Chapter 2: Communication, Culture, and Diversity

I. Diversity and culture impact our communication with others every day
A. We must make sure that we are respectful and sensitive when interacting with
others in a myriad of contexts (classroom, professional settings, family, social
media)
II. Culture is defined as “the distinctive ideas, customs, social behavior, products, or
way of life of a particular nation, society, people, or period.”
A. Hofstede defines culture as “the collective programming of the mind
distinguishing the members of one group or category of people from another.
The category can refer to nations, regions within or across nations, ethnicities,
religious, occupations, organizations, or the genders.”
B. Culture influences self-images, priorities, personalities, and how we
communicate
III. Co-cultures are smaller, more specific cultures
A. Co-cultures exist within and alongside larger cultural groups
B. People simultaneously belong to many different co-cultures
i. Sometimes people may feel conflicted between the different cultures to
which they belong
IV. Dimensions of culture (six dimensions of national culture according to Hofstede)
exist on a continuum:
A. High versus low power distance: the amount of inequality in power distribution
i. High power distance means high levels of inequality in power; this type of
culture values stability and experience (example: dictatorship)
ii. Low power distance means low levels of inequality of power; this type of
culture values freedom of expression (example: democracy)
B. High versus low uncertainty avoidance: the amount of tolerance for ambiguity
and the possibility for uncomfortable or unstructured situations.
i. High uncertainty avoidance: low tolerance for ambiguity and strive to
minimize the possibility of unstructured situations by enforcing strict
rules, safety measures; value planning and stability
ii. Low uncertainty avoidance: higher tolerance for uncertainty so have
fewer rules, take risks, and are more tolerant of change; more flexible
and open to spontaneity
C. Individualist versus collectivist
i. Individualistic cultures expect that people look out for and take care of
themselves and their immediate family; individualist societies have looser
ties; value personal achievement and personal opinions (example: United
States – people speak their mind regardless of the impact)
ii. Collectivist cultures have stronger ties between individuals and often live
in extended families; value group harmony over any one person or group
(example: Japan - people talk around issues)
D. Masculine versus feminine refers to how the emotional roles are distributed
between genders as well as the value between men and women
 i. In masculine cultures, men are assertive and competitive, and women are
somewhat assertive and competitive
ii. In feminine both men and women are more modest and caring. Feminine
cultures emphasize consensus
iii. Genderlect (coined by Tannen) is used to describe how gender is a
cultural difference and that men and women just communicate
differently
E. Long-term versus short-term
i. Long-term cultures are pragmatic and focus on future rewards. They
value persistence and adaptation
ii. Short-term cultures focus more on the past and the present and saving
face in the here and now. Short-term cultures emphasize national pride,
tradition, and social obligations
iii. Keep in mind that even what is considered long and short can vary across
cultures. For example, long term to some people may mean in the next
five years, whereas others may view long term as twenty years or for
whole generations
F. Indulgent versus restrained
i. Indulgent: value individual happiness, vacation, leisure time, expression
of emotion and thought
ii. Restrained: have strict social norms and discourage acting out of want;
leisure time and vacation are not seen as important
iii. Accounting for the differences between indulgent and restrained cultures
is critical to the work environment
G. An additional dimension known as high versus low context (developed by Hall), is
known as the amount of emphasis placed on nonverbal cues
i. High context: a great deal of meaning is placed on nonverbal expressions,
the environment, and situation in which the communication is taking
place and less emphasis is placed on words
1. Example nations: Korea, Saudi Arabia
ii. Low context: meaning is derived from language used in an interaction
and less emphasis is placed on nonverbal expressions
1. Example nations: United States, Germany
V. Race and ethnicity in culture
A. Race is a cultural marker that refers to a set of physical characteristics shared by
a group of people, such as skin color, body type, facial structure, and hair color.
