198 GENERAL CONCEPTS The frequency characteristic of this output gdmittance is shown i We may now write 1 ‘a = 5 Dye +10, ees 1 tra (KD Yar) +1 ’ D'or + 2DJo, +1 (/BNDok + X,DJong +1) * Delon + 4D/en, + | BND ern + 2,D/eon +1) K, [arma + 2E, Djooy +1. where x, & actual output of measuring device viru * velocity that would exist if measuring device caused no loa Figure 3.104e shows that in this example the loading effect is most frequencies near the natural frequency of the measured system, but zero for both very low and very high frequencies. Since the loading ¢ expressed in frequency terms, they can be handled for all kinds of inpl appropriate Fourier series, transform, or mean-square spectral density PROBLEMS 3.1. Consider the system of Fig. 23 : (@) Explain how you would carry out a static calibration to determine the relat desired input and the output. (6) The temperature of the air surrounding the capillary tube is an interfering | how you would calibrate the relation between this input and the output. (c] The elevation difference between the Bourdon tube and the bulb is another int Discuss means for its calibration, 3.2 Does the system of Fig. 2.4 require calibration? Explain. 33 What fundamental difficulties arise in trying to define the true temperature of a phys 3.4. Slide a coin along a smooth surface, trying to make it come to rest at a drawn lin distance of the coin from the line. Repeat 100 times and check the resulting data for con Gaussian distribution, using probability graph paper, 35 Using the data generated in Prob. 3.4, apply the chi-squared test for conformance to 4 distribution, 36 In Eq. (2.6), solve for the strain € in terms of the other parameters; « = /(GF, R,, By Then take the natural log of both sides; In ¢ = In f: Now take the differential of both sid terms such as de/e, de,/e,, dRa/R, , etc., are formed. This will give the percentage error de function of the percentage errors in the other parameters. If GF, R,, E,, R,, ande, ate all to +1 percent error, what is the possible error in the computed value of €? 327 Is the logarithmic differentiation method of Prob. 3.6 applicable to all forms relations? Explain, Hint: Apply it to the relation w = sin x + 5y° — 6¢ aay E (38 The discharge’ coefficient C, of an orifice ean be found by collecting the water that heyGENERALIZED PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS 199 during a timed interval when it is under a constant head ft. The formula is eo 1p /2gh Find C, and its possible error if: W = 805 £055 Ibm A=nd‘/4 d= 0500 £0001 in t= 6000425 9 = 3217+ 0.1% ft/s? p= 62.36 + 0.1% Ibm/t* fh = 12.02 + 001 N considering both the following: (a) The errors are the absolute limits. (b) The errors are + 3s limits. 39 In Prob, 3.8 if C, must be measured within +0.5 percent for the numerical mean values given, what errors are allowable in the measured data? Use the method of equal effects. paipsiate calibration of an instrument gives the data of Fig. P3.1. Calculate (a) the best-fit straight ine, () 5, ands, (c) Sq:, (d) g; and its error limits if the instrument is used after calibration and reads q= 5.72. % 4 4 ‘Imereasing values Decreasing values 0 -007 +001 5 108 1.16 10 2.05 2.10 15 3.27 3.29 2 428 4.36 25 541 5.45 30 - 643 653 35 78) 761 40 8.66 8.75 Figure P3.1 311 In Fig. 321, what percentage error may be expected in measuring the ‘voltage across Ry if Ry = Ry = Ry = Ry = Ry = 100 and R,, = 1,000.97 If R,, = 10,0007 3.12 Repeat Prob. 3.11, except now the voltage across Ry is to be measured. 3.3 In Fig, 3.25, what percentage error may be expected in measuring the current through R, if Ry = Ry = Ry = Ry = Ry = 100 and R,, = 1027 FR, = 1.7 3.14 Repeat Prob. 3.13, except now the current through Rj is to be measured. 35 In Fig, 3.26, what percentage error may be expected in measuring the force in k if k, = k, = ky = kg = 100 and k,, = 1,000 N/om? If k,, = 10,000 N/em? 3:16 Repeat Prob. 3.15, except now the force in ky is to be measured. : 317 In Fig. 3.27, what percentage error may be expected in measuring the deflection x if Ky ky =k, = Land k,, = 0.1 Nfom? If k,, = 0.01 N/m? 3.18 Repeat Prob. 3.17, except now the motion of the right-hand block is to be measured. 