NBA Accreditation and Teaching-Learning in Engineering (NATE)

N J Rao and K Rajanikanth

Module 3: Instruction and Accreditation

Week 9: Instruction Design (Key Words: Merrill’s Principles Project Based Approach, Problem
Based Approach, and Design Thinking)

M3 U1: Direct Instruction - I

Recap

 Understood Principles of Instruction Design including Merrill’s Five First Principles of Learning and
Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction.

M3 U1 Outcomes

M3 U1-1: Understand the principles of Direct Instruction.

M3 U1-2: Understand a model of direct instruction that is based on Merrill’s five first principles of learning.

Direct Instruction

 Face-to-Face instruction in traditional classroom setting.

 Continues to be the most commonly used approach to instruction, particularly in formal
programs.
 The content to be delivered, in fixed time, is generally quite vast in formal programs.
 The instructional schedules are fairly rigid.
 Direct Instruction is perceived by many to be the most efficient in terms of resource utilization
under the given constraints.
 One common concern:

o Students admitted to an Engineering program are relatively homogeneous.

o Still, significant differences do exist in the cognitive abilities of students, in the level of their
entry-level competencies, and in their motivations.
o It may be very difficult to accommodate these differences in Direct Instruction.
o We need special approaches to address slow learners as well as fast learners!

 Several models for Direct Instruction have been proposed in the literature.
 One general attribute of these models is that essential content is taught to students via an active
presentation by the teacher.
 Another common feature is that the teacher is in control of the entire process of instruction,
though they do take the preferences of students into account.
 We present a model of direct instruction that is based on Merrill’s five first principles in this unit
and another model of direct instruction, called “Transactional Model”, in the next unit.

Merrill’s Five First Principles of Learning

The five first principles of learning as stated by Merrill:

 Task-Centered Principle
 Activation Principle
 Demonstration Principle

NATE-Module 3-Week 9 N J Rao & K Rajanikanth 1

 
 Application Principle
 Integration Principle

Direct Instruction Based on Merrill’s Five First Principles

 Recall that Merrill’s principles are not in and of themselves a model or method of instruction.
 A Direct Instruction model that implements all the five first principles of learning as identified by
Merrill is presented now:

o Instruction consists of a sequence of Instruction Units.

o An Instruction Unit is associated with one specific Course Outcome/ Competency.
o The Instruction Unit implements all the five first principles of learning.

Instruction Unit based on Merrill’s Principles

 
Course Outcome (CO) / Competency

 All the four phases of instruction occur in the context of one specific CO/ Competency.
 Learning is focussed around this CO / Competency and the task(s) students are expected to solve
reflect this.
 This feature is based on Merrill’s Task-Centred principle of learning.

Attention and Activation

 This phase includes the Activation Principle of Merrill.

 Another learning principle included in this phase: Attention

o Attention of students can be gained through motivational stories, examples, case studies and
simulations.
o Allows students to understand the relevance of the CO/Competency.

 Activation (Merrill):

o Students need to be able to link their new learning to something they already know.
o An appropriate mental model is required to be recalled.
o The prior learning and the required mental model are “activated”.

NATE-Module 3-Week 9 N J Rao & K Rajanikanth 2

Instructional Components:
 Explaining why
 Motivational stories
 Class discussions
 Quiz
 Advanced graphic organizer ………

Demonstration

 “Demonstration” principle of Merrill

 Presentation of new information (“Information” of Merrill)
 One or more worked examples of a problem based on the CO/Competency. This shows how the
presented information is applied to specific situations. (“Portrayal” of Merrill)
 Demonstration should be consistent with the nature of the CO.
 Learners should be guided to relate general information to specific instances.
Instructional Components:
 Interactive lecture
 Multimedia presentations
 Simulations
 Example problems
 Field demonstration
 Experimental demonstrations
 Graphic organizer……

Apply/Engage

 “Apply” principle of Merrill

 Learners should engage with/apply the newly acquired knowledge and demonstrate skills to solve
problems consistent with the competency.
 Learners should engage with the new information and skills with minimum time gap after the
demonstration.
 Learners should receive either intrinsic or corrective feedback to ensure correctness and
adequacy of their newly constructed mental model for solving the problem.
 Coaching (providing hints) can improve learning. Coaching should be gradually withdrawn.
Instructional Components:
 Note making
 Summarization
 Individual problem solving
 Practice
 Group problem solving
 Report writing
 Making presentations
 Group discussions …

NATE-Module 3-Week 9 N J Rao & K Rajanikanth 3

 
Integration

 “Integration” principle of Merrill

Learners should

 reflect
 discuss with peers
 relate them to their existing mental model

Instructional Components:
 Class discussions
 Group discussions
 Quiz
 Summarization ……..

