain that distance in Gear tooth caliper & can measure the value of ‘w’ i.e. gear tooth thickness.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Metrology & Quality Control A024 Matrology of Gears: In fig.10.16 a rack tooth is shown symmetrically in mesh with a gear tooth space, the curved sides of the gear tooth touching the straight rack sides at A & B on the line of action. Lets assume that the center of the roller lies on the pitch point 0 If the rack tooth to be considered as an empty space bounded by its outline, a circle with center 0 and radius OB would fit & touch the rack space at A & B since OA & OB are perpendicular to the sides of the rack teeth. Thus the circle would touch the gear teeth ata &B. In AOBD, OB is the radius of roller. op= 0.0564. Thus process is capable to produce the components within specified limits. Example 135] Following data shows values of sample mean X & range R for 10 samples of size 5 each. Calculate control limits for mean chart & range chart. Determine whether the process is under control. ‘Sampie | 1 2 3 4 6 z. 8 9 10 xX. 112 | 118 | 10.8 | 116 9.6 | 104 | 96 | 106 | 10.00 R 7 4 8 5 4 a | 4 ¥ 9 For sample size 5, A2 = 0.577, Ds= 0, Da= (Dec-2003) Solution: We have, x X = = N = 102 R “a8; Ba IEA? os gn N 10 Now for X chart, UCLx = X+A,R = 102+ (0577 x63) = 13.83 X-A,R 10.2 - (0.577 x 6.3) 6.57 Also, LCLx forRchart, UCLr = DR = 1332 LCLe = D,R =0 Now for X — chart we also have, UCLx = X+35,aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Chat Zone Bow Click Here To Chat With Friends, Authors & Publisher New Attraction ISBN : 81-89411-86-1