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(Section of A Book Draft) Joseph Rotman - Canonical Forms (A Section From - Abstract Algebra Arising From Fermat's Last Theorem - ) (2011) PDF
(Section of A Book Draft) Joseph Rotman - Canonical Forms (A Section From - Abstract Algebra Arising From Fermat's Last Theorem - ) (2011) PDF
Definition
If A is an r × r matrix and B is an s × s matrix, then their direct
sum A ⊕ B is the (r + s) × (r + s) matrix
" #
A 0
A⊕B = .
0 B
Definition
If g(x) = x + c0 , then its companion matrix C(g) is the 1 × 1
matrix [−c0 ]; if s ≥ 2 and g(x) = xs + cs−1 xs−1 + · · · + c1 x + c0 , then
its companion matrix C(g) is the s × s matrix
0 0 0 · · · 0 −c0
1 0 0 · · · 0 −c
1
0 1 0 · · · 0 −c2
C(g) = 0 0 1 · · · 0 −c
.
3
.. .. .. .. .. ..
. . . . . .
0 0 0 · · · 1 −cs−1
Theorem 0.1
Every n×n matrix A is similar to a direct sum of companion matrices
C(g1 ) ⊕ · · · ⊕ C(gt )
Definition
R = C(g1 ) ⊕ · · · ⊕ C(gt ),
where the gi (x) are monic polynomials with g1 (x) | g2 (x) | · · · | gt (x).
If a matrix A is similar to a rational canonical form C(g1 ) ⊕
· · · ⊕ C(gt ), where g1 (x) | g2 (x) | · · · | gt (x), then we say that the
invariant factors of A are g1 (x), g2 (x), . . . , gt (x).
Theorem 0.2
1. Two n × n matrices A and B are similar if and only if they
have the same invariant factors.
2. An n × n matrix A is similar to exactly one rational canonical
form.
Corollary 0.3
Let A and B be n × n matrices with real entries. If A and B are
similar over C, then they are similar over R (i.e., if there is a
nonsingular matrix P having complex entries with B = P AP −1 ,
then there is a nonsingular matrix Q having real entries with B =
QAQ−1 ).
Definition
If T : V → V is a linear transformation, then an invariant sub-
space is, a subspace W of V with T (W ) ⊆ W .
0 −1
invariant subspaces. Note that 1 0 is the companion matrix of
x2 + 1.
Definition
Let V be a vector space and let T : V → V be a linear transformation.
If T v = αv, where α ∈ C and v ∈ V is nonzero, then α is called an
eigenvalue of T and v is called an eigenvector of T for α.
Let A be an n × n matrix. If Av = αv, where α ∈ k and v ∈ k n
is a nonzero column, then α is called an eigenvalue of A and v is
called an eigenvector of A for α.
Definition
The characteristic polynomial of an n × n matrix A is
Definition
The trace of an n × n matrix A = [aij ] is
n
X
tr(A) = aii .
i=1
Proposition 0.4
If A = [aij ] is an n × n matrix having eigenvalues (with multiplicity)
α1 , . . . , αn , then
X Y
tr(A) = − αi and det(A) = αi .
i i
Corollary 0.5
Let A be an n × n matrix.
Proof.
Lemma 0.6
If C(g) is the companion matrix of g(x) ∈ k[x], then
det xI − C(g) = g(x).
where L is the matrix obtained by erasing the top row and first
column, and M is the matrix obtained by erasing the top row and
last column. Now M is a triangular (s − 1) × (s − 1) matrix having
−1’s on the diagonal, while L = xI −C (g(x)−c0 )/x . By induction,
det(L) = (g(x) − c0 )/x, while det(M ) = (−1)s−1 . Therefore,
t
Y t
Y
pR (x) = pC(gi ) (x) = gi (x).
i=1 i=1
Example
We now show that similar matrices have the same characteristic polynomial. If
B = P AP −1 , then since xI commutes with every matrix, we have P xIP −1 =
(xI)P P −1 = xI. Therefore,
viii Abstract Algebra Arising from Fermat’s Last Theorem Draft.
2011
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Draft. Do not cite or quote. 0.1 Rational Canonical Forms
Therefore, similar matrices have the same eigenvalues with multiplicities. Hence,
Proposition 0.4 says that similar matrices have the same trace and the same
determinant.
An + bn−1 An−1 + · · · + b1 A + b0 I = 0.
Definition
The minimal polynomial mA (x) of an n×n matrix A is the monic
polynomial f (x) of least degree with the property that f (A) = 0.