Structure of an Instruction Unit

 CO / Competency Statement
 Attention/Activation
 Demonstration 1
 Application 1
 .
 .
 Demonstration k
 Application k
 Integration
Instruction Unit (sample)

Competency Class Lab

(Hrs) (Hrs)

IU12 CO5-C4: Design precision rectifiers and DC voltage regulators. 2 0

CO5 Design circuits that perform analog linear signal processing functions including amplification,
summing, differentiation and integration, and non-linear signal processing functions
including log and anti-log amplification, current sensing, rectification and dc voltage
regulation using passive and active devices.

Class Activity Time Teaching activity Mode of Teaching

Session (Min)

Relevance 3 Precision rectifiers are necessary for PPT

low-voltage AC to DC conversion. DC
voltage regulators are required in creating a
stable DC voltage source for electronic
1 circuits

Activation 10 Macro-model of a diode, characteristics of Op Quiz and PPT

Amps, zenor diode and current booster

Demonstration 30 Explain the behavior of half-wave and BB/ Simulate

1 full-wave rectifiers and precision rectifiers,
and simulate their behavior

Application 1 15 Simulate a precision half-wave circuit and

demonstrate its precision over the input
voltage range 10 mV to 5 V

NATE-Module 3-Week 9 N J Rao & K Rajanikanth 4

 
 Demonstration 35 Explain the characteristics and parameters of BB
2 voltage regulators, operation and design of
linear voltage regulator, and the low drop-out
regulator.
2
Application 2 15 Design a linear voltage regulator

Integration 10 Discuss the role of feedback around an Op Discussion

Amp in achieving two important signal
processing applications including precision
rectification and voltage regulation

Exercise

 Develop an Instruction Unit, using Merrill’s principles, for a chosen CO / Competency from the
course you taught or are familiar with.
Thank you for sharing the results of the exercise at nate.iiscta@gmail.com

M3 U2

 Understand “Transactional Model” of direct instruction.

NATE-Module 3-Week 9 N J Rao & K Rajanikanth 5

 
M3 U2: Direct Instruction - 2
Recap

 Understood the principles of Direct Instruction and a model of direct instruction that is based on
Merrill’s five first principles of learning.

M3 U2: Outcome

 Understand the Transactional Model of Direct Instruction.

Transaction Model of Direct Instruction

 
Phase A: Presentation

Presentation phase, the first phase, consists of:

1. Review
2. What
3. Why
4. Explanation
5. Probe & Respond
 From Cognitive Psychology: It is very important to link new information to the existing cognitive
structures.
 The first three methods of Presentation phase (Review, What, and Why) provide a rich structure
within which instruction will take place.
 The transaction model lists these three instructional activities in one specific order. However,
instructor can change this order if seen fit. What is important is that all these three activities are
completed before the explanation of new information is started.
1. Review:
 Activate the prior knowledge that is relevant / prerequisite to the new learning that is to take
place.
 Teacher and students can together review, discuss such material.
 Teacher could create an activity that requires students to utilize the relevant / prerequisite
competencies that have been previously learned.
 Students must be able to form links between prior competencies and the new competency.
2. What:
 A clear statement of what the students are expected to be able to do at the end of the
instructional unit.

NATE-Module 3-Week 9 N J Rao & K Rajanikanth 6

Course Outcome / Competency
 It is a good practice to state upfront the assessment instruments that will be used by the
instructor in relation to this CO / Competency.
 An outline of the lesson schedule of this instructional unit also would be desirable.
3. Why:
 Must satisfactorily answer the student’s question - “why should I be engaged in this learning
process?”
 Teacher can use anecdotes, discussion, case studies, competencies required in related courses
and so on to make the student “see” the importance of the stated CO / Competency to his / her
professional life.
 Gain attention!
4. Explanation:
 Begin the instruction on the new material.
 Instruction must facilitate students to acquire and demonstrate the stated CO / Competency.
 Instructional components must be chosen appropriately.
5. Probe & Respond:
 During instruction, teacher must probe the students regarding their learning of the new material
being presented.
 Quick and short formative assessments.
 This data would be helpful in improving the instruction as we shall see while discussing Phase C:
Assessment and Evaluation.
 Plan “wait times” carefully (between probe and response; between student response and teacher
response).