3.19 Using methods similar to those used in proving Eq. (3.55), prove (a) Eq. (3.61), (b) Eq. (3.68), (c) Eq. 3.80). (320A mercury thermometer has a capillary tube of 0.010-in diameter. If the bulb is made of a zero-expansion material, what yolume must it have if a sensitivity of 0.10 in/F” is desired? Assume operation near 70°F. If the bulb is spherical and is immersed in stationary air, estimate the time constant. (320 A balloon carrying a first-order thermometer with a 15-s time constant rises through the atmosphere at 6 m/s. Assume temperature varies with altitude at 0.15 °C/30 m. The balloon radios200 GENERAL CONCEPTS temperature and altitude readings back to the ground. At 3000 m the balloon says the temper 0°C. What is the true altitude at which 0°C occurs? ‘322 \A first-order instrument must measure signals with frequency content up to 100 Hz ainplitude inaccuracy of 5 percent. What is the maximum allowable time constant? What w phase shift at 50 and 100 Hz? 3.23 For the spring scale of Fig, 3.44, discuss the tradeoff between sensitivity and speed of resulting from changes in K,. w 24 Derive Eqs. (3.208) to (3.210). 3.25 Find the transfer function of a spring scale (Fig. 3.45) whose mass is negligible, Sho _Sfeady-state time lag for a ramp input isthe same whether mass is zero oF no. &: 26 |We wish to design (choose t,, 12, ¢, @,) the measurement system of Fig. P3.2a so as to an amplitude ratio which is flat 5 percent for the frequency range 0 to 100 Hz. (Note Problem does not have a single unique answer.) Strive for the largest t's and smallest «, meet the specifications. (Why”) Note that the rising amplitude ratio associated with @ s compensate for the dropolf due to the t's and that ¢ = 0.65 is not necessarilly optimum in t When you find a set of values which is satisfactory: (a) Check the linearity of phase angle with frequency, and estimate the eflective time between q, and g; (b). If qi) is a transient of the form shown in Fig. P3.2h, use CSMP (or other availat simulation) to find the smallest 7 for which the instantaneous error between q, and q, exceed 5 percent of the full-scale g, value. eee mc Cosine function 2% (6 Figure P3.2 3.27 Find Q,(ico) for the 4g, (t) of Fig. P3.3 by the exact analytical method. ail”it +] Foor aor ne [ ieee 002 Figure P3.3 fiGENERALIZED PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS 201 ‘328 Repeat Prob. 3.27 for Fig. P34. Figure P3.4 329 If the 4(@) of Prob. 327 is the input to a first-order system with a gain of 1 and a time constant of 0.001 s, find Q,{ic) and q,(t) for the periodic steady state. 3.30 Repeat Prob, 3.29, except use g,{0) from Prob. 3.28, 43.31 In Fig. 3.78 let the carrier be a square wave as in Fig, P3.5. Find the frequency spectrum of the “output signal of the modulator. Soa Figure P3.5 432 Repeat Prob. 3.31 if the carrier is a square wave as in Fig. P3.6. éleyh A 3% || VA )3% Sd Figure P3.6 433 In an analog-computer study, it is desired to simulate a random atmospheric turbulence whose -Mean-square spectral density $,(«) is adequately represented as 10/1 + 0.000107), where w is in _tadians per second. A white-noise generator having ¢,,,(@) = 10 is available. Select a suitable filter configuration and numerical values to follow the generator and produce the desired $,(.0). The output _of the noise generator should “sce” a filter input resistance of 10,000. 334 Tests on a gyroscope show that it can withstand any random vibration along a given axis if the frequency content is between 0 and 1,000 rad/s and the rms acceleration is less than 80 in/s*. This gyro is 10 bE mounted in a rocket where it will be subjected to acoustic-pressure-induced vibration.202 GENERAL CONCEPTS The transfer function between pressure and acceleration and the mean-squ: pressure are as given in Fig. P3.7. Will this gyro withstand the vibration? <— Random = pressure —— looding plr) Vibration Je acceleration # psf 8 Ib, /f® 100 200 300 400 on) w, rad/sec dolw) + f feat (ost? 50! a Figure P37 3.35 Derive Eq. (3.319) 3.36 Derive Eq. (3.321). 3.37 Explain how the sinusoidal transfer function of a system may be obiai records of g(t) and qt) if q;is a transient of any shape whatever. 3.38 Reanalyze the force-measuring problem of Fig. 3.26 for dynamic operation, blocks have masses. M, and M. That is, get the operational transfer function (3.93). 3.40 Reanalyze the voltage-measuring problem of Fig. 3.21 for dynamic operatio batteries with sonrces of time-varying voltage. Also, let the voltage-measuring dev scope with R,, shunted by a'capacitor Cy. 3.41 Reanalyze the current-measuring problem of Fig. 3.25 for dynamic operatio batteries with sources of time-varying voltage. Also, let the current-measuring devic nometer which has an inductance L,, in series with R,,. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. H: E. Koenig and W. A. Blackwell: “Electromechanical System Theory,” McGi York, 1961.