Proposition 0.8
The minimal polynomial mA (x) is a divisor of the characteristic
polynomial pA (x), and every eigenvalue of A is a root of mA (x).
Corollary 0.9
If all the eigenvalues of an n×n matrix A are distinct, then mA (x) =
pA (A); that is, the minimal polynomial coincides with the character-
istic polynomial.
Exercises
Definition
Let k be a field and let α be a real or complex number. A 1 × 1
Jordan block is a matrix J(α, 1) = [α] and, if s ≥ 2, an s × s
Jordan block is a matrix J(α, s) of the form
α 0 0 ··· 0 0
1 α 0 · · · 0 0
0 1 α · · · 0 0
J(α, s) =
.. .. .. .. .. .. .
. . . . . .
0 0 0 · · · α 0
0 0 0 ··· 1 α
J(α, s) = αI + L.
easily that the matrix L2 is all 0’s except for 1’s on the second
subdiagonal below the main diagonal; L3 is all 0’s except for 1’s
on the third subdiagonal; Ls−1 has 1 in the s, 1 position, with 0’s
everywhere else, and Ls = 0. Thus, L is nilpotent.
Lemma 0.10
If J = J(α, s) = αI + L is an s × s Jordan block, then for all m ≥ 1,
s−1
m m
X m
J =α I+ αm−i Li .
i
i=1
Example
Different powers of L are “disjoint”; that is, if m 6= n and the i, j entry of Ln is
nonzero, then the i, j entry of Lm is zero. For example,
" #m " #
α 0 αm 0
=
1 α mαm−1 αm
and m
α 0 0 αm 0 0
m−1 αm
1 α 0 = mα 0 .
m m−2 mαm−1 αm
0 1 α 2 α
Lemma 0.11
If g(x) = (x − α)s , then the companion matrix C(g) is similar to the
s × s Jordan block J(α, s).
Theorem 0.12
Let A be an n × n matrix with real entries. If all the eigenvalues of
A are real, then A is similar to a direct sum of Jordan blocks.
Definition
A Jordan canonical form is a direct sum of Jordan blocks.
If a matrix A is similar to the Jordan canonical form
J(α1 , s1 ) ⊕ · · · ⊕ J(αr , sr ),
(x − α1 )s1 , . . . , (x − αr )sr .
Example
Let Ir be the r × r identity matrix, and let Is be the s × s identity matrix. Then
interchanging blocks in a direct sum yields a similar matrix:
" # " #" #" #
B 0 0 Ir A 0 0 Is
= .
0 A Is 0 0 B Ir 0
Theorem 0.13
1. If A and B are n×n matrices over C, then A and B are similar
if and only if they have the same elementary divisors.
2. If a matrix A is similar to two Jordan canonical forms, say, H
and H 0 , then H and H 0 have the same Jordan blocks (i.e., H 0
arises from H by permuting its Jordan blocks).
Proposition 0.14
If A is an n × n matrix, then A is similar to its transpose A> .
xii Abstract Algebra Arising from Fermat’s Last Theorem Draft.
2011
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Draft. Do not cite or quote. 0.2 Jordan Canonical Forms
Definition
If A is an n × n complex matrix, then
∞
A
X 1 k
e = A = I + A + 21 A2 + 16 A3 + · · · .
k!
k=0
This series converges for every matrix A (see Exercise 7), and the
function A 7→ eA is continuous; that is, if limk→∞ Ak = M , then
lim eAk = eM
k→∞
Proposition 0.15
Let A = [aij ] be an n × n complex matrix.
−1
1. If P is nonsingular, then P eA P −1 = eP AP .
Proof.
2. The coefficient of the kth term of the power series for eA+B is
1
(A + B)k ,
k!
while the kth term of eA eB is
X 1 1 k k
i j
X 1 i k−i 1 X k
A B = AB = Ai B k−i .
i! j! i!(k − i)! k! i
i+j=k i=0 i=0
xiv Abstract Algebra Arising from Fermat’s Last Theorem Draft.
2011
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Draft. Do not cite or quote. 0.2 Jordan Canonical Forms
4. The equation
1 1
eL = I + L + L2 + · · · + Ls−1
2 (s − 1)!
holds because Ls = 0, and the result follows by Lemma 0.10.
For example, when s = 5,
1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0
L
1
e = 2 1 1 0 0
.
1 1
6 2 1 1 0
1 1 1
24 6 2 1 1
eD = I + D + 21 D2 + 16 D3 + · · · ,
Exercises
A = D + N,
xvi Abstract Algebra Arising from Fermat’s Last Theorem Draft.
2011
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