Phase B: Practice

 It is widely established that providing learners with a very large number of opportunities to
practice the competencies being acquired is a crucial element of quality learning.
 Practice phase of Direct Instruction model has:

1. Guided Practice
2. Independent Practice
3. Periodic Review

1. Guided Practice:
 Students practice the application of the newly acquired knowledge and skills under the direct
supervision of the teacher.
 Students could work independently or in groups.
 Most important: Teacher must monitor the student activity and provide feedback immediately to
help the students in their practice.
 Possible less often in regular classroom sessions; can be more extensive in tutorial sessions
2. Independent Practice:
 Students independently practice the application of the newly acquired knowledge and skills.
 Can occur in the classroom but more often happens outside.
 Take-home assignments are generally used.

NATE-Module 3-Week 9 N J Rao & K Rajanikanth 7

 
 Most important: Students must complete the work, their work must be evaluated by Teacher
and Teacher must provide feedback to the students.
3. Periodic Review:
 Can be incorporated into teacher probes, guided practice and independent practice.
 Key feature: Students practice on tasks that require them to use recently acquired knowledge
and skills as well those acquired earlier!
 Such a revisit to material learned earlier is known to promote learning significantly.
 Even when the material is in long-term memory, students need practice retrieving that
information and using it appropriately.

Phase C: Assessment & Evaluation

Includes Formative Assessment and Summative Assessment and Evaluations.

1. Formative Assessment and Evaluation:

 Primary purpose is to gather data that can be evaluated to deicide if any mid-course corrections
to instruction / additional instructional sessions are required to improve learning.
 Data from probing and responding, observations during practice, and periodic review as
discussed in the previous phases of Presentation and Practice can be used for this purpose.
 Additionally and often data from specific formative assessments like quizzes administered during
the course are also used.

2. Summative Assessment and Evaluation:

 Data from summative assessment instruments administered as part of Continuous Internal

Evaluation is used in the computation of the attainment of COs as already discussed earlier.

 The most important point is that all assessment must be aligned to COs!

Phase D: Monitoring & Feedback

Includes two instructional activities that should occur as often as required throughout instruction:
1. Cues and Prompts
2. Corrective Feedback & Reinforcement
1. Cues and Prompts:
 Used when previous material is being reviewed, questions are being asked by the instructor, or
students are engaged in guided practice.
 Provided to students when they are “almost there” but are unable to proceed further!
 If repeated cues and prompts fail to get the students complete the task, it is likely that further
instruction is required!
2. Corrective Feedback and Reinforcement:
 Instructor must provide corrective feedback and reinforcement after every assessment of
student learning (formative as well as summative) during the instruction. (We can not do so in
the case of Semester End Examination!)
 The delay between the assessment and feedback must be as small as possible to make it really
effective.
 Found to be generally correlated most strongly to student achievement (compared to other

NATE-Module 3-Week 9 N J Rao & K Rajanikanth 8

 
 actions of instructor)!
 Feedback must be provided to help students know not only the right answers but also the reasons
why a particular answer is right or wrong.
 Feedback must be provided in the spirit of helping students!
 Reinforcement, a positive appreciation of academic achievement (without ridiculing low
achievers), is also generally found to be contributing to quality learning.
This phase is different from the previous phase, Assessment & Evaluation, in that Monitoring and
Feedback occurs throughout instruction, as and when required! Assessment and Evaluation is
more structured!!

Transactional Model, Merrill, and Gagne

 The Transactional Model of Direct Instruction presented here has 12 instructional activities
spread over 4 phases.
 We discussed Merrill’s five first principles of learning and Gagne’s Nine events of instruction in an
earlier unit.
 Though the terminology and organization of instructional activities in this transactional model of
Direct Instruction is somewhat different from those of Merrill and Gagne, it is easy to see that
there is good correspondence among them!

Meta Pointer

 William G. Huitt, David M. Monetti, John H. Hummel: Direct Approach to Instruction. Instructional
Design Theories and Models, Volume III, (Eds) Charles M. Reigeluth, Alison A. Carr-Chellman
Routledge, 2009

Exercise

 Describe the instructional activities and their sequence that you used when you taught a course
based on Direct Instruction.
Thank you for sharing the results of the exercise at nate.iiscta@gmail.com

M3 U3

 Understand Project Based Approach to instruction.

NATE-Module 3-Week 9 N J Rao & K Rajanikanth 9

 
M3 U3: Project-Based Approach To Instruction
Recap

 Understood the models of direct instruction.

M3 U3: Outcome

 Understand project-based approach to instruction.

Engineering Education – Present Challenges

 Engineering education is under severe pressure these days!