Generally inherited and reflect geographic region where ancestors are from
B. Ethnicity is another cultural marker and refers to a group of people who identify
with each other based on common experience. Common experience can include
geographic or national origin, ancestry, history, cultural and social norms,
religion, race, language, ideology, food, or dress
i. Ethnic heritage can serve as reinforcement for individual identity through
cultural celebrations (Example: Feast of San Gennaro – the food festival
celebrated by Italian Americans)
VI. Sex, Gender, and Sexual Orientation
A. Sex is one’s biological classification based on reproductive function
i. Sexual orientation is the emotional and romantic dimension of sex and
gender and is defined as the sex and gender whom a person is attracted
to.
B. Gender is a social construction that includes all the beliefs, attitudes, actions,
and roles associated with being masculine, feminine, androgynous, and so on
i. Gender Identity is informed by one’s biological sex, but it goes beyond
physical characteristics. It includes a sense of self that includes a range of
possibilities that include identifying as a woman, non-binary, genderqeer,
agender, or a man
ii. Gender roles include the societal expectations for individuals based on
their declared gender
iii. Gender expression is the way people communicate their preferred
gender identity through clothing, hairstyle, etc.
VII. Age: The generation that someone lives in shapes their experiences, expectations,
and attitudes toward others.
A. GI generation: generation that fought during WWII, sometimes referred to as the
Greatest Generation
B. Silent generation: too young to fight in WWII, came into adulthood during rise of
the middle class and the relatively prosperous time that followed
C. Baby boomers: children of the GI generation, grew up with Woodstock and the
Vietnam War, tended to focus on careers and set high expectations for their
children
D. Generation X: Graduated high school in the 80s and 90s, tend to be independent,
resilient, and adaptable
E. Millennials: graduated high school after 2000, tend to be protected by their
parents and had high expectations set for them
VIII. Physical diversity goes beyond appearance. It includes our abilities and limitations
(Example: blindness, muscular strength).
A. Note that people with the same impairment are not necessarily limited in the
same way
IX. Cognitive diversity refers to the differences in IQ, learning preferences, interests,
memory, and experience among people
A. The way people differ cognitively is not always immediately apparent
B. Multiple intelligences: Psychologist Howard Gardner proposed that we have
different modalities for learning, and they include:
i. Verbal-linguistic: learning through spoken and written words
ii. Mathematical-logical: learning through reasoning and problem solving
iii. Musical: learning through songs, patterns, rhymes
iv. Visual-spatial: think in images and pictures
v. Bodily-kinesthetic: learning through interaction with one’s environment
vi. Intrapersonal: learning through feelings, values, and attitudes
vii. Interpersonal: learning through interactions with others
 viii. Naturalist: learning through classification and categories
ix. Existential: learning by seeing the big picture
C. Multiple intelligence theory: proposes that although individuals can access and
learn about the world through each of the seven intelligences, people differ in
strength of their aptitude or preference for those various intelligence
X. Ideological Diversity: Diversity of thought is just as important to consider when
accounting differences while communicating. Diversity of thought usually emerges in
politics.
A. Ideology: set of ideas, beliefs, and ideals that form one’s worldview and provide
a basis for action
B. People hold ideologies about how policies and effective governance
C. Although we think of our country as having two, distinct political parties, there
are many different ideologies represented within each party
XI. Religious Diversity: There are numerous faiths practiced and each one has its own
cultural norms and religious perspectives, practices, and beliefs
A. It is important not to make assumptions about people based on their affiliation
with a specific religious group or about those who are not affiliated with a
religious group
XII. Communicating in a culturally diverse world means acknowledging and appreciating
diversity that cultural differences provide our society.
A. Communicate with the purpose of understanding others instead of trying to
convince them of something and be perceptive of the context.
B. Follow these tips to enhance communication:
i. Make the message accessible: Take differences into account when talking
to your audience. For example, you may use captions on video clips or
incorporate stories that use references anyone can relate to
ii. Focus on similarities, not differences: focus on the ties that bind an
audience rather than the things that make them different. Do not draw
attention to different abilities or backgrounds
iii. Avoid “ist” language: “ist” language calls attention to or disrespects
members of a separate group. Racist, sexist, and ageist language depicts
groups as objects, making them seem less important.