PHYSICS PRINCIPLES AT WORI(

A. W. BARCLAY
J. A. GIBBONS
Lecturers in Physics,
Moray House College of Education, Edinburgh

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BP educational service ~

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FOREWORD
'Physics Principles at Work' is a completely revised edition of 'Physics at
Work', a teachers' handbook developed in collaboration with the
Association for Science Education and first published in 1980. The 36
units in this book are based on work originally undertaken by physics
teachers at various BP centres. The authors have researched a number of
projects and structured them into free-standing units which demonstrate
applications of those physics principles identified in school syllabuses.

This publication has been written specifically to support Scottish physics

syllabuses but will prove a valuable resource for the many courses which
cover applications of physics principles. The oil and petrochemicals
industries provide the context, but the practices described apply in a wide
range of industries.

Andrew Barclay and Arthur Gibbons are lecturers in physics at Moray

House College of Education, and examiners in the Certificate of Sixth
Year Studies Physics with the Scottish Examination Board. They have
brought considerable teaching experience to this project and have
ensured that technically complex systems are explained in clear and
simple terms.

This publication is an important addition to the range of resources

produced by BP Educational Service and makes a timely contribition to
the current demand for more understanding of the application of physics
principles in industry.

We acknowledge with gratitude the interest and diligence shown by the

authors and the technical staff of BP Companies in the development of
this project.
INTRODUCTION
Physics can be defined as a branch of science concerned with
discovering the rules, relationships and patterns which will enable us to
account for the behaviour of nature. Through the ages, from Archimedes
to Einstein, man has attempted to establish principles, theories and laws
which will summarise and explain nature's behaviour.

Physics is a dynamic study of nature. Laws set up to explain natural

phenomena are continually being challenged and changed, and are
always open to doubt and question in the search for deeper
understanding. Too often physics is seen as a kind of applied
mathematics-the manipulation of sets of rules which originate from the
pages of text books. All that is demanded of students is the rote learning
of facts and principles- information acquired for the sake of acquiring
information. For most the only application of these rules, facts and
principles is in the solution of problems set for a school or national
examination.

In reality, the statements or principles derived from our interaction with

nature can be applied in the solution of many of life's problems - in
particular the technical problems facing today's industries as we work to
increase our material well-being and the quality of life. Using examples
from the oil industry this publication explains how industrial problems are
solved by the application of physics principles which can be derived and
tested in the school physics laboratory. The handbook has been designed
to support one of the main aims of the Scottish Physics Syllabus,
namely-

'To help pupils develop an understanding of some of the

applications of physics that enable man to increase his material
well-being.'

The handbook comprises 36 'Units', each of which deals with a particular

industrial problem. Details are given of the physics principles used in
solving the problem. The industrial practice (i.e how these principles are
applied) is described, and suggestions are given for school practical work
which will reinforce pupil understanding of the physics principles at work.

The units have been broadly classified into four sections covering
electricity and magnetism, heat, pressure and fluids, and mechanics.
Although intended primarily as a teacher resource the free standing units
in this publication have been designed for ease of copying and can serve
as pupil handouts.

J. A. Gibbons

A.W.Barciay
CONTENTS
Page

SECTION A-ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 7

Unit 1- Measurement of Fluid Flow 8
Unit 2 - A Magnetic Metering Method 10
Unit 3- Flow Measurement - Conducting Fluids 12
Unit 4- Measuring Varying Flow Rates in Opaque Liquids 16
Unit 5- Pressure in Flow Systems 19
Unit 6- Measuring Liquid Levels 22
Unit 7 - An Explosimeter 25
Unit 8 - The Corrosometer 27
Unit 9- Flame Detection 29
Unit 10- A Smoke Detection System 32
Unit 11- Vibration Monitoring 34
Unit 12- Large Electric Currents in Electrolysis 38
Unit 13- Fault Protection in High Voltage Cables 41
Unit 14- Measurement of Large Currents 46
Unit 15- Static Electricity 48
Unit 16- Handling Large Currents 51
Unit 17-D.C. from A.C. 53

SECTION 8-HEAT 55
Unit 18- Local Measurements of Temperature and Pressure 56
Unit 19-Control Through Transducers 58
Unit 20- Measurement of Temperature at a Distance 60
Unit 21- Preventing Explosions 62
Unit 22 - Conduction: Heat Loss 64
Unit 23- Gas Analysis 66
Unit 24- Expansion 69

SECTION C-PRESSURE AND FLUID FLOW 71

Unit 25- Gases as Liquids 72
Unit 26- Controlling Fluid Flow 74
Unit 27 - Calibrating a Flowmeter 76
Unit 28- Flow of Transparent Fluids 78
Unit 29 - Differential Pressu re Metering 80
Unit 30-A Vortex Meter 84

SECTION D-MECHANICS 87
Unit 31 - Plumbing the Depths - Part I 88
Unit 32- Plumbing the Depths- Part 2 91
Unit 33- Plumbing the Depths- Part 3 93
Unit 34- Tank Full Indicator 95
Unit 35- A Current to Pressure Converter 97
Unit 36- Mass Measurement 99
 SECTION A '

ELECTRICITY
AND
MAGNETISM
Unit 1-Measurement of fluid flow
PROBLEM

Crude oil is pumped through pipelines to refineries. It is obviously

important to know exactly how much oil is arriving from individual
oilfields. Meters measure the rate of flow and hence the total
volume of oil arriving at the refinery. With tax payments running
into millions, an accurate method of measuring flow rate is
needed; a 1% margin of error could be very costly.

Figure 1 The refinery at Grangemouth. Every day over 400,000 barrels of oil are pumped here from
the North Sea \7.5 barrels is approximately equal to 1 tonne).

PRINCIPLE

In 1831, Michael Faraday demonstrated that electricity could be produced

by magnetism. If a magnet is moved in and out of a circuit comprising a
coil of wire and a galvanometer a current is detected by the
galvanometer. An e.m.f. has therefore been induced in the circuit.

Only when there is relative movement between magnet and circuit do we

get an induced current. The effect is increased if a coil of many turns is
used. The coil (Figure 2) requires to be in a changing magnetic field Figure 2
before an e.m.f. is induced.

The following principle is derived from Michael Faraday's discovery:

'An e.m.f. will be induced in a circuit, e.g. a coil, if the coil is placed in a
changing magnetic field.'

PRACTICE

A turbine is situated in an oil pipe as shown in Figure 3. As the oil flows,

it pushes on the vanes of the turbine causing it to rotate. The turbine

Figure 3
8
itself is made of a non-magnetic material and small magnets are Leads to

embedded in its rim (Figure 4). A detector coil will sense the changing
magnetic field as each magnet passes by, and a voltage signal will be
induced in the detector coil.

A typical turbine might have about 25 magnets in its rim, so that in one
complete revolution 25 voltage pulses would be induced in the coil. One
complete rotation of the turbine corresponds to a certain volume of oil
passing the turbine. This volume can be measured. (See Unit 27-
'Calibrating a flowmeter'.)
Oil Flow
The voltage signals (Figure 5a) induced in the coil are converted into
Figure 4
square wave pulses (Figure 5b) which can be counted.

P R
Voltage signal in detector coil Voltage

\JA \In~ Time DnUD. Time

Figure 5a Figure 5b

It is now possible to count e.rch pulse and relate this to the volume of oil
passing along the pipe. Alternatively the number of pulses per second
would correspond to a particular flow rate of oil in litres per second.
Rates of flow ranging between 120 x 103 and 1130 x 103 litres per hour can
be measured by a flowmeter 20 cm in diameter.

PRACTICAL

A laboratory analogue of the application of the principle is shown in

Figure 6.

C.R.O.
Y-plates

Figure 6

Small ticonal magnets can be attached to a non-magnetic wheel. The

wheel is driven by hand and a 5000-turn coil with a C-core is used to
detect the changing magnetic field. The output voltage can be displayed
on a cathode ray oscilloscope.

9
Unit 2-A magnetic metering
method
PROBLEM

Comparison of the rate of flow of oil out of an oil field and into a
terminal or refinery indicates whether a leak has occurred in the
pipeline system. Accurate measurement of the volume of oil
arriving at a terminal is therefore an important environmental
safeguard.

PRINCIPLE

Michael Faraday showed that if the magnetic field threading a circuit

changed, then an e.m.f. would be induced in that circuit.

The magnetic field pattern (or flux) from a magnet (Figure 1) can be
changed by bringing a piece of magnetic material such as iron up to the
magnet. This has the effect of changing the magnetic field pattern and
concentrating the magnetic flux in the region of the iron (Figure 2).

Field due to bar magnet alone

Magnetic field with soft iron near magnet

Magnet

Figure 1 Figure 2

This means that if a coil (Figure 3) is placed around or near a permanent

magnet and a piece of soft iron is brought near, the magnetic field or flux
threading the coil will change and an e.m.f. will be induced in it.

Magnetic field with soft iron near magnet

Magnet

Figure 3

10
 Permanent
magnet

Coil

Cone-shaped
"'I:::::~.....t-=~- pole piece

Ferromagnetic
buttons

Oil flow

Figure 4

PRACTICE

A coil is wound around a permanent magnet with a cone-shaped pole

piece (Figure 4), A turbine made of a non-magnetic material has a
number of small buttons of ferromagnetic material (e.g. iron) embedded
in its rim. As the turbine rotates due to the oil flow, each button passes
the pole piece of the magnet and the magnetic field or flux threading
through the coil changes. This means an e.m.f. or voltage pulse is
generated in the coil with the passage of each button.

It is possible to count each pulse and relate this to the volume of oil
passing along the pipe. Flowmeters at the field can monitor flow from the
field and others at the terminal can measure the flow arriving. Differences
in the readings may indicate a leak in the pipeline system.

Figure 5

The use of flowmeters of this type (Figure 5) is widespread - from the

monitoring of the filling of beer kegs to the loading of fuel for ships.

PRACTICAL

A laboratory analogue of this method of magnetic metering (Figure 6) can

be achieved by inserting a strong bar magnet through the centre of a
1200-turn coil and mounting the coil near a rotating spoked device, which
simulates the action of the turbine.

Suitable 'turbines' include a turntable with nails embedded in the rim or a

piece of tinplate with toothed vanes. The output from the coil can be
connected to a C. R. o. Some preamplification may be necessary C.R.D.
depending on the sensitivity of the oscilloscope.
Figure 6

11
Unit 3-Flow measurement-
conducting fluids
PROBLEM

It is important to know exactly how much fluid is flowing through

the many pipes at a refinery or chemical plant. A variety of
flowmeters (e.g. turbine, pressure difference, float) may be used to
measure the fluid flow rate in a particular pipe. However, many of
these involve inserting a device into the pipe, creating an
obstruction which can impede the flow. Accurate fluid flow
measurement requires minimum obstruction to flow.

Figure 1 The maze of pipes and towers typical of any refinery or chemical plant.

PRINCIPLES

(i) Faraday's Law of electromagnetic induction

Faraday's Law tells us that whenever a conductor moves at right angles
to a magnetic field there is an induced voltage across the length of the
conductor. This induced e.m.f. is directly proportional to the speed of the
conductor, if the magnetic field being cut is constant.

A conducting fluid flowing along a pipe with speed v, through a field of

magnetic induction B and a pipe of diameter 1, provides an e.m.f. e,
given by the expression

e= Blv
The velocity, which is linearly related to the induced e.m.f., can therefore
be determined and hence the volume flow of conducting fluid in the pipe
can be found (Figure 2).
12
 Magnetic field B
(provided by two coils)

e >

Figure 2

(ii) Production of a uniform magnetic field

Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894) was a very versatile German
scientist who was expert in mathematics, physics, physiology and
anatomy. He developed an arrangement of coils which produces a good
approximation to a uniform magnetic field. A pair of coils is placed a
distance apart equal to the radius of the coils. In the region between the
coils, the rate at which the magnetic field due to the current in one coil is
falling off with increasing distance from that coil is compensated for by
the rate at which the magnetic effect, due to the same current in the
other coil, is increasing as the distance from it decreases (Figure 3).

Helmholtz coils

Figure 3

PRACTICE

The magnetic field for the detector is provided by field coils which
operate using stepped down mains a.c. The induced e.m.f. is thus
alternating. The field coils are not simple coils as they are designed to fit
13
the cylindrical pipe as shown in Figure 4. (They are similar in shape to the
coils controlling the electron beam in a household TV tube.) The
effectiveness of the field is enhanced by the use of an iron collar which
forms a magnetic circuit.
Non-maqnetic
Another type of system uses shaped iron pole-pieces which are stainless steel
magnetically energised using a field coil (Figure 5).

Figure 4

Figure 5

In either system, the pipe close to the measuring device must be

non-magnetic and the shape of the electrodes and coil design are very
important. The use of a.c. avoids the presence of thermoelectric and
electrochemical voltages which affect the measured value of the induced
e.m.f. This is important as the size of the voltage which is induced
between the measuring electrodes is small (about 1 mv). particularly
when the conducting fluid is flowing slowly. The percentage accuracy of
recorded rates increases with the speed of flow (Figure 6).

Accuracy curve

+ I'

5
4
3
2
•~r'e~. l_
1
Error
0
%
1
~~
2
jJ" Cumulative worst case
3 errors for supply voltage
~
4 variation ± and
frequency variation ± 1Hz
5
1<

o 3 6 9 m/s
Converter full scale velocity setting

Figure 6

14
Because the detectors have to be set up with great care, it is
recommended that 24 hours be taken to achieve a particular
performance. This is no hardship in an industry which operates
round-the-clock.

Magnetic fields of approximately 1 x 10-2T are produced using currents of

about 1 A in the 1,000 or so turns of the coils. The conductivities of the
liquids are typically about 50 x 10-4 ohm-1 m-1. (Engineers sometimes
refer to this unit of conductivity as mhos per metre). The liquid has to be
sufficiently conducting to allow enough current to operate the voltage
detectors.

The above method of measuring the induced e.m.f. has been

successfully applied to the measurement of flow in the human body
where blood acts as the conducting fluid.

PRACTICAL

In the school laboratory Helmholtz coils are often used to produce a

uniform magnetic field for use with discharge tubes of various types.

The effect of the magnetic field on the movement of electrons through

the tube may be examined using a Teltron tube (Figure 7) which includes
a special fluorescent screen. The screen glows on being hit by fast
moving electrons thus giving an indication of their position.

Figure 7 A T eltron Demonstration Tube.

Reproduced by kind permission of Philip Harris Ltd

15
Unit 4-Measuring varying flow
rates in opaque liquids
PROBLEMS

A glass-tube Rotameter flowmeter consists of a float inside a

tapered glass tube (Figure 1). The unit is installed vertically. It is
then possible to read-off the flow rate of transparent fluids by
looking directly at the indicator float. There are, however, three
problems that may occur with a glass-tube Rotameter.

(i) if the liquid is opaque, the float cannot be seen;

Weight

i
(ij) if movement of the float is small, readings will be difficult to
take;
Flow
(iii) if the flow is turbulent it will be difficult to take accurate direction
readings.
Figure 1
PRINCIPLES

(i) Unlike magnetic poles attract. When magnet 1 moves vertically,

magnet 2 experiences a force which tends to make it follow the
movement of the first magnet (Figure 2).

n n I
Figure 2

(ii) A lever mechanism may act as a distance multiplier (Figure 3). A

small movement of a detector such as magnet M may be used to
produce a larger movement of an indicator I. Figure 3 represents a lever
balanced about the pivot point P. Distance IP is three times the distance
M P. When the point M moves up or down the corresponding movement
of the indicator I is three times as big.

T
M

Figure 3

16
(iii) A conductor which is made to move through a magnetic field has an
e.m.f. induced in it. Michael Faraday (in London) discovered this effect of
electromagnetic induction in 1831. It was only three years later that the
physicist Heinrich Lenz (who was born in one of the Baltic provinces)
formulated the abstract generalisation that the induced effect acts in such
a way as to oppose the change that is causing it.

The vane at 0 in Figure 3 may be made of a conductor. If it moves

between the poles of a permanent magnet a current is induced in the
conductor. The magnetic field of this induced current interacts with the
field of the magnet causing resistance to the movement. The faster the
movement the greater the opposition to movement.

The magnetic effect of a magnet falls off rapidly with distance from the
magnet. This means that two separate magnetically operated systems
can be used provided the magnets are reasonably far apart and the
linking components are made of non-magnetic material.

PRACTICE

The magnetically-coupled indicator mechanism of a Rotameter flowmeter

is shown schematically in Figure 4. It makes use of each of the principles
mentioned above.

Figure 4

The float is designed to be self-guiding and is positioned so that the float

head is inside the tapered section of tubing. The float rises to the position
of equilibrium at which its weight is balanced by the net upwards force of
the flowing liquid. The height the float is raised is a measure of the rate
of flow of the liquid. The float contains a vertical cylindrical permanent
magnet which attracts the horizontal follower magnet attached to the
pointer.
17
The pointer moves over a scale plate and gives a direct indication of the
flow rate. The body of the tube, float and tapered tube are made of
non-magnetic material (usually high grade stainless steel).

Care has to be taken with systems involving newly erected steel pipework
as this can contain some metallic grit and filings. This swarf should be
removed by blowing or flushing before the flowmeter is connected,
otherwise clogging can result from the iron particles being attracted by
the float magnet.

This type of instrument is used not only in the oil industry but also to
monitor the flow of such dark fluids as raw beet sugar juice.

The calibration of the instrument is accurate to about ± 2%.

The designer of a purpose-built instrument takes into consideration the
following information:
1. maximum and minimum flow rates to be measured
2. fluid being used and its density and viscosity
3. working temperature of the fluid
4. working pressures and maximum possible pressure which may occur
5. preferred size of pipe and connections
6. possible corrosion problems.

Likewise in the laboratory, it is good practice to consider the range of the

different variables involved when designing experimental procedures.

PRACTICAL

(a) Attach a small ticonal magnet at the end of a drinking straw. Push a
pin through the straw a few centimetres from the magnet and arrange
the pin to act as a pivot. Use a screw in the other end of the straw to
counterbalance the magnet. Note how the straw changes position as a
result of small movements of another magnet. Alternatively, set up a
current balance kit as in Figure 5.

Scale

Coil of wire
(20 turns)

Figure 5

(b) Suspend on a piece of cotton or nylon an aluminium ring between the

poles of a strong magnet. (Magnadur magnets mounted on a C-core are
suitable.) Set the ring spinning. Observe its rotation. Remove the magnet
and set the ring spinning again. Note the different rates of spinning.

18
Unit 5-Pressure in flow systems
PROBLEM

When oil flows through a pipeline there are differences in pressure

within the system. The pipes must be strong enough to withstand
the forces involved. Even greater forces act on the pipes when the
rate of flow changes or when the flow is stopped. It is important
to be able to measure these pressure differences throughout the
system.

It is more convenient if the pressure measurement is converted

into an electrical signal which can be transmitted some distance to
a central control room where the pressure at different parts of the
plant may be checked. In general, the output from the transducer
should be designed to be directly proportional to the change in the
pressure.

PRINCIPLES

(i) Force is equal to rate of change of momentum .

.:lm v
F=--
t
F = force (N) m = mass (kg) v=speed (rn S-l) t = time (s)

Consider stopping 1 tonne (i.e 1000 kg) of oil moving at 2.0 m S-l. If this
is stopped in one second then the force required is given by

1000 x 2
---=2000N

Assuming the area of the closing shutter is approximately 0.01 rn- the
pressure involved is about 2 x 105 N m-2 i.e. 2 atmospheres.
(ii) A coil of wire wound on a cylindrical former and carrying a current
produces a magnetic field similar to that of a bar magnet whose length is
approximately the same as the length of the coil. The effective length of
the magnet is increased if a soft iron core extends on both sides of the
coil as in Figure 1. With soft iron, which is easily demagnetised and
remagnetised, the polarity of the induced magnetism due to an
alternating current in the coil follows the phase of the input voltage.

Soft iron core

Coil

Figure 1 Figure 2

(iii) Suppose another similar coil is wound round the soft iron core and
coil A is supplied with an alternating e.m.f. An induced e.m.f. is
produced across the second coil whenever the current in the first coil
changes (Figure 2). The size of the induced e.m.f. is controlled by the
effectiveness of the magnetic linkage between the two coils.
19
PRACTICE·

A common pressure measuring instrument is the Bourdon gauge. It

consists, basically, of a hollow tube in the form of a loop closed at one
end (Figure 3). If the pressure inside the loop increases the loop tends to
open out and this movement may be detected from the motion of the
end of the tube. Using a system of levers it is possible to magnify a small
movement to make it visible locally. Conversion to an electrical signal
allows monitoring to take place from a distance.

Figure 3

As the core is displaced by movement of the end of the tube, the

magnetic linkage between the primary and the secondary coil is changed.
The position of the coils is chosen so as to produce a change in induced
voltage which varies directly with the movement of the core (Figure 4a).

Secondary output
voltage proportional
to core position

Pressure
impulse
line
Input vo tage to
primary coil

Figure 4a

In some systems subsidiary secondary coils are used to allow for any
misalignment of the core and windings. These coils are wound in series
20
opposition which results in a cancelling out of the misaligning effects
(Figure 4b).

Primary t-------1~ R2
"""---,--'-----,--- .•..•

Main wiring

Figure 4b

PRACTICAL

Two coils should be arranged around the same iron core.

The output terminals of the secondary coil can be connected to the

Y-plate input of a cathode ray oscilloscope.

A variety of signals may be applied to the input terminals of the primary

coil.

Examine the variation of the output as the iron core is moved in and out
of the coils.

Iron core

Output

Figure 5

21
Unit 6-Measuring liquid levels
PROBLEM

The levels of oil, petrol and other liquids in containers and pressure
vessels must be accurately known and controlled if the chemical
processes of the oil refinery are to be carried out efficiently. In the
oil and petrochemical industry, level indicators need to be sensitive
and carefully designed so that there is no danger of sparking or
heat production in a potentially explosive atmosphere.

PRINCIPLE

In 1819 Hans Oersted showed that a current-carrying conductor produced

a magnetic field and in 1831 Michael Faraday demonstrated that the
converse was also true - magnetism can produce electrical effects.

If two circuits are placed close to one another (Figure 1), then a changing
current in one of these circuits (the primary) will give rise to a changing
magnetic field which will cause a current to be induced in the other
circuit (the secondary).

Alternating current supply

Primary coil

Figure 1

Two of the principles involved in electromagnetic induction then are:

(i) a changing or alternating current in a primary circuit gives rise to a
changing magnetic field which will induce an e.m.f. in a secondary
circuit.
(ii) the size of the e.m.f. induced in the secondary circuit is affected by
the nature (the permeability) of the medium linking the two circuits.
Iron for example has a greater permeability than air. This means that if an
iron core links the two circuits it will have the effect of confining the
changing magnetic field to the immediate vicinity of the primary and
secondary circuits. The concentration of the field around the secondary
circuit gives rise to a much greater induced e.m.f.
22
PRACTICE

A current in the primary coil produces a changing magnetic field which

induces a voltage in the two secondary coils A and B (Figure 2). The
position of the iron core between the primary and secondary coils can be
adjusted by means of a zero-adjustment screw which varies the extension
of a spring attached to the iron core.

Lever

screw

Primary
coil

Supply voltage

Figure 2

The windings on the secondary coils are such that the e.m.f.s induced in
them are in opposition to one another.

The zero-adjustment screw allows the iron core to be positioned so that

there is no net e.m.f., and hence no current, from the secondary coils.
This position should correspond to the liquid at the correct level in the
container.

In the simplified diagram (Figure 2) of the level control device, it can be

seen that as the liquid level changes, the movement of the float in the
liquid will cause the levers to move, which in turn causes a change in the
position of the iron core between the primary coil and the two secondary
coils.

As the liquid rises, the iron core moves and causes the magnetic field to
be more concentrated around the secondary coil B. This means the
e.m.f. induced in coil B is now greater than in coil A. There is now a net
e.m.f. in the secondary circuit which produces a current in the meter, the
size of the current being an indication of the change in level of the liquid.

Microprocessor control could be employed here. When the level of the

liquid changes, the voltage generated could be used to trigger a circuit
causing a valve to open and allow liquid to flow into the container. When
the voltage reaches a pre-set level the control circuitry would close the
valve again.
23
PRACTICAL

A laboratory demonstration of the application of the above principles is as

follows (Figure 3):

Beaker ol.wate;

Figure 3

A C.R.O. can be used to indicate the output voltage. The top C-core is
supported so that there is a small gap between the cores. Paper or card
can be inserted into the gap. The water level can be raised and the
variation in output observed.

24
Unit 7-An explosimeter
PROBLEM

In oil refining, the escape of flammable and potentially explosive

mixtures must obviously be controlled. Some way of measuring
the concentration of these combustible materials in the
atmospheric environment of the refinery is required.

PRINCIPLE

(i) Around the middle of the nineteenth century, Professor Charles

Wheatstone, an English physicist, made use of a network of resistors as
a very accurate way of measuring resistance. The network is referred to
as a 'Wheatstone Bridge' (See also Unit 8-'The corrosorneter).

If we apply Ohm's law to the Wheatstone bridge circuit (Figure 1) we can

deduce that when there is no current in the galvanometer

R P
S Q Figure 1

The bridge is said to be balanced in this condition.

(ii) The resistance of an electrical conductor varies with temperature. An

increase in temperature of the conductor produces an increase in its
resistance.

(iii) A variation in resistance of one of the resistors in the bridge - due

perhaps to a temperature change-will result in an out-of-balance bridge
and a current will be produced in the galvanometer (Figure 2).

Indeed it can be shown that, for a small change in the resistance of one Figure 2
of the arms of the bridge, the current in the galvanometer is proportional
to this change.

PRACTICE

An explosimeter is a device which will measure the concentration of

flammable materials in the atmosphere. Its operation depends on the
principles discussed above, i.e. it incorporates a Wheatstone bridge
arrangement and makes use of the variation in resistance with
temperatu re.

A sample of the atmosphere under test is drawn into the combustion

chamber using the aspirator bulb (Figure 3).

This sample passes over a heated filament which forms one of the arms
of a Wheatstone bridge. Any combustible material present in the sample
burns on the heated filament.

This has the effect of raising the temperature of the filament and so
increasing its resistance. The balance of the bridge is now upset, a
potential difference is set up across the galvanometer and a current is
produced in the galvanometer.

The size of the current is dependent on the magnitude of the change in

resistance of the filament which in turn depends upon the increase in
temperature of the filament and finally upon the concentration of
flammable material in the sample.
25
 Aspirator bulb

Figure 3 Figure 4 A portable explosimeter in use.

Before the flash photograph could be taken
the atmosphere had to be tested with the
PRACTICAL explosimeter.

A laboratory analogue of the device can be made up with a length of

nichrome wire (Figure 5) and some resistors to form a Wheatstone
bridge. The nichrome wire forming one of the arms of the bridge is
heated with a bunsen flame. The bridge is then thrown out-of-balance
and the current in the galvanometer indicates the presence of a
combustible gas.

Coil of
nichrome
wire""

Figure 5

26
Unit 8- The corrosometer
PROBLEM

At an oil refinery or chemical factory, corrosive liquids have to be

pumped through pipes. How much corrosion is taking place in the
pipes and when do they need replacing? It is not practicable to
look inside the pipes, so how can the amount of corrosion be
quantified?

PRINCIPLES

(i) Experiments show that the electrical resistance R of a given length of

material varies inversely with the cross-sectional area A of the material.

1
i.e. R a-
A

(ii) As a metal corrodes, the corroded layer on the surface of the metal
tends to flake off, reducing the cross-sectional area of the conducting
metal. The resistance of the material therefore increases.

(iii) A change in resistance can be detected by a Wheatstone bridge

arrangement. The Wheatstone bridge is a network of four resistors P, 0,
Rand S (Figure 1). When there is no current in the galvanometer, the
bridge is balanced and using Ohm's Law we can deduce that in this
condition

R P
S 0
(See also Unit 7-' An explosirneter)
Figure 1
PRACTICE

A piece of wire made from the material to be tested is bent into a

U shape (Figure 2). This piece of wire is called the' measuring element'.
The measuring element is connected to a probe as shown.

Reference element
sealed in the
probe

Figure 2

The probe contains another piece of wire of the same material as the
measuring element. This piece of wire is sealed into the probe and is
therefore not subject to corrosion. It is called the 'reference element'.

27
 Measuring
element

Variable resistor
with corrosion
dial

Figure 3

The probe containing the measuring and reference elements is connected

to a unit with two fixed resistors (Figure 3), and a galvanometer, to form
a Wheatstone bridge arrangement. Before the measuring element is
exposed to the corrosive environment a variable resistance is adjusted so
that there is no current in the galvanometer. The probe is then left in the
corrosive environment for a period of time and finally connected to the
meter unit to complete the Wheatstone bridge when a corrosion reading
is required. As corrosion proceeds, the resistance of the measuring
element increases, while that of the reference element remains constant.
This change in resistance of the measuring element upsets the balance of
the bridge and a current is produced in the galvanometer. The variable
resistor is now adjusted so that the meter reads zero again.

A scale is attached to the variable resistor and the extent of the corrosion
is read directly from th is scale.

Figure 4 A corrosometer probe and meter unit.

Reproduced by kind permission of Rohrback Instruments Ltd

PRACTICAL

Measure the resistance of three pieces of nichrome wire - same length,

different gauge. Measure the thickness of the wires with a micrometer.
Does the resistance of nichrome wire vary inversely with the
cross-sectional area of the wire?
28
Unit 9-Flame detection
PROBLEM

Furnaces in refineries are fuelled by either gas-air or oil-air

mixtures. Pilot burners need to be kept permanently lit to ignite
the main burners of the furnace. Some method of ensuring the
pilot flame is burning is required.

PRINCIPLES

(i) All hot bodies emit a spectrum of electromagnetic radiation. The

frequency range and intensity of the spectrum is dependent on the
temperature of the source emitting the radiation (Figure 1). The graph
shows the energy flow over a range of wavelengths from a red-hot poker
at 1000 K and an electric kettle at 400 K. Notice that only the poker
produces radiation in the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Energy radiated per

unit wavelength

400 700 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 A(nm)

V R

Figure 1

(ii) Experiments were carried out around the end of the nineteenth
century to observe the effect of electromagnetic radiation of different
frequencies on different metals. It was found that certain metals, e.g.
zinc, emitted electrons when illuminated with electromagnetic radiation of
a particular frequency. This emission of electrons stimulated by
electromagnetic radiation is known as the photoelectric effect. The
photoelectric emission occurs only at and above a certain threshold
frequency of electromagnetic radiation.

(iii) Accelerated photoelectrons can cause ionisation of a gas. A voltage

is applied to a gas tube with an anode and a photoemissive cathode
(Figure 2). If electromagnetic radiation above the threshold frequency is
directed at the cathode, photoelectrons are released. The photoelectrons
are accelerated in the electric field between the anode and the cathode. Photoemission Gas ionisation
Collisions between the accelerated photoelectrons and the atoms of the
gas produce ionisation of the gas in the tube. The ions are moved in the
electric field producing more ionisation and a current is set up in the
Figure 2
tube.
29
PRACTICE

A gas-filled photoemissive tube, e.g. the Mullard 155 U.G , is specially

designed for use as a flame failure device.

Frequencies in the ultra-violet part of the electromagnetic spectrum will

produce photoelectrons from the cathode of the tube. Ionisation of the
gas will occur and a current will be set up in the tube.
The gas flames from the pilot burner in a furnace emit ultra-violet
radiation, as do the flames of the burning fuel oil. The frequency range of
the radiation from these sources extends above the threshold for
photoemission.

The other source of radiation within the furnace is the firebricks which
line the furnace walls. However, these hot bricks produce radiation only
in the visible and infra-red part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The
frequency of this radiation lies below the threshold for photoemission.

Energy radiated

Oil
flame

Bricks at
1900 K

Bricks at
900 K

Gas flame
of pilot
burner

400 800 1200 A(nm)

Figure 3

The graph (Figure 3) shows the energy flow from the sources within the
furnace over a range of wavelengths. Thus the photoemissive cell
responds only to the radiation from the pilot flame and the main fuel
burners.

Electronic circuitry is designed to respond to any interruption in the

current from the photoemissive cell. Such circuits can be used to operate
valves to cut off the main fuel supply to the main burners and provide a
'flame out signal' in the furnace control room.

PRACTICAL

A laboratory analogue of the industrial practice can be set up using the

circuits shown.

Circuit 1 was devised by M ullard to provide an output voltage Va when

ultra-violet radiation is directed at the cathode of the 155 U.G. tube. For
reasons of safety, Mullard advise that only their recommended circuits be
used with the 155 U. G. tube.

30
Circuit 1

•
BYX 10
BYX 10
155 U G

220 V C1 12nF
Va

12nF

When Mullard's circuit is assembled for school use, an isolating

transformer with a 1 : 1 ratio is connected between the mains and the
circuit. 'Locktronics' components can be used to assemble the circuit.

Instead of merely measuring the value of the output voltage (Vo) for
various illumination conditions, this voltage can be applied to the input of
Circuit 2.

Circuit 2
+6 V

6V,0.06A

T
Vo (from
circuit 1)

1 OV

In Circuit 2, transistor Tr- serves to match the high impedance output of

Circuit 1 with the low impedance input of transistor Tr2.

When ultra-violet radiation is directed at the cathode of the 155 U. G. it

conducts and a positive voltage is applied to the base of Tr. Then as Tr,
conducts, the voltage across VR1 rises, i.e. becomes more positive, and
so Tr2 starts to conduct. A voltage drop is then produced across R2and
so the voltage applied to the base of Tr3 falls, i.e. becomes less positive,
and so Tr3 is not conducting and the lamp is kept off. Interruption of the
radiation to the tube stops Tr conducting. The voltage at the base of Tr2
falls and Tr2 ceases to conduct. This makes the voltage at the base of Tr3
rise- it now conducts and the lamp comes on. Thus Circuit 2 acts as a
flame failure indicator.

V R1 acts as a sensitivity control. Th rough adjustments to V R1, Circuits 1

and 2 can be made to respond to the ultra-violet radiation from a bunsen
flame.

31
Unit 10-A smoke detection
system
PROBLEM

In order to derive the maximum amount of heat energy from

burning fuels, an optimum ratio of fuel to air is necessary.

If this optimum ratio is not achieved, inefficient burning will cause

pollution and waste fuel.

For statutory control of pollution, and for thermal efficiency, it is

important to be able to determine immediately when an excess of
sooty smoke is being produced during combustion.

PRINCIPLES

Three principles are involved in the solution of this problem:

(i) light is scattered and reflected by small particles (e.g. soot) in the air.
The shorter wavelength light is scattered most.

(ii) certain metals, e.g. caesium, when illuminated with visible radiation,
produce photoelectrons.

(iii) the number of photoelectrons produced every second is dependent

on the intensity of the light falling on the metal.

PRACTICE

A photocell with a cathode which will produce photoemission with visible

radiation is used. The photocell has a response mainly in the blue part of
the visible spectrum. Light is shone on to the photocathode of the cell.
The emission from the flue is introduced between the photocell and the
light source. The particles of smoke in the emission from the flue scatter
the blue light and reduce the intensity of the light falling on the photocell.
The use of a cell with a spectral response mainly in the blue part of the
visible spectrum makes the photocell very sensitive to the presence of
particles between the photocell and light source. A preset facility enables
an alarm to be set so that when the intensity of the illumination on the
photocathode drops below the preset level the alarm will operate and a
warning of excess smoke will be given.

Smoke

Smoke in the beam causes a

reduction in the light arriving at the receiver unit

Figure 1

32
PRACTICAL

A laboratory analogue of a smoke detector system can be demonstrated

using a Mullard 92AV photocell as follows:

Figure 2

The variable resistor VR1 is adjusted so that the photocell conducts for a
given illumination. When the photocell is conducting, the base of Tr. is at
a positive voltage with respect to its emitter and so Tr. conducts. The
voltage at the base of Tr2 becomes positive and it too starts to conduct.
When Tr2 conducts, this causes the voltage at the base of Tr3 to drop, so
that Tr3 is cut off and the lamp remains unlit. However, if the intensity of
the radiation falling on the photocathode is reduced, because of light
being scattered by smoke particles, Tr stops conducting. The voltage at
the base of Tr2 drops and it stops conducting. This causes the voltage at
the base of Tr3 to rise. It starts to conduct and the lamp lights. The
circuit thus acts as a smoke detector.

A photographic negative is prepared by photographing a painted 'grey

scale'. The negative is then positioned in front of the cathode of the
photocell. The demonstration is carried out in a darkened laboratory. A
tungsten filament lamp illuminates the cathode.

The variable resistor VR1 is adjusted until the lamp is on. The alarm is
now set for this level of greyness. The position of the lamp illuminating
the photocell may have to be adjusted. The grey scale is then moved
through the light beam to simulate varying densities of smoke. It is easy
to show how the alarm can be set to trigger when the 'smoke' achieves a
certain density.

33
Unit 11-Vibration monitoring
PROBLEM

The rotating shafts of turbine flowmeters and generators are

subject to wear and tear with the passage of time. Wear can cause
vibrations to be set up in the shafts. These vibrations may affect
the calibration of a flowmeter, and present a safety hazard. How
Field due to bar magnet alone
can we monitor the vibration of rotating shafts?

PRINCIPLES

(i) In 1831 Michael Faraday demonstrated that a changing magnetic field

in the vicinity of a coil causes an e.m.f. to be induced in that coil. There
are various ways of producing a changing magnetic field around a coil.
One way is to wind the coil round a magnet. There is now a magnetic
field threading the coil. However, this magnetic field in the vicinity of the
coil is not changing, and so no e.m.f. is induced in the coil (Figure 1).

Magnetic field with soft iron near magnet

Figure 1

Magnet

Figure 2
If a piece of soft iron (ferromagnetic material) is brought near (Figure 2),
then the field pattern in the vicinity of the coil changes. This change in
the magnetic field threading the coil causes an e.m.f. to be induced in it.

Removing the soft iron causes the field pattern around the coil to change
again and an e.m.f. is induced in the coil in the opposite direction. A
periodic movement of the soft iron near the magnet will induce a varying
e.m.f. of the same period in the coil.
(ii) (a) If an object undergoes two simultaneous displacements, the
resultant displacement is simply the vector sum of the individual
displacements.
i.e. If a particle is displaced horizontally by an amount given by dH and
vertically by an amount given by d., then the resultant displacement dR is
found by applying the rules of vector addition to dH and d, (Figure 3).
dv (vertical displacement) dv

dH (horizontal
displacement)

Figure 3

34
(b) If these simultaneous horizontal and vertical motions are periodic, the
same principle applies. The resultant displacement at any given time is
simply the vector sum of the horizontal and vertical displacement at that
time.
e.g. consider a particle whose horizontal and vertical displacements are
as shown in Figure 4 during successive equal time intervals:

dv
~

Figure 4

The position of the particle at the end of each of these time intervals can
be found by vector addition as shown in Figure 5:

Figure 5

This particle will have moved in a curved path during this time (Figure 6).

___________ by
Pathparticle
followed

Figure 6

The path traced out by the particle as a result of undergoing periodic

simultaneous displacements at right angles to one another is sometimes
referred to as a Lissajous figure.
35
PRACTICE

Rotating shafts can undergo horizontal and vertical vibrations. Two

electromagnets used as vibration probes are mounted near the rotating
shaft. One is mounted along the vertical axis of the shaft, the other along
the horizontal axis (Figure 7).

Figure 7

If the motion of the shaft is eccentric the gap between the probes and
the shaft changes. This means that the magnetic field threading the coil
of each electromagnet will vary as the shaft moves to and fro. An e.m.f.
will be induced in each of the coils.

The frequency of the induced e.m.f.s will correspond to the frequency of

the horizontal and vertical vibrations. If these varying induced voltages
are applied to the X and Y plates of the C. R. 0., with the time-base
switched off, the spot on the screen will be subjected to two
simultaneously varying displacements at right angles to each other. The
spot will then describe the resulting path produced by these two varying
displacements and a Lissajous figure will be described on the screen,
giving an indication of the orbit of the shaft.

When the displacement limits of the shaft are exceeded the voltages
produced in the probes can be used to trigger electronic circuits which
will sound an alarm.

In a typical installation every piece of rotating machinery has a frequency

profile taken when the machine is set up and thereafter fortnightly checks
are carried out to detect early stages of wear.

36
In turbine flowmeters (Figure 8) the pick-up coils which detect the pulses
produced by the rotating turbine can also be used to monitor the
amplitude of vibration of the turbine shaft.

Figure B A turbine flowmeter.

Reproduced by kind permission of the George Kent group.

PRACTICAL

The laboratory analogue of this industrial system can be demonstrated

using iron-cored 1200-turn coils connected to a 12V supply (Figure9).

C.R.D.

Ch 1 Ch 2

1--1
12 V
10 mV sensitivity

-
12 V I
I

Figure 9

A ferrous record deck (from an old Garrard RC75A) provides a suitable

'axle' to vibration monitor! The d.c. voltage across each coil is blocked
using the capacitor input of the C.R.O. so that only the varying voltage
as a result of the vibration is applied to Channel 1 and Channel 2 (the X
and Y plates). Some preamplification of these voltages may be
necessary. (A model 061a Telequipment C.R.O. with 10mV/cm
sensitivity is usefu I for th is demonstration).

37
Unit 12-Large electric currents in
electrolysis
PROBLEM

To meet the demands of to day's plastics manufacturing industry

vast quantities of the gas chlorine are produced by the electrolysis
of brine. For an annual requirement of 150,000 tonnes of chlorine,
approximately 5 kg have to be produced every second of a 24-hour
working day. This rate of production requires very large amounts
of electrical energy. Engineers have to cope with the problems of
heating associated with very large currents, or have to find ways
to avoid using such large currents.

PRINCIPLES

(i) Cells in Series (Figure 1):

+ + +

A
4V 4V 4V

12 V

Figure 1

When electrolytic cells are connected in series, the current in each cell is
the same. If there is a current of 1 A in the circuit then 1 C of charge
arrives at the anode of each electrolytic cell every second.

Three cells in series each with a current of 1 A involves the arrival at the
three anodes of a total of 3 C of charge per second. Thus a current of
1 A in three cells in series is able to produce the same anode effect as a
current of 3 A in one cell.

The supply voltage causing the current in the electrolytic cells has to be
at least as large as the sum of the potential differences across each
electrolytic cell when in operation. The number of electrolytic cells in
series may be increased in order to reduce the current necessary for a
given total rate of gas liberation at the anodes. However, the supply
voltage has to be increased correspondingly and high voltages require
special insulation arrangements for practical safety.

(ii) Resistance

where
heating:
The rate of heat production
i is the current
in a resistor
and R is the resistance.
is given by the expression
To minimise heat
i2R c-: -)
production, the resistance used with large currents must be very small.
The resistance depends upon the length 1, the cross-sectional area A,
and the material of the resistor.
s1
R=-
A
where R is in 0, 1 is in m, A is in m2 and s, the resistivity, is in 0 m Figure 2

38
In order to have a low resistance, a conductor should have a large
cross-sectional area and be made of material of low resistivity. Materials
with the lowest values of s, such as copper and silver, are expensive.

PRACTICE

A high voltage a.c. supply is transformed and rectified to produce a

variable 110 V to 240 V d.c. supply. With this supply, 48 brine cells with a
potential difference of 4 V across each electrolytic cell may be operated in
series (Figure 3). The current used to produce the large scale output of
chlorine (5 kg per second) is 300,000 A. The electricity fed to each cell
flows through copper bars connected to the titanium anode rods. The
material of the cathode is constantly moving as it consists of liquid
mercury which flows slowly along the bottom of the cell (Figure 4). The
mercury forms an amalgam with the sodium which is produced at the
cathode during the electrolysis. Tne mercury is recycled using a separate
reverse cell process which uses water to react with the sodium in the
amalgam to form sodium hydroxide and hydrogen.

Figure 3

Figure 4

The electrical connections at the anode and the cathode of each cell must
be very good, low resistance joints, to prevent large quantities of heat
being dissipated at these points. All the copper anode connecting bars
join up into 16 aluminium bars with a large cross-sectional area (Figure 5)
which are able to carry the large current (300,000 A) without much
energy loss. Aluminium is chosen because it is relatively inexpensive.
More than 100 m of each thick aluminium conductor are involved.
Copper, which is expensive, is used for the anode connecting bars to
enable cell shorting switches to be fitted in the limited space between the
cells. For chemical reasons, the even more expensive titanium has to be
used for the anodes.

In the electrolysis of brine, not only are sodium and chlorine produced,
but also some oxygen and hydrogen. Care must be taken to prevent an
anode making contact with a cathode, because of the risk of explosive
combustion of the hydrogen. Shorting only one cell using a special cell
shorting switch has little influence on the other 47 cells in series with it as
the electrical control system is designed to maintain a constant current. Figure 5

39
PRACTICAL

1. Two metal (e.g. copper) electrodes dipped in water, brine or some

other electrolyte, can be connected through an ammeter to a 6 V d.c.
supply. The current in the cell should be recorded for different
separations and sizes of electrode. The rate of liberation of gas at the
electrodes will be seen to vary according to the current in the cell
(Figure 6).

Figure 6

Be careful not to allow the two electrodes to touch, especially if the

power supply is not protected with a fuse or a cut-out mechanism.

2. Calculate the current needed to produce 1 kg of chlorine per second

from an electrochemical cell. You may assume that 1 C of charge
passing through the cell liberates 3.5 x 10-7 kg of chlorine.

40
Unit 13-Fault protection in high
voltage cables
PROBLEM
The processes of oil refining require large amounts of electrical
energy. Electricity is needed to drive fans, pumps and motors and
to provide lighting for the refinery.

Refineries can reduce their running costs by generating electricity

from their own power stations. The electrical energy is transmitted
at 33,000 V from the power station through underground cables to
the refinery. Because of the high voltage, these cables need to be
well insulated to guard against short-circuits. Cable insulation can
however break down.

Breakdown can be caused by moisture or chemicals, faulty manufacture

or mechanical damage resulting from excavation or subsidence. A
breakdown of the insulation would provide a route to earth for the
current in the cable. A massive short-circuit involving a current of
thousands of amperes could be produced. If the electrical system of the
plant were not protected against such a fault the large short-circuit Figure 1 The power station at
current would cause overheating of the cable and further damage to the Grangemouth.
insulation. In addition the supply generator would be overloaded, perhaps
causing total failure of the plant's electrical system.

In a simple electrical power system a fuse may be used to protect the

cables. However, in a complex system such as this, with a large number
of cables and the possibility of large fault currents, different types of fault
can occur which cannot be easily detected by fuses. In addition the large
fault current could cause more than one fuse to blow thereby isolating
healthy as well as faulty cables.

Figure 2

In the circuit shown (Figure 2), if a fault occurs in one cable it is isolated
and the power supply is maintained by the other cable. However, with
simple fuse protection, if a fault occurs at point X, the current through
fuses 1 and 2 will be the same. Therefore, both fuses will blow and the
supply to the load will be completely interrupted. A protective system is
required which will isolate only the faulty cable while maintaining the
supply to the healthy circuits.
41
PRINCIPLES Current-
carrying
Principles stated by George Simon Ohm, Hans Oersted, Michael Faraday conductor
and Gustav Kirchhoff provide the means to solve this problem.

(i) (a) Oersted observed that electricity produces a magnetic effect. A

current in a wire produces a magnetic field which can be detected with a
magnetic compass. (Figure 3).

(b) If the current-carrying wire is wound into a coil, a magnetic field

~ gPlotting
©
compasses
similar to that of a bar magnet is produced. A current-carrying coil or
solenoid acts as an electromagnet.

(ii) (a) The current in a circuit (Figure 4) is proportional to the potential

difference across that circuit provided the temperature remains constant.
This statement is known as Ohm's Law.
Figure 3

Figure 4

(b) Consider the following circuit (Figure 5) where two 1.5 V cells are
connected in series with two resistors of the same resistance.

A
~ ~
1.5 V 1.5 V

Figure 5

The current in each resistor is the same, and since they have the same
resistance, the potential difference across each is 1.5 V. Suppose the
electrical potential at A is assigned the value VA, then the electrical
potential at B, VB= VA+ potential difference across AB

VB=VA+l.5
Electrical potential at C, V c = VB+ potential difference across BC
=VB+(-1.5)
= (VA+ 1.5) + ( -1.5)
=VA
i.e. electrical potential at C is equal to electrical potential at A, and so the
potential difference across AC is zero.

42
This means that if a resistor is connected across AC (Figure 6), no
current will be produced in it since the potential difference across it is
zero (Ohm's Law).

Figure 6

(iii) In his first law describing the behaviour of electrical circuits, Gustav
Kirchhoff stated that the algebraic sum of the currents at any Junction of
the circuit is zero. Basically this is saying that what goes in must come i,
out!

For example in the circuit shown (Figure 7)

Kirchhoff's first law gives the result

Figure 7

PRACTICE

At Grangemouth refinery electrical energy is provided by a steam driven

turbine generator. The generator is connected to a transformer and
current is produced at 33 kV. The system in operation at Grangemouth is
similar to that in other refineries. An underground supply cable, 2.5 km in
length, carries current from the transformer to a substation which
distributes electrical energy to other parts of the refinery.

Alarm and relay system

Current
transformer

Supply

load

Figure 8

Current measuring devices are placed at either end of the supply cable
(Figure 8). These are called current transformers and are simply coils
wound rour.d the section of the cable to be protected. The changing
current in the cable produces a changing magnetic field which induces an
e.m.f. in the current transformer coils. These transformer coils are
connected via 'pilot wires' to an alarm and relay system.
43
In the supply circuit shown (Figure 9) the current transformers are
sensing the current entering and leaving the protected section of cable.
Under normal conditions il = bl and so there is no voltage developed
across the alarm system.

r
/
/
/
./

_k.
___ -- 13

Figure 9

However. if a fault occurs there is now a current to earth. In this

condition il = i2 + i3 where i3 is the current to earth. Th us i2< i1.

This means that the e.m.f. induced in each of the current transformers is
no longer the same and so a voltage is developed across the alarm and
relay system causing it to be activated. When the relay is activated by a
fault condition it causes a circuit breaker to be opened. Circuit breakers
are simply massive switches that are used to disconnect the faulty cable
from the supply. The circuit breaker uses a solenoid to close contacts so
that a circuit is made. When this solenoid is momentarily energised the
contacts are mechanically latched in the closed position and they remain
closed when the solenoid is de-energised. To open the contacts a second
solenoid is momentarily energised releasing the mechanical latch and
allowing the contacts to be opened by large springs.

It is the second solenoid that is energised during a fault condition.

Because of the high voltage the circuit breaker contacts have to be
insulated from each other and from earth and so they are surrounded by
an insulating medium of air. oil. vacuum or special gas. The insulating
medium also helps to quench the arc which occurs when the high voltage
contacts are opened. In the Grangemouth refinery the circuit breakers
have their contacts immersed in a bath of oil and are therefore called loil
circuit breakers'.

In this waYI then. a faulty circuit can be isolated. The electrical supply
will be automatically fed through other parallel cables. or alternatively the
circuit breaker of a back-up circuit will be closed to ensure that the
supply is maintained.

Electricity Generating Boards use a similar procedure to protect sections

of high voltage overhead power lines. Current transformers at either end
of the supply cable give an indication of an earth fault. British Telecom Figure 10 The open and closed contact
positions of a circuit breaker. The oil bath
telephone lines are sometimes used as the pilot wires for this protection
normally surrounding these has been
system. removed.

44
PRACTICAL

1. Using cells of the same e.m.f. connect up the circuit where Rl = R2

(Figure 11).

Figure 11

Measure the potential difference across R3 and the current in it.

2. A laboratory analogue of the system could be set up as follows (Figure 12).

Protected section

Figure 12

(a) The protected section, i.e. the underground cable, could be

represented by a bare copper wire insulated from earth.

(b) In the power station system the underground cable itself serves as
the primary coil. However, in the school laboratory we are dealing with
very much smaller currents, and so 1200 turn coils are connected in
series with the protected section. The secondary coils have 2400 turns.
The coils are mounted on C-cores clipped together.

(c) The alarm system comprises a full wave rectifier, a relay and a 12 v
lamp. The turns ratio on the transformer is chosen to provide the
necessary current to operate the relay. When the protected section is
earthed, a potential difference is set up across the rectifier. The relay is
energised, the lamp circuit is completed, and the lamp comes on,
indicating a fault.

45
Unit 14-Measurement of large
currents
PROBLEM

A current as big as 300,000 A requires conductors with a very large

cross-sectional area. The magnetic field around these conductors is
very intense. Even at a distance of a metre from the conducting
bars the magnetic induction is similar in strength to that between
the poles of a large demonstration magnet.

This strong magnetic field can cause a number of problems for

engineers working in chemical plants, including the possible
magnetisation of their watches. Moving coil ammeters make use
of the magnetic field of a permanent magnet and do not function
properly in the strong external magnetic field. Thus it is not always
possible to find a suitable ammeter to measure a really large
electric current. When a cathode ray oscilloscope is used in such a
strong field the beam of electrons does not hit the screen and
produce the usual trace.

PRINCIPLES

(i) In 1879 E. H. Hall devised an experiment which allows the sign of the
charge carriers in a conductor to be identified. The Hall voltage EHwhich
is developed across a current-carrying strip, is dependent upon the
magnetic induction B at right angles to the strip, and is given by the
expression

I
EH=---B
nAe

i = current in strip A = cross-sectional area

n = number of charge carriers per unit volume e = electronic charge

(ii) The value of the magnetic field at points around a current-carrying

conductor is directly proportional to the current in the conductor. Thus
the voltage measured using a Hall probe near a large current can be used
to give an indication of the value of the current. Changes in the Hall
voltage allow changes in the current to be detected. Sensitivity to change
may be improved if a null method is developed.
(iii) The magnetising effectiveness of a small current may be increased by ~[ Halistrip
winding the conductor in the form of a coil. 80,000 turns of wire with a
current of 1 A have a similar magnetising effect to that of 1 turn with a
current of 80,000 A.

_ - Conductor +- =
+
PRACTICE
I

~/r."~
In Figure 1 a circuit of magnetic material is arranged around the Magnetic
Opposing field coils t-- material
conductor. The conductor with its large current magnetises the material
causing a strong magnetic field in the gaps in the circuit. A potential
difference is developed across the Hall strip placed in one of these gaps
when there is a small current through the strip. A current in a coil
wrapped around the magnetic material close to the gap may be used to --- Variable supply

produce a field opposing the field caused by the large current in the Figure 1
conductor. This reduction in the total field causes the Hall voltage to be

46
nullified and allows the magnetic effects in the material to be kept well
below saturation. (Saturation of the magnetic effect would prevent any
increase in the current being detected.) It also allows the Hall voltage
which is produced to be kept within a well-calibrated part of the
response. By using 4 coils and 4 Hall strips in a symmetrical arrangement,
it is possible, by careful integration of the 4 Hall voltages produced, to
monitor the massive current in the central conductor without electrical
contact with it. The instrumentation which could be upset by the strong
magnetic field is kept well away from the Hall strips which supply the
voltage information.

Special care should be taken when moving any magnetic materials, such
as the iron grids used as walkway sections. If large iron grids are being
moved near a large current-carrying conductor they may accelerate
rapidly and collide. Operators learn to use indirect means of handling
such metal objects. It is also unwise to allow conductive iron grids near
to d.c. busbars as short-circuiting could occur resulting in a dangerously
high current.

PRACTICAL

Amplifier Meter

Figure 2

A coil of 60 or 120 turns should be arranged on one half of a double

C-core. Figure 2 illustrates the arrangement. A Hall probe can be placed
in the gap Y between the two C-cores. The reading on the meter linked
with the Hall voltage amplifier depends upon the magnetic field in the air
gap between the C-cores.

A series of readings can be taken for different values of direct current in

the coil. A graph of the Hall voltage reading plotted against the coil
current will indicate how the magnetic field in the gap varies with the
current. Best results are likely to be obtained with the cores in good
contact at X.

Care should be taken to ensure that the Hall probe is not damaged as a
result of the strong attractive forces between the C-cores.

47
Unit 15-Static electricity
PROBLEM

You will often hear a crackling noise or even see a spark when
pulling off a jumper, a nylon shirt or nylon blouse, especially in dry
weather. The sparks in that situation are not dangerous. In the oil
industry, sparks can be produced during the process of pumping
oil, petrol or a similar liquid from one container to another. It is
important to anticipate potential causes of sparks in a chemical
plant and design ways to eliminate them.

PRINCIPLES

(i) Friction causes negatively-charged electrons to be rubbed off one

material onto another. After being rubbed together a jumper and blouse
have opposite charges. The one that has lost electrons is now positive
and the one that has gained electrons is now negative.

Materials which retain a charge are insulators or are insulated from

surrounding conductors. Oil, which does not charge up easily, can act as
an insulator, keeping readily ionised particles of water apart and
preventing the ions from joining up again.

(ii) Oppositely charged particles attract one another. The greater the
charge involved, the greater the force between them. An ion experiencing
an attractive force accelerates. As it reaches a high speed it is able to
produce further ions in collisions. The rapid production of many ions
results in sparking.

Explosions occur when there is very rapid combustion. The rate of

combustion is extremely rapid with some vapours and with materials
which are suspended in a very finely divided state, as this provides large
areas of contact between the reacting substances.

PRACTICE

Vehicles

The metal bodies of tankers carrying flammable liquids may become

charged due to air friction. The tyres fitted to road tankers a-remade of
high carbon content conducting rubber. This prevents the charge
developed by rubbing reaching a dangerous level. The movement of high
resistance liquids inside the road tankers can also cause separation of
charges. Before emptying or filling a tank, earthing precautions are taken.
The road tanker is earthed to the fixed metallic piping used for filling or
emptying the tank. A strong flexible earth cable is clipped to the metal
tanker body. This bonds the body of the tanker to the metal gantry of the
filling or emptying station. The teeth of the large clip are made of
tungsten which penetrates any paint layer on the tanker making good
electrical contact with the metal below.

Warning signs (Figure 1) are posted beside each filling point and fail-safe
devices are fitted which do not allow the pump to operate unless a good
connection is made between the gantry and the tanker body. A warning
bell alerts the operator if the earth wire is disconnected. Figure 1 A warning notice.
48
The loading pipe (called the loading lance) is carefully positioned so as to
reduce the possibility of electrostatic sparking. The oil is not allowed to
fall for any distance through the air and the loading lance is manually
bottomed in the vehicle to provide a conducting path (Figure 2). The risk
of charging by air friction is increased if the speed of flow is rapid.

Control
valve Manual
controls
system
Loading

BP Tanker

Earth

Figure 2

Storage Tanks
Storage tanks are designed so that splashing and agitation of liquids are
reduced during filling operations. The speed of filling is kept very low
until the level of the liquid in the tank rises above the inlet pipe. In Figure 3,
storage tanks Band C have better arrangements than A where the liquid
would fall too far too quickly and cause excessive splashing.

Figure 3

Storage tanks are often fitted with floating roofs so that the space
available for flammable vapours to collect inside the tank is kept to a
minimum (Figure 4).

Sealing
device

Figure 4

49
The sealing device incorporated in the floating roof is an insulator. It is
important that the roof and the rest of the tank be maintained at the
same electrical potential to reduce the possibility of sparks. Thus the
floating roof is bonded to the rest of the tank by a flexible metal strip.

In some storage tanks used for flammable liquids an extra precaution is

taken by filling the vapour space above the liquid with an inert gas
(Figure 5).

Figure 5
Polythene
strip
PRACTICAL

Model storage tanks

Expandable polystyrene beads may be used to represent a liquid being

mixed in a tank. These beads can be stirred with a polythene strip. The Expandable
polystyrene
tank should be made of metal and should rest on top of the metal cap of
beads
an electroscope.

Note the effect on the gold leaf of the electroscope as the beads are
stirred (Figure 6).

Electrostatic charges may also be separated in a filling process. Two

different filling systems are illustrated in Figures 7 and 8. In Figure 7 the
rate of filling can be altered by changing the angle of the pipe. In Figure 8
the height through which the beads fall freely is easily altered. Figure 6

Pencil

100 crrr' of polystyrene

beads

Funnel

u Model storage
tank

Figure 7 Figure B

50
Unit 16-Handling large currents
PROBLEM

There is an upper limit to the diameter of a single silicon crystal

slice so the maximum current that one diode can handle is about
750 A. This causes the engineer a problem when more than 100,000 A
are required for the economic operation of an electrolytic plant. A
further problem encountered is the dissipation of heat from the
semiconductor diodes when operating with high currents.

PRINCIPLES

(i) Parallel branches

The total current in a parallel circuit is equal to the sum of the currents in
each of the branches. This rule applies even if a diode forms part of each
branch (Figure 1).

AC
supply
il
il Load

Transformer

Figure 1

tii) Heat capacity.

This is a measure of the heat energy Eh required to change the
temperature of a body by one degree.

Eh=c m ~T

c = specific heat m= mass ~ T = temperature change

The product c m is the heat capacity. Th us the heat capacity of any

component is directly proportional to the mass of that component.

PRACTICE

Figure 2 shows the mounting of some of the many diodes in parallel

(about 400) in the rectiformer, which is a combined transformer and
rectifier. Notice the large cross-sectional area of the aluminium pillars on
which the diodes are mounted. This is necessary to ensure low
resistance. The contacts between the diodes and the pillar must have a
similarly large area of cross-section.

Some heat is produced and, in order to keep the temperature from rising
too much, tubes carrying oil coolant are inserted into the aluminium
pillars. Figure 2

51
 Cross-section of
a large diode
approx, actual
size

Figure 3

Figure 3 shows a diagram of a large diode drawn to approximate size.

The amount by which its temperature rises depends on:

(a) the heat capacity of the device and its surroundings;

(b) the current in the diode;

(c) the area of cross-section of the silicon slice;

(d) the thermal conductivity of the mounting system;

(e) the length of time there is a current in the diode.

PRACTICAL

1. Compare the heating effect in a thin conductor connected to first,

one, and then two, and finally, three lamps in parallel.
2. Examine the physical size of a selection of 100 ohm resistors which are
rated as 0.5 W, 1 Wand 2 W. Arrange that two of these resistors
carry the same current and note the effect on the temperature of the
different types.

52
Unit 17 -D.C. from A.C.
PROBLEM

The electrolysis processes of the chemical industry require direct

current sources capable of coping with very large currents at fairly
low voltages. Electrical energy is generated most conveniently as
alternating current at high voltages.
A rectified a.c. supply is often smoothed using capacitors. For
currents of thousands of amperes, these capacitors would have to v
be so large as to be impracticable. The smoothing plant wouid
have to be larger than the electrolysis plant itself! Another way of
approximating to a smooth d.c. supply is required.

PRINCIPLE

Figure 1 illustrates the results of rectifying a voltage V with the waveform

shown. V2 and V3 are not in phase with V1. When Vl, V2 and V3 are added V3~~~~~~~~~~
VT~ _
together the result is VT as indicated. The waveform which results from
this addition shows that multiphase a.c. inputs may be used to produce a L.....- Time
supply which approximates to d.c.

PRACTICE Figure 1

Factories use all three phases of the electrical supply from the power
station. In a large industrial complex the power station may be operated
by the firm itself as a means of obtaining relatively cheap energy. If the
phases are combined together after rectification, the resulting voltage
waveform approximates to d.c. It is possible to improve the d.c. quality
of the supply by adding more phases.

Transformers can be designed with special double windings to produce a

12-phase output. With 4 units, the number of phases can be increased to
48, which gives an even better approximation to d.c. after rectification.

PRACTICAL

1. Connect the output of a low voltage a.c. supply across the input
D
terminals A, B of a cathode ray oscilloscope. Attach a diode to the C 1<; A
input terminal of the C. R.0. as shown in Figure 2 and now connect Diode OB
the a.c. supply output across C, B. The control switch of the
oscilloscope should be at the d.c. setting. Note the shape of the C.R.D.

voltage waveform on the C. R. O. screen. Figure 2

2. Draw the top half of a sine function starting at zero and representing
four complete cycles.

Underneath the first piot draw another sine function with the same
amplitude but starting 1200 out of phase with the first function.

Repeat this for another sine function with a phase difference of 2400
between it and the first function.

Sketch the graph which represents the resultant of adding together

each of the three functions drawn above.

53
SECTION B

HEAT
Unit l8-Local measurements of
temperature and pressure
PROBLEM

Chemical reactions and fluid flow proceed best under certain

conditions of temperature and pressure. Temperature can be
monitored using thermometric sensors like resistance
thermometers and thermocouples. These devices generate signals
which can be transmitted over a distance to some central
monitoring point.

However, on-the-spot or local measurements at the source of

temperature and pressure need to be carried out as part of a daily
inspection. Such inspections serve as an important safety
precaution.

Easy-to-read, dial-type meters that will measure temperature and

pressure are needed.

PRINCIPLES

(i) Metals expand on heating. Different metals expand by different

amounts when heated through the same temperature range. Experiment
shows that the expansion of a rod of original length 10 when heated
through a temperature range ~ T is given by the expression:

expansion = La~ T
a is a constant for a rod of a particular material and is called the
coefficient of linear expansion.

Expansion of a metal, then, can serve as a basis for establishing a

temperature scale.

(ii) Gases and liquids exert a pressure. Pressure is defined as force per
unit area and so fluids enclosed in containers will exert a force on the
walls of their containers.

PRACTICE

(a) The bimetallic thermometer (Figure 1) is the instrument that is mainly strip

used for local measurement of temperature. It is this type of thermometer

that is widely used for domestic temperature measurement. Its operation
depends upon the different coefficients of linear expansion of different
metals. The diagram shows the design of the so-called 'Rototherm'
thermometer. In this design a bimetallic strip is wound into a long helix ~Adjusting screw

and encased in a stainless steel tube. The thermometer can then be Figure 1
inserted, for example, into a well built into a heat exchanger pipe. A
temperature rise causes the helix to unwind and a drop in temperature
causes it to tighten. The movement of the helix causes a pointer to move
over a temperature scale. The temperature of fluids entering and leaving
the heat exchanger can be measured in this way.

(b) Pressu re is measu red using a Bourdon gauge (Figure 2). Inits
simplest form this is a thin-walled tube, elliptical in cross-section, coiled
to form an arc of approximately 2700.

56
 __..,-- r- -, __
,<"\ I : '/' ••••••

",. , / .

/
'>,
r., '>
/ ' / '\

/' ,\,
/ \
I' ~'\
I
r~ \
--,
L
I -, \

r--
\
---' I
r -I
\.~ /
'1
\
\.., /
'I
',/

Pressure
inlet

Figure 2

The pressure inlet part of the gauge is connected to a tapping in a pipe.

Pressure inside the tube tends to straighten it. This movement is
conveyed by a quadrant and pinion to a pointer which moves over a
calibrated scale from which the pressure can be read.

Figure 3 A Bourdon gauge.

PRACTICAL

(a) Use a Bourdon gauge and measure the mains water supply pressure.

(b) Given that the coefficient of linear expansion of copper is

16.7 x 10-6 K-l, what change in length would you expect in a 0.25 metre
length of copper rod when its temperature is raised by 80 K?

(c) Knowing the order of magnitude for the expansion of a rod of this
length for this temperature rise, suggest and carry out a method of
measuring the linear expansion coefficient.
57
Unit 19-Control through
transducers
PROBLEM

One of the products of the oil-based chemical industry is hydroxy-

ethyl methacrylate (HEMAl. The basic raw materials are;
(1) propylene oxide which is brought to the site in large road
tankers and stored in bulk storage tanks;
(2) acrylic acid which is transported in drums. This material
requires preheating in a 'hot room' before being introduced to the
reactor unit.

The materials involved in the reaction which produces HEMA are

all highly flammable. Some of the chemicals have to be kept at
fixed temperatures.

Heating or cooling by a few degrees above or below the optimum

temperature can alter the rate of reaction. Such temperature changes
may cause polymerisation or even solidification. If either of these
happens, the result can be wastage of large quantities of chemicals and
loss of production time while the waste is removed and the plant cleaned
before the process can be restarted.

Careful monitoring of the temperature, pressure and fluid levels and rates
of flow allows the production process to be controlled. This avoids
wastage and, in addition, improves the quality of the finished products.
Monitoring of temperature is especially important if the quality of the
product is to be consistent.

PRINCIPLES

(i) In 1826 Seebeck discovered that when different metals are joined
together to form a circuit with at least two junctions, there is a current in
the circuit if the junctions are at different temperatures. About 40 years
later Sir William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin) showed theoretically that in
a metal there is an e.m.f. acting from parts at lower temperature to parts
at higher temperature.

The voltage measured in a thermocouple circuit is tfle result of a

combination of the Seebeck and Thomson effects.

(ii) The heat capacity of any body is the amount of energy it requires to
produce a rise of one degree in its temperature.

Heat energy = c m LlT

c = specific heat capacity m= mass LlT = temperature change

The product c m is the heat capacity and is measured in J K -1.

PRACTICE

A transducer is a device which converts (transduces) one physical

quantity or variable, such as the temperature or pressure of a liquid, into
another variable. This other variable is often more suitable for
measurement and control. The majority of transducers which are used in
industry convert physical quantities into electrical signals which are
usually the most convenient to deal with.

58
In the past before the days of microelectronics, pneumatic (pressure)
signals were used where the risk of explosions from sparks was high, as
can be the case in some areas of chemical plants.

With advances in microelectronics which require only small voltages and

currents, it is now possible to consider the replacement of pneumatic
systems in hazardous conditions with low-powered devices which are
made intrinsically safe by the use of current limiters.

The thermometers most commonly used in industry are those based on

direct electrical methods involving resistance, thermoelectric effect
thermistor or semiconductor junction devices. The first two, which were
developed in the 19th century, are still the most reliable methods
available. They are simple to use, apply to wide ranges of temperature
and remain stable for a long time.

The thermocouple with its small heat capacity may be placed almost
anywhere, either inside or outside operating units within a chemical plant.

PRACTICAL

Make a thermocouple using two different metals such as copper and

iron. Keep one junction at a steady, cool temperature using an ice bath.
Vary the temperature of the other junction using a water bath which can
be heated by means of an immersion heater (Figure 1).

Figure 1

A sensitive ammeter should be used to measure the current for different

temperature differences (T1 - T2).

A graph of the current produced plotted against the temperature of the

hot junction allows the thermocouple to be calibrated. The shape of this
calibration curve is particularly interesting if large temperature differences
are produced. The reading does not go on increasing with every increase
in temperature difference.

59
 Unit 20-Measurement of
temperatures at a distance
PROBLEM

In large structures, changes of temperature can produce some

physical movement. This movement could cause dangerous
fractures in the structural framework of bridges or in the
foundations of power stations and other large industrial plants. It is
useful to be able to monitor the surface temperatures of the
various structural frameworks. This may give an indication of
possible hazards.

Where fluids are moving from one part of the plant to another it is useful
to know the temperature of the fluids as they move through large ducts.
Simultaneous measurements at selected parts of the system give us an
early warning of any likely danger.

On a smaller scale, equipment can malfunction if overheated. It is useful

to be able to monitor the temperature in the stator windings of an
alternator or in the field coils of an electric motor.

An early warning of overheating or breakdown allows equipment to be

maintained efficiently.

The ability to measure temperatures at points some distance from a

central control enables us to anticipate and avoid serious problems.

PRINCIPLES

(i) For a Wheatstone bridge network as in Figure 1 the reading on the

galvanometer, Vg, is zero when the balanced condition holds i.e.

Rl R3
R2 Rt Figure 1

A resistor whose resistance changes with changes in temperature causes

an out-of-balance voltage Vg to be developed when there is a temperature
change.

(ii) The resistance at temperature t may be given by the expression

Rt = Ro (1 + at) where Ro is the resistance at a temperature of ooe and a is
a constant.

. Rt- Ro . . . . .
The above Yields t =--- which indicates that the resistance change IS
a Ro
directly proportional to the temperature change.

The voltage Vg developed may be taken as being directly proportional to

the temperature change from the balanced condition, provided the
change in the value of Rt is small (less than about 10%).

PRACTICE

Platinum is a suitable material for the detector resistor. The platinum-film

type of resistance temperature detector has proved to be particularly
suitable (Figure 2). This Platfilm type has replaced the older form of
platinum resistance thermometer which had quite a high thermal capacity

60
 Actual size

11 pi

Gold
4 times enlargement showing layout
pad
of platinum film resistance

Figure 2

and was really best suited for the measurement of steady temperatures
rather than of changing conditions.

Since Platfilm detectors are small they can be cemented to the surfaces
of steel structures, engine blocks etc., or housed in tubes, to measure
local temperatures.

In some circumstances they may also serve as very fine temperature

controls as they can function as heater pads, each providing 10 W of
heating at temperatures up to 500°C.

PRACTICAL

Find the coefficient of increase of resistance with temperature. About

2 metres of copper wire (SWG 36) or of pure tin fuse wire (SWG 32) is a
suitable length for a study of the variation of resistance with temperature.
The wire should be wound on an insulating former. Before winding, the
wire should be doubled in order to produce a non-inductive coil.

Non-inductive coil
/

Figure 3

This resistance wire can be arranged to form one arm of a Wheatstone

bridge (Figure 3). The coil should be immersed in a liquid bath to allow its
temperature to be varied and monitored with an ordinary mercury-in-glass
thermometer.

Plot a graph of the value of Rt against the measured temperature.

61
Unit 21-Preventing explosions
PROBLEM

An explosimeter is a device for detecting the build-up of

combustible gases in the atmospheric environment. A sample of
the atmosphere under test is passed over a heated filament in the
combustion chamber of the explosimeter.

If combustible gases are present these will burn and the heat
produced will raise the temperature of the filament. It is important
that the heat released during testing does not produce a
temperature at which ignition and explosion of the gases in the
atmospheric environment can take place. Figure 1 An explosimeter.
Reproduced by kind permission of MSA Ltd.

PRINCIPLE
In 1815 Humphry Davy, a Cornishman, produced a lamp with a paraffin
flame which could be used with perfect safety in coal mines, in an
atmosphere with a high concentration of the combustible, highly
explosive firedamp gas.

With regard to his invention Humphry Davy wrote:

'If a lamp be made airtight on the sides and furnished with small
apertures to admit air, it will not communicate flame to the outer
atmosphere. '

Figure 2 A Davy-type safety lamp showing the wire gauze above the paraffin flame.

The Davy lamp (Figure 2) operates on the principle that if the flame
ignites any gas inside the lamp, the heat produced is very quickly
conducted away to the outside atmosphere so that there is no point on
the outside of the lamp with a high enough temperature to ignite any
firedamp gas in the atmosphere.

Davy used fine wire gauze to conduct heat away quickly. This allows a
supply of air to the flame, but on account of its high thermal
conductivity, dissipates the heat quickly enough by conduction to prevent
a temperature on the outside of the lamp sufficiently high to ignite the
gas being reached.

62
PRACTICE

It is a remarkable tribute to Humphry Davy that his principle can be

applied in the detection of flammable gases by the explosimeter more
than a century and a half later. (See Unit 7 - 'The explosimeterJ

A sample of gas to be treated is drawn into the combustion chamber

using the aspirator bulb (Figure 3).

~ 1- - 11-------.1

Figure 3

Wire gauze, made of a high thermal conductivity metal, at the inlet and
outlet allows the sampled gas to pass through this chamber. During any
combustion that takes place the heat produced is conducted rapidly away
by the high conductivity metal gauze. Thus there is no point on the
outside of the device where the temperature becomes high enough to
ignite any explosive gas present in the atmosphere. The gauzes prevent
ignited gas inside the chamber igniting gas outside and are therefore
called 'flashback arresters'.

PRACTICAL
The following laboratory demonstration (Figure 4) is an analogue of the
industrial practice.

Hold a bunsen burner under a piece of wire gauze. Turn on the gas and
with the heated filament of a battery-operated gas lighter simulating the
Figure 4
filament of the explosimeter, ignite the gas above the gauze. Notice that
the flammable gas be/ow the gauze does not immediately ignite!

63
Unit 22-Conduction: heat loss
PROBLEM

A characteristic feature of any oil refinery is the many long lengths

of piping visible throughout the site. Steam flows through some of
these pipes, others contain oil which has to be kept hot as it
moves from one stage of the refinery to the next. The energy
which is needed to produce the hot steam and to heat the oil costs
money.

Oil stored in tanks has also to be kept warm, for ease of discharge
and distribution. Heat insulation of some kind is required.

In the furnaces of the distillation units high temperatures (1750 K)

must be maintained. Special materials with good insulating
properties are required to withstand and maintain these high
temperatures.

PRINCIPLES

For a substance with a thermal conductivity k of 100 J S-1 m-1 K-1, 100 J 1 m
of energy will pass each second through 1 m2 from the warmer side to
the cooler side of the sample for every degree difference in temperature
across 1 m thickness of the material.

kA(T1-T2)
Heat transfer per second =-----
1
k = thermal conductivity A = cross-sectional area 1= length

The thermal conductivity figure gives the heat power conducted per
Figure 1
square metre per unit temperature gradient. Books of physical constants
have tables of thermal conductivities. By consulting these tables it is
possible to select materials which act as good insulators.

Metals conduct about 100 times better than glass. As an insulator air is
better than metal by a factor of about 10,000. Glass wool, which traps a
lot of air amongst its fibres, insulates about one thousand times better
than steel. No material acts as a perfect heat insulator. (Heat insulation is
more difficult to effect than electrical insulation.)

PRACTICE

Ideally, each system should be designed with the particular local climate
in mind. The best design for Scotland would not be the same as for one
of the Gulf states. The development of oil production from even colder
regions like Alaska, has made lagging an even more significant feature in
the construction of suitable systems.

The rate at which heat is transferred
depends not only on the conduction
the conductivity of the oil itself. The
rate at which heat can be transferred
the oil.
from warm oil to the atmosphere
properties of the pipe but also on
conductivity of the oil controls the
to the walls of the pipe containing

Fuel oil in tanks is kept well insulated. Figure 2 shows how lagging is held
on by metal spikes. These are covered with corrugated metal to protect
Figure 2 Lagging attached by metal
the insulation from bad weather. spikes to a fuel oil tank.

64
Figure 3 shows some of the special bricks which are used in the lagging
of a fu rnace.

It may happen that a lack of insulation on one set of pipes serves a useful
purpose. Hot steam pipes are laid next to oil pipes. Heat flows through
the steel steam pipe to the pipe carrying the oil helping to keep it hot.

PRACTICAL
Accurate experiments to determine conductivities are time-consuming.
These include the continuous-flow, steady-state methods developed by
Searle and Lees in the 19th century.

Figure 3 View into the fire-brick lined

furnace.

Figure 4

The conductivities of different solids can be compared using an

arrangement as shown in Figure 4. The small containers, each of a
different material, should be as similar in dimensions as possible.

Figure 5

Another direct method of comparing heat conductivities in metals is to

use heat-sensitive paper as an indicator. This shows how far along a
metal rod heat has travelled from the hot end. Very careful, gentle
heating of a number of rods simultaneously allows an almost quantitative
comparison to be made. The lengths of coloured markings on the heat
sensitive paper can be related to the accepted values of conductivity for
the metals used.

Historically, petroleum jelly or candle wax has been used to hold indicator
rivets or pins which drop off a piece of metal as heat travels along it
causing the wax to melt.
65
Unit 23-Gas analysis
PROBLEM

In a refinery, gas such as ethane from the North Sea is broken

down into simpler hydrocarbons. This process is called 'cracking'.
How can we analyse a sample of cracked gas to identify the new
gases produced during the cracking process?

Volume element of gas

PRINCIPLES <, -............
(i) Gases conduct heat. The ability of a gas to conduct heat is described Heat flow
--
..
-
by a quantity called the thermal conductivity of the gas. -

-.
Imagine a volume element of gas of area A and width d with a T1 .. A T2

temperature difference LlT across the element (Figure 1). Experiment .. - - --

shows that the rate P at which heat is conducted through the volume -- - ---

element is given by the relationship

kALlT
P=--
d Figure 1

The constant k in the expression is known as the thermal conductivity of

the gas. The quantity has units W rn' K-1. It is a measure of the rate at
which heat is conducted through a cuboid of gas of unit side for unit
temperature difference across it.

Different gases have different thermal conductivities.

Some typical values at ooe are

air 2.41 x 10-1 W m-1 K-1

hydrogen 16.82x 10-1 W m-1 K-1

carbon dioxide 1.45 x 10- 1 W m- 1 K-1

(ii) A Wheatstone bridge (Figure 2) comprises a network of four resistors

P, 0, Rand S, a supply voltage V and a galvanometer G.

If P, 0, Rand S are such that there is no current in the galvanometer,

then the potential drop across the galvanometer is zero. It can now be V
deduced that the relationship P /0 = R / S applies to the bridge. The bridge
Figure 2
is said to be balanced in this condition. However, if p, 0, R or S is
changed slightly the bridge is thrown out-of-balance and a current is .
produced in the galvanometer.

For a small resistance change in P, 0, R or S « 10%) the current in the

galvanometer is proportional to this change.

(iii) The resistance of an electrical conductor is temperature-dependent. If

the filament of an electric light bulb, for example, is cooled, more current
is drawn from the supply. The resistance of the conducting filament is
decreased. For most conductors, as the temperature decreases so does
the resistance of the conductor.

(iv) Gas diffusion is the gradual movement of a gas through a medium.

Different gases diffuse at different rates through a medium. The rate of
diffusion is a function of the molar mass of the gas.

66
Kinetic theory and experiment indicate that for two gases A and B at the
same temperature

where MA and MB are the molecular masses and CA2 and CB2 the mean
squared velocities of the molecules of gas A and gas B.

then CB2> CA2

Thus the random motion associated with the less massive gas molecule
is more rapid. Gas B will therefore diffuse more quickly than gas A.

PRACTICE

The cracked gas sample to be analysed is mixed with another gas - such
as helium - and passed at a fixed flow rate down a capillary tube
containing a mixture of fine solid particles. The constituent gases of the
sample diffuse at different rates down the capillary tube. The capillary
tube is connected to a detector consisting of a drilled metal block
containing a Wheatstone bridge made up of four temperature-sensitive
filaments (Figure 3). The sample gas passes over two of these as shown

1---1 I-----~
Reference
gas ~ -, ~

-,
~
~
-, -,

Reference
gas
Sample /
gas

Figure 3

in Figure 3 and helium gas on its own at the same flow rate passes over
the other two. The helium gas is called the reference gas. When the
constituent gases of the cracked sample reach the detector and pass over
Detector
the heated filament, they conduct heat away, reducing the temperature
signal
and producing a voltage across the galvanometer. This voltage can be
used to drive a pen-recorder. An output as shown is produced (Figure 4).
The height of the peaks is related to the thermal conductivity of the
Time
constituent gases and so the different gases in the cracked sample can
be identified. Figure 4

67
PRACTICAL Gas jar full of
hydrogen gas
1 (a) The diffusion rate of three different gases-air, hydrogen and
Porous pot
carbon dioxide can be examined qualitatively as shown (Figure 5l.

A gas jar filled with hydrogen can be held over a porous pot with a glass
tube fitted. What observation is made that allows us to deduce
Glass tube
something about the relative diffusion rates of air and hydrogen at the
Beaker of
same temperature? water

(b) The effect of surrounding the porous pot with carbon dioxide can be Figure 5
demonstrated as shown (Figure 6). What can be deduced about the
relative diffusion rates of air and carbon dioxide at the same temperature?

Figure 6

2. The principle of operation of the detector can be demonstrated as

shown in Figure 7. Two similar small tungsten filament torch bulbs are
used in opposite arms of a Wheatstone bridge. The glass of each bulb is
carefully broken by putting the bulb into a paper towel and giving it a
sharp tap, taking care not to damage the filament of the bulb. The bridge
is balanced and a hairdryer is then used to direct a flow of cool air at one
of the bulbs (blowing on the bulb will produce similar effects). A change
in the balance position is detected. It is important to under-run the bulbs,
because if the filaments glow in air they are likely to burn out.

~----------~~I--------o
1.5 V
cell

resistor Variable
resistor

2.5 V; 0.3 A
Lamps-glass envelopes removed

Figure 7

68
Unit 24-Expansion
PROBLEMS

There are a number of problems relating to the expansion of

liquids such as crude oil.
1. It is possible for oil to be trapped in a section of piping sealed
between two valves. The expansion of the liquid on becoming
warmer is about 20 times greater than the expansion of the
pipe. This means that the piping has to be able to withstand
very large forces. Engineers have to allow for this effect.
2. Precautions must also be taken to avoid the problems
associated with expansion in the length of metal piping.
3. The British government levies a tax on oil. Instruments monitor
the volume rate of flow through the pipes. The figures recorded
are used to decide the amount of tax to be charged. The
expansion and contraction of the liquid as the temperature
increases and decreases causes the volume of oil being
measured to have differing masses.

The amount of energy available from oil and the quantities of oil-based
materials which may be produced are both related to the mass of oil, not
the volume. Thus in calculating the mass from the volume, corrections
have to be applied to account for the temperature changes. The
percentage correction may be small but can represent an important
financial consideration. In the United Kingdom alone, BP may process as
much as 100 million barrels of oil in a year. It is worth being careful about
1 % corrections when operating on this scale.

PRINCIPLES

(i) Liquids and solids expand when they are heated.

(ii) The expansion of a solid is described in terms of the fractional

increase in length per degree change in temperature, which is referred to
as the linear expansion coefficient of the solid, e.g. the linear expansion
coefficient for steel is 11 x 10-6 K::". Thus 100 m of steel increases in
length by 1.1 mm for every degree the temperature rises.

(iii) For a liquid the expansion is given in terms of the fractional increase
in volume per degree change in temperature. The volume coefficient is
approximately 3 times the linear coefficient as 3 dimensions have to be
accounted for. The volume coefficient of expansion for paraffin is
90 x 10-5 K-l. Thus 1 m3 of paraffin increases in volume by 900 ml for
every degree the temperature rises.

Expansion = original volume x coefficient of expansion x temperature change

(iv) The expansion of a liquid which is observed in a container is the

expansion of the liquid combined with the expansion of the container.
This is called the 'apparent expansion' as distinct from the real expansion
which is greater.

PRACTICE

The metal of the oil-carrying pipes expands less than the oil. However,
with changes in temperature of 20 or 30 degrees, the length of a 100 m
long pipe changes by as much as several centimetres. The large forces
involved could make the pipe buckle.
69
One precaution is to build into the pipe a relief valve which opens when
the pressure exceeds a predetermined level.

Oil then leaks out into a container and the pressure in the pipe returns to
a safe level.

Figure 1 An expansion loop.

Another precaution taken is to incorporate expansion loops into the

pipe-run as shown in Figure 1. These loops make the system slightly
flexible, allowing for changes of length to occur without fracturing the
pipe when there is a change in temperature.

The temperature and pressure of oil arriving at the Sullom Voe terminal
are typically, 7°C and 3.8 atmospheres. The measured volume is
converted by calculation to what it would be under standard conditions
of 15° C and 1 atmosphere. The correction required for the pressure
change is small as the liquid is almost incompressible. At Grangemouth,
where oil is refined, the temperature of the oil as it is metered is likely to
be 36°C or more because the refining process requires the oil to be
heated.

If uncorrected figures were used to assess the tax, then too little tax
would be assessed at Sullom Voe where the cool oil is relatively dense.
Too much tax would be assessed at Grangemouth where the warmer oil
is less dense and so takes up more space. It pays to take accurate
measurements under known conditions.

PRACTICAL
Fill a flask or test tube with oil (or water). Seal the liquid in the container
using a rubber bung with narrow tubing attached (Figure 2). Examine the
level of the oil in the tubing before and after immersing the container in
Figure 2
warm water. Notice that the level cf the liquid falls slightly for a short
time after the container is immersed in the warm water. The container
receives the heat before the oil and expands first. Once the oil receives
the heat it expands more than the glass.

It is important to fill the flask or test tube completely with liquid. The
expansion of a gas is about 5 times that of the same volume of liquid for
a given increase in temperature.

Measure the change in height of the oil level in the tubing for a change of A

I
temperature of about 20 K. Calculate, using the bore of the tube, the
apparent increase in volume of the liquid (Figure 3). Use this increase to
determine the coefficient of apparent expansion of the liquid. 1

The coefficient of linear expansion for soda glass is 8.5 x 10-6 K-1. To
~
convert to the value for the true expansion of the liquid, you should add
25.5 x 10-6 K-1 to the calculated figure for the apparent expansion
coefficient. Figure 3

70
 SECTION C

PRESSURE
AND
• :1J
FLUID FLOW
 Unit 25-Gases as liquids
PROBLEMS

There are two common problems associated with the production

and storage of gases.

1. Crude oil is a mixture of many substances. These have to be

separated into the different fractions in the refinery. The
problem is to boil off or distil each fraction using as little heat
energy as possible. There is little point in using too much fuel in
the process of producing fuel.

2. It is often inconvenient to store or transport a large mass of fuel

in the form of a gas. The gas takes up far too much space. If it
is possible to liquefy the gas, a much larger mass of fuel can be
stored in any container. A liquid on changing into a gas
occupies approximately one thousand times as much space.
Special designs of container are required to store liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG).

PRINCIPLES

(i) The temperature at which a liquid boils depends on the pressure. The
boiling point is the temperature at which the saturation vapour pressure
of the liquid is equal tothe pressure on the liquid. When the pressure
increases the boiling point of the liquid increases.

Each gas has a critical temperature above which it is impossible to

liquefy it however much the pressure is increased.

(ii) A liquid changes more readily to a gas if the pressure is reduced. The
latent heat of vaporisation is dependent upon the pressure on the liquid
and is lower at lower pressures.

PRACTICE

In the oil industry, all that is necessary to keep a gas in liquid form, is to
store it under high pressure. Normal temperatures are suitable for most
fuels as the 'critical temperature' above which it is impossible to liquefy
the gas is much higher than normal temperatures. (The gases of the
atmosphere would have to be cooled before an increase in pressure
would cause liquefaction.)

Figure 1 Horton spheres.

72
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is stored at a pressure of 2000 kPa, which
is twenty times normal air pressure, in special vessels called Horton
spheres (Figure 1). The spherical shape is chosen since it can withstand
the large forces which result from the pressure difference between the
inside and outside of the container walls. These are made of steel plates
about 25 mm thick.

Production of the gas involves boiling the liquid in a distillation unit. The
boiling point of a liquid can be lowered using partial vacuum conditions
which also means that less energy is required to boil off the liquid. The
tower shown in Figure 2 is a vacuum distillation unit. The inside of the
container is kept at a low pressure of about 3 kPa. This makes it easier
for each of the fractions to be separated as each boils off at a lower
temperature than it would at atmospheric pressure (around 100 k+'a). The
casing of this vessel has to withstand pressure differences of no more
than 100 kPa and it is of a lighter and simpler construction than the
Horton spheres which have to withstand pressure differences of around
1900 kPa.

Open

Figure 2 Avacuum
distillation
unit.

The most dense fraction of the oil that does not boil is called the vacuum
residue. It can be burnt as a fuel oil but needs special equipment because
it is so thick. Figure 3

PRACTICAL

Water may be boiled in a round-bottomed flask. The air above the water
in the flask is forced out of the open valve V by the steam which is
formed from the boiling water (Figure 3).

If the valve is closed with a clip no air can enter the flask when any steam
condenses. The clip should be closed while water vapour is issuing from
the tube and just after heating is stopped.

The flask can then be inverted with the thermometer indicating the
temperature of the water (Figure 4). Cooling of the region above the
liquid causes condensation of steam into water. This reduces the
pressure on the water which begins to boil at a lower temperature than
usual.

Using this apparatus in the way described above, you can observe water Closed

boiling at temperatures even below body temperature. Figure 4

73
Unit 26-Controlling fluid flow
PROBLEM

Fluids like crude oil, petrol and steam have to be pumped through
pipes to different parts of an oil refinery. Some means of
controlling this fluid flow is needed.

PRINCIPLES

A gas exerts a pressure.

Pressure is defined as force/unit area. Gas behaviour over a certain range

of temperature and pressure can be roughly summarised by the General
Gas Equation

pV = nRT

where p is the gas pressure, V the volume of the container, T the

absolute temperature of the gas, n the number of moles of gas present
and R is a constant for all gases. Thus the pressure of a gas in an
enclosure of fixed volume V and temperature T can be changed by
admitting more moles of gas into the enclosure i.e.

RT
p=n-
V

= n x constant

So p is proportional to n.

PRACTICE

A valve controlling the flow of fluid in a pipe can be operated

pneumatically when air is introduced via the supply line into the space
above the diaphragm (Figure 1). The pressure of the air in this space will

Figure 1

74
increase. Increased pressure causes a downwards force on the
diaphragm, which exceeds the upwards force from the compression
spring. The unbalanced force on the diaphragm produces a downward
movement of a plug, which reduces the size of the aperture through
which the fluid can flow, and so regulates the flow.

This type of valve is called a pneumatic regulator valve. Pneumatic valves

are widely used because they have a much greater power-to-weight ratio
than electrically operated valves. Small pneumatic valves can operate as
efficiently as much heavier, larger electrically operated ones.

Notice from the diagram of the valve (Figure 1), that if the air pressure
falls, the spring force will keep the valve in an open position. A valve with
a fail-safe operation like this would be suitable for use where cooling fluid
has to be taken to some system.

Other valves have a closed fail-safe position.

Figure 1a A pneumatic regulator valve.

PRACTICAL

Connect a syringe with a good seal via aT-piece to a Bourdon gauge as

shown in Figure 2. With the piston of the syringe fully depressed and the
outlet clip closed suppose that the number of moles of air in the system
is no and the volume occupied by the gas Vo.

Figure 2

Open the outlet clip and admit a volume v of air. Close the outlet and
fully depress the syringe then read the pressure p of the gas. The amount
of gas now occupying the original volume is no + n where n is the number
of additional moles admitted. Carry out this procedure for v=5, 10, 15,
20,25,30 ern- of air measuring the corresponding values of p.

The General Gas Equation predicts that for a fixed volume of container
the pressure of the gas at a fixed temperature in the container varies
directly as the number of moles of gas in the container. In the above
experiment this means

p a no + n

but n a v for a fixed pressure and temperature (atmospheric pressure and

room temperature in this case)

So p=avo+bv

where a and b are constant and Vo the original volume of air.

Plot a graph of v agai nst p.

Determine whether your results are consistent with the General Gas
Equation prediction.
75
Unit 27 -Calibrating a flowmeter
PROBLEM

The turbine flowmeters described in the units 'Measurement of

fluid flow' and A magnetic metering method' measure the rate of
I

flow of oil through pipelines. If these flowmeters are to measure

accurately the flow rate and the volume of fluid transferred they
need to be accurately calibrated, just as an ammeter in the physics
laboratory needs to be accurately calibrated if it is to give reliable
measurements of the flow rate of charge in an electrical circuit.
The calibration of the flowmeter is known as 'proving the meter'.
How can we accurately 'prove' a meter?

PRINCIPLE

The principle of conservation of matter or mass implies that the rate of

flow of fluid into a pipe must equal the rate of flow out. In a way, it is
this principle that is employed in 'proving the meter'.

PRACTICE

The flow of oil to the turbine flowmeter is first made less turbulent by
passing it through a honeycomb of pipes known as a flow straightener.

Figure 1 A meter prover.

Oil which has flowed through the turbine meter is then diverted to the
meter prover (Figure 1). The meter prover is a loop of pipe which has an
accurately known volume between two detector switches inserted into
the pipe. A tightly fitting neoprene sphere is launched into the flow and

Figure 2

76
as it is pushed round the loop by the oil it operates the two detector
switches (Figure 2). When the first switch is turned on an electronic
1

counter begins to count the pulses coming from the turbine meter.
The counter stops when the second detector switch is turned on by the
sphere. A valve can be operated to reverse the direction of the oil flow
through the prover loop and so the number of pulses corresponding to a
given volume of oil can be determined (Figure 3). This enables a meter
factor to be given to a particular flowmeter.

--; --
Figure 3

The meter factor is defined as the total number of pulses counted divided
by the volume of oil moved through the loop.

PRACTICAL

Some problems on meter proving and turbine flowmeters.

(i) A turbine flowmeter has 90 buttons of a magnetic material in its rim.

The meter is designed to make one complete revolution when a volume
of oil of 6.25 x 10-2 m3 flows through it.

What is the meter factor for this particular meter?

(ii) A storage tank has a capacity of 1.0 x 105 m3 of oil. The flowmeter