 Expectations from all the stakeholders are changing very rapidly.
 Industry, Accreditation bodies, and society in general are demanding that engineering graduates
must demonstrate, at the end of the program, not just memorized technical knowledge, but
higher-order competencies.
 Such expectations as captured in the Program Outcomes (POs) specified by NBA include aspects
of professional practice like communication, team-work, life-long-learning etc.
 Even the technical competencies stated in the Program Outcomes specified by NBA include
“problem formulation”, “solving complex engineering problems”, “research literature” etc.
 Further, Metacognitive processing including self-monitoring, self-regulated learning is valued
highly in current work places and students do not get opportunities to improve their abilities in
this direction.
 Most of the problems faced in the actual profession are fuzzy, open-ended, and complex. Current
demands from industry insist that students be trained in solving such realistic problems.
 These concerns cannot be addressed by the traditional approaches to engineering education!
 Increasingly, institutes are turning to other approaches including Project based instruction,
Problem based instruction, Experience based instruction etc to address the above-mentioned
challenges.
 We will discus Project Based Instruction in this unit.

Project Based Approach to Instruction

 “Project based approach” is being used in several broad senses these days.
 A project in the final year of Engineering programs, a common feature in most of the institutes,
does not, by itself, constitute Project based approach to instruction!
 This approach means that Project work plays significant role throughout the program and results
in Project based learning.
 Implementation details vary across institutes.

Key Features of Project Based Approach

1. Learning by doing
2. Real-world problems
3. Realistic solution
4. Instructor as a guide / mentor
5. Interdisciplinary nature of work
6. Collaboration and group work

NATE-Module 3-Week 9 N J Rao & K Rajanikanth 10

 
Learning by Doing

 The idea that “doing is central to learning” was advocated very strongly by the American
philosopher, psychologist, and educational reformer John Dewey way back in early part of the
last century.
 Any approach to instruction does have “doing by students” as an important component!
 However, Project Based Approach is different in that it accords a central role to “learning by
doing” and the scope of “doing” is quite substantial.
 “Practice” beyond the final year project work and laboratory work is the focus of the Project based
approach.
 This approach incorporates project work throughout the program.

Real-world Problems

 The central position of praxis in the Project based approach is linked to “doing” being centered on
real world problems.
 The real-world problems capture students’ interest and attention.
 The problems are generally expected to be complex and open-ended in order to permit a range of
possible solutions and also to help students with the problem formulation skills.
 Problems may be specified by the instructor / department with or without the scope for choice by
the students.
 Department in collaboration with industry may select the problems; students may have choice in
selecting one from the list or they may be assigned a specific problem.
 In all cases, the problem must be complex and open-ended.
Another issue:
 Can we use simulated problems or the problems must be real ones? Both seem to work well!

Realistic Solution

 Project-based approach attaches significant importance to the final solution resulting from the
project.
 It must be a “product” of good quality providing realistic solution to the original problem.
 The “product” can be an artifact, a software package, a professional-quality technical report, or
anything else as decided upfront by the department (and students if possible).
 It must be assessed appropriately.

Instructor as a Guide / Mentor

 Project based approach to instruction is substantially student centric.

 Role of instructor is more like a guide / mentor / facilitator.
 Shift from “sage-on-the stage” to “guide-on-the-side”.
 Instructor must relinquish “control” and facilitate student autonomy.
 Instructor must be “comfortable” with students assuming responsibility for their own learning.
 Change in mindset is essential for both instructors and students.

Interdisciplinary Nature of Work

 Interdisciplinary projects are preferred in the Project based approach.

NATE-Module 3-Week 9 N J Rao & K Rajanikanth 11

 
 Equip students with the adaptability and holistic thinking to tackle issues which defy disciplinary
boundaries.
 Almost all real-world work scenarios are interdisciplinary in nature and the project must provide
the opportunity for students to work in a similar context.
 This feature ties in neatly with the next key feature – collaboration and group work.

Collaboration and Group Work

 Collaboration and group work is another key feature of Project-based approach

 Student teams engage in a series of interactions over extended time periods leading them to
acquire and demonstrate transferable skills such as communication, planning, respect for
different cultures and viewpoints, and team working.
 Depending on the nature of the project, collaboration could be with industry, social groups
outside the institute as well, leading to development of further professional skills, behaviors and
networks.

Advantages of Project Based Approach

 Improved academic achievement

 Better motivation and joy of engineering
 Broader competencies: claims include teamwork, communication, ethical behavior, problem
solving abilities, critical and innovative thinking, data collection and analysis, information search,
project management, inter-personal skills, time management, self esteem, ….
 Better outreach
 Better opportunities for quality work
by faculty
 ………

Assessment of Project Work

 Assessment, both formative and summative, is a critical activity in Education system, and is
particularly important and complex in the case of project work.
 At the end of project, students typically submit a written report, demonstrate the solution, and
make a presentation.
 Assessing all the above outputs from the project teams requires considerable planning by
instructors up front.
 Group as well as individuals need to be assessed.
 Process as well as product need to be assessed.
 Appropriate rubrics need to be developed and shared with students before the start of the project
work.
 Students may need to be trained in activities like maintaining reflective journals.
 Experiences across the institutes vary.
 No unique way! Institutes need to evolve assessment methods best suited for them!!

Key Implementation Challenges

 While the implementation of a final year project is a well understood process for both students

NATE-Module 3-Week 9 N J Rao & K Rajanikanth 12

 
 and faculty, a wider focus on Project-based approach to instruction and learning is still not that
familiar to many institutions.
 Implementing Project-based instruction on a significant scale has many challenges, both for
faculty and students.

Key Challenges for Students

Group Work:
 Not too severe for final-year students probably but significant for students in the earlier years.
 Free-riding by some group members.
 Lack of experience in group work and handling conflicts.
 Prior culture of competitive attitude while trying for admission in to top-ranking institutes and
consequent lack of appreciation of the benefits of group work.
Adapting to Project-based learning:
 Difficulty in adapting to the new approach of Project-based instruction where students need to
make many choices which have implications for their grades later and reluctance to assume
responsibility for their learning.
 Coping with relatively unstructured learning environment early in their program.
 Concerns regarding evaluation.
 Fear that the load would be “overwhelming”.

Key Challenges for Faculty

 Used to the role of mentor for final-year students but may face challenges in accepting the same
role for very young and untrained students.
 Difficulty in finding resources for “heavy” project components in the curriculum.
 Overload.
 Ensuring focus on the process also.
 Managing student conflicts and expectations.

Implementation Guidelines

 Substantial planning in advance (domain, resources, scope,…)

 Early discussions with external agencies (if relevant)
 Careful examination, pilot study and testing of the project ideas before offering them to the
students
 Training the students and providing scaffolding as necessary
 Mentoring to facilitate collaboration also
 Fair and transparent assessment
All these become more important as the project work share increases much beyond the final year
project.

You want to adopt Project Based Instruction?

 There are many choices at every step of the process, right from forming student teams to the
final step of summative evaluation.
 The choices depend on many specific situational factors.

NATE-Module 3-Week 9 N J Rao & K Rajanikanth 13

 
 Choices need to be made at the level of the institute, at the level of the department, and at the
level of individual instructors.
 No unique solutions
 Choices need to evolve

Meta Pointer

 Nichola Harmer, Plymouth University: Project Based Learning – Literature Review

https://www.plymouth.ac.uk/uploads/production/document/path/2/2733/Literature_review_Pr
oject-based_learning.pdf (Link last accessed on 01.06.2019)

Exercise

 Describe your experience in mentoring students in project work (final year project or project work
in earlier years). The description may include the challenges faced, the solutions that worked,
and the advantages. (Less than 300 words)
Thank you for sharing the results of the exercises at nate.iiscta@gmail.com

M3 U4

 Understand Problem-based approach to instruction.

NATE-Module 3-Week 9 N J Rao & K Rajanikanth 14

 
M3 U4: Problem Based Approach To Instruction
Recap

 Understood Project Based approach to instruction.

M3 U4: Outcomes

 Understand Problem Based Approach to instruction.

Problem Based Approach To Instruction

 The term, “Problem Based Approach” is being used in several broad senses these days.
 Sometimes the term is used interchangeably with terms like Inquiry Based Approach, Active
Learning Approach, Experiential Approach and so on.
 Further, Problem Based Learning (PBL) is the more common term in the literature. We use
Problem Based Instruction (PBI) in the sense that it is the approach to instruction that results in
PBL.
 It is generally perceived that PBI values effectiveness over efficiency.
 Historically, PBI was developed in the context of Medical Education (1969, McMaster University,
Canada).
 One good definition: “a progressive active learning and learner-centered approach where
unstructured problems are used as the starting point and anchor for the learning process” (Tan,
O.S. (2003) – Problem-based Learning Innovation: Using Problems to Power Learning in the 21st
Century).
 It is quite popular in medical education and allied areas but is being used more and more in
several other domains also.

Key Principles for Problem Based Approach

1. Formulate and provide authentic problems to learners. Problems must be compatible with the
intended outcomes (COs) and encourage cross-discipline thinking.
2. Teacher plays the role of a tutor supporting the development of learner’s metacognitive skills
and her problem-solving abilities.
3. Assessments that validate the outcomes must be used.
4. Thorough debriefing to consolidate the key concepts gained from the learning experience.

Authentic Problems

 The problems should reflect the cognitive demands that are consistent with the environment for
which the learners are being prepared.
 The problems should be ill-structured (Learners must able to deal with the kind of problems that
they will actually encounter in their profession!).
 The problems should be complex enough to challenge the learners individually and as a team.
 Problems must be contemporary and be able to “excite” the students.
 The domain as well as the problems in that domain are selected by the instructor in accordance
with the intended outcomes and are then assigned to students.
 PBI is designed to support higher order thinking and is not appropriate for teaching basic skills.
The learners must be having some knowledge to start the process of engaging with the problem.

NATE-Module 3-Week 9 N J Rao & K Rajanikanth 15

 
 Instructor may have to provide some initial instruction and learning materials as well.

Instructor’s Role

 Critical for the success of PBI.

 Role of instructor is as a facilitator of learning and not as provider of content.
 Tutor may not even be an expert in the relevant domains; so the role is not even that of a coach!
 Must probe repeatedly to ensure learners do not stop their work too early.
 Focuses on ‘group’ process to ensure the participation by all learners in the group.
 All learners must be able to articulate their understanding of the problem, the problem-solving
process, the information gathered from research and its relevance to the task of problem solving,
and the proposed solution. Instructor facilitates this process.
 The problem posed initially may or may not remain unchanged during the learning process.
 Instructor must be able to sense when the problem is boring or frustrating the learners and must
modulate the problem accordingly.

Assessment

 Assessment, both formative and summative, is a critical activity in Education System, and is
particularly important and complex in the case of PBI.
 Assessment must be aligned to the intended outcomes.
 To be assessed:

o Knowledge and skill in the relevant domain

o Problem-solving skills (process and reflection)
o Metacognitive thinking

 Summative assessment of the final solution presented by the student teams (in whatever format
specified) may require Expert(s) and appropriate rubrics.
 Students may need to be trained in activities like maintaining reflective journals.
 Experiences across the institutes vary.
 No unique way! Institutes need to evolve assessment methods best suited for them!!

Debriefing

 Not to be skipped; essential for the benefits of PBI to be realized.

 Help learners recognize, verbalize, and consolidate what they have learned.
 Help the learners integrate the new knowledge with previous knowledge.
 Prepare questions to be asked covering all the learning that has been discussed during the
learning activity; ensure that everyone answers them.
 Encourage the learners to depict their learning after integration, perhaps with a concept map.

PBI and PO2

 Key features of PBI make it a powerful approach for enabling the students attain PO2
 PO2 - Problem Analysis: Identify, formulate, research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics,
natural sciences, and engineering sciences.

NATE-Module 3-Week 9 N J Rao & K Rajanikanth 16

 
Problem Based v/s Project Based

 PBI has its origin in Medical education (1969, McMaster University, Canada) and it continues to be
used quite extensively in that and related fields.
 Its use in Engineering programs does not seem to be that extensive though we have some
significant studies reported in the literature.
 Engineering educators generally seem to prefer Project Based Approach to Problem Based one.
 Both approaches are “experience” oriented and share several features; yet, they are distinct
approaches.
 Project Management Principles: These are considered important knowledge and skills to be
acquired and demonstrated by students in PrBI. This is not a feature of PBI.
 Process: PBI uses a Cycle of asking questions, information gathering, refining the solution,
discussion, revisiting the problem and so on. PrBI focus: Completion of project in a phased
manner resulting in a product.
 PBI: Focus is acquiring knowledge to solve the problem. PrBI: Focus is enabling learners to apply
knowledge and skills to create an artifact that satisfies user needs.
 End Result:

o In PrBI, though different choices are indeed possible for the student teams in building a
solution, it must be validated by demonstrating that it satisfies the requirements decided
upfront!
o PBI insists only that the student teams must solve the problem satisfactorily; no other
requirements are stated upfront! There is significant difference between these two
requirements!!

 Can be compared based on cost, resources required, and so on also.

 Generally, Project Based Approach seems to be more popular in Engineering programs.

PBI and Program Curriculum

 Entire programs in medical profession have been designed using PBI in some institutes; however
such an approach is quite rare in engineering programs.
 PBI in engineering programs is often limited to a small number of courses.
 Large sets of problems which can be used in PBI are not yet available in engineering domain.
 Institutes need to experiment and decide on the extent to which they wish to incorporate PBI into
their programs.

Situational and Implementation Issues

Large Class Sizes:

 PBI works best with only small groups (about 5 to 7); create such groups and make all the groups
work on the same problem (provide multiple sets of resources) to reduce the burden on the
instructor.
 Let the teams stay together for multiple problems so that they can realize the benefits of
collaborative work.
 Strategies are required for managing the large number of small groups.

NATE-Module 3-Week 9 N J Rao & K Rajanikanth 17

 
Learner Reluctance:
 Learners facing PBI for the first time (prior training has made them “teacher dependent”) may be
uncomfortable with PBI.
 Articulating the understanding, independent research, and working in groups may appear to
them as “too much burden”.
 Instructor must invest considerable effort in scaffolding their learning process.
 Type and complexity of the problem needs to be matched with the maturity of the learners.
 Total commitment of the instructor and the organization is essential for the success of PBI.
 PBI must be implemented in its true spirit (not just assigning some problems to be solved by
students, the learning context remaining the traditional one).
 Appropriate infrastructure is also essential for the success of PBI.
 Another key for the success of PBI, an extremely important one at that, would be extensive use
of ICT at every process step.

Exercise

 Discuss the feasibility and desirability of PBI in the courses that you are teaching.
Thank you for sharing the results of the exercises at nate.iiscta@gmail.com

M3 U5

 Understand Instruction for Design Thinking

NATE-Module 3-Week 9 N J Rao & K Rajanikanth 18

 
M3 U5: Instruction for Design Thinking
Recap

 Understood Problem Based Approach to Instruction.

M3 U5: Outcome

 Understand Instruction for Engineering Design Thinking.

Engineering Design

 Design, in a major sense, is the essence of engineering; it begins with the identification of a need
and ends with a product or system in the hands of a user. It is primarily concerned with synthesis
rather than the analysis which is central to engineering. (Hancock, 1986, National Science
Foundation Workshop).
 Design defines engineering. It's an engineer's job to create new things to improve society. It's the
University's obligation to give students fundamental education in design. (William Durfee,
Nov/Dec 1994).
 Engineering design is a systematic, intelligent process in which designers generate, evaluate, and
specify “concepts” for devices, systems, or processes whose form and function achieve clients’
objectives or users’ needs while satisfying a specified set of constraints. (Clive M Dym et al, 2015)
(The word “concept” in the above context means specifying the functionality or the use to which
the device or system is to be put. This meaning is different from the way we use it in Bloom’s
taxonomy!)
 Design problems reflect the fact that the designer has a client (or customer) who, in turn, has in
mind a set of users (or customers) for whose benefit the designed artifact is being developed.
 The design process is itself a complex cognitive process.

Design Thinking

 Design is generally considered difficult to learn and more universally considered difficult to teach!
 Design thinking reflects the complex cognitive processes of inquiry and learning that designers
engage in while developing solutions.
 The term ‘Design Thinking’ was first introduced by Peter G. Rowe in his book titled “Design
Thinking”, which was published in 1987. The focus of Rowe’s book is design thinking in
architecture and urban planning! (Similar to the origin of “patterns in design”!)
 Design thinking in the specific context of Engineering Design is now accepted as an integral and
necessary component of engineering curricula.
 CDIO (Conceive-Design-Implement-Operate) initiative of MIT is one often - quoted example.
 Several Program Outcomes (POs) specified by NBA refer to competencies that are directly related
to Engineering Design.
 Engineering designers perform in a systems context, making decisions as they proceed, working
collaboratively as teams in a social process, and “speaking” several languages with each other.
 Instruction to facilitate these competencies is itself a complex design activity!

NATE-Module 3-Week 9 N J Rao & K Rajanikanth 19

 
Engineering Design Thinking

Some Key Features:

 Generative questions
 Systems thinking
 Uncertainty
 Design decision choices
 Teamwork
 Visualization
 Creativity
 Communication in design language
(adapted from Engineering Design Thinking, Teaching, and Learning, 
http://www.asee.org/about/publications/jee/upload/2005jee_sample.htm) 

Generative Questions

 Traditional engineering courses invite deep reasoning questions and the answers must converge
to “true” answers in the relevant knowledge domain.
 By contrast, questions that arise during design thinking are exploratory in nature and their
objectives are not “true answers” but “additional ideas and intents of customers” useful for
framing the solution space.
 Generally these two types of thinking are called Convergent thinking and Divergent thinking
respectively.
 Teaching divergent inquiry in design thinking is generally not addressed in Engineering curricula!
 Case study based group discussions may help students in learning to ask generative questions.
 Interactions with real clients, where possible, and subsequent guidance from instructors would be
of great help.
 Role play / simulation games also would help.
 Institutes must consciously plan for such activities.

Systems Thinking

 Engineering systems are increasingly becoming more ambitious and more complex.
 Further, POs of NBA require designers to consider issues related to environment, sustainability,
society etc
 Students must be trained to:

o anticipate the possibly unintended consequences emerging from interactions among the
multiple parts of a system and interactions between the system and the environment.
o deal with incomplete information, ambiguous goals, and approximate models;
o handle uncertainty; think statistically!
o make rough estimates of physical quantities in a given context (both for sanity checks and for
figuring out the parameters that can be ignored safely).
o design suitable experiments when required (to get data, to validate a design idea,…).

NATE-Module 3-Week 9 N J Rao & K Rajanikanth 20

 
Other Issues

 Students must be trained to:

o work in multi-disciplinary, multi-cultural teams

o communicate using the appropriate design languages (textual statements, graphical
representations, mathematical or analytical models, …)
o make design decision choices (often not between “right” and “wrong” but between “right”
and “right”)
o estimate the resource requirements including human resources, costs and schedules
o ……

Instruction for Design Thinking

 Possible Approaches:

o Project Based Instruction (PrBI)

o Problem Based Instruction (PBI)
o Simulation Based Instruction (SBI)
o Experiential Approach to Instruction

 As discussed in earlier units, the most popular approach for Design Thinking in engineering
curricula was and continues to be PrBI.

Design and Program Curricula

 Traditionally, Engineering program curricula included a major project work (called capstone
project in USA) in the final-year / final semester and this was the first and only opportunity
provided to the students to engage with Engineering Design activity!
 Some programs (most notably Mechanical Engineering and Civil Engineering Programs) do
include a core course (often a theory-only course) on Design in earlier semesters.
 The main project in final year is really valuable; but appears too late in the scheme!
 More favoured approach currently is to provide design experience to the students in the first year
itself!
 An independent “Design Thinking” or “Engineering Design” course (0:0:1 or 0:0:2) is introduced
in the first year using PrBI Approach. (called “cornerstone project” in USA)
 Instructor must provide considerable didactic instruction to address the issues discussed already.

Engineering Design in First Year

Challenges (present even in final-year project but are more severe with first-year project):
 Initial problem statement; final formulation of the problem.
 Multidisciplinary team formation.
 Competencies (Concepts, Tools, Attitude).
 Design process to be used.
 Load on faculty.
 Assessment: Finished work and compliance to the process; individual contribution and the team
work.
 Usual Approach:

NATE-Module 3-Week 9 N J Rao & K Rajanikanth 21

 
 o Initial minimal direct instruction of theory and tools;
o Close mentoring during problem formulation stage;
o Guidance reduced progressively;
o Load on faculty remains an issue to be resolved at the institute level.

Another approach being tried in some institutes :

 Initial minimal direct instruction of theory and tools (about 2 weeks)
 A small project assigned by the faculty to provide a basis for learning the design tools (about 4
weeks)
 A small project in reverse engineering (about 3 weeks)
 A main design project for a real / role-play client (about 6 weeks)
This seems to be working well but the main challenge again is the load on the Faculty.
 Despite the challenges, a design project in first year is becoming increasingly popular as the
advantages are considered to be very significant by all the stake holders.
 Major advantages:

o Enhances student interest in engineering.

o Motivates better learning in higher semesters.
o Leads to better performance in the final-year project.

Design in Second and Third Years

 Student engagement with design in final year is quite traditional.

 Student engagement with design in first year is being introduced in increasing number of
institutes.
 Some institutes are experimenting with a Design project even in Second Year and / or Third Year.
 Advantages are clear but providing the necessary resources can be quite a challenge!
 Institutes need to experiment and decide on what is best for them!

Exercise

 Develop one engineering design problem for first year students and develop an instructional
strategy for it.
 Describe the instructional approaches implemented in your department for facilitating design
learning by your students.
Thank you for sharing the results of the exercises at nate.iiscta@gmail.com

M3 U6 Outcome

 Understand instruction for Metacognitive learning.

NATE-Module 3-Week 9 N J Rao & K Rajanikanth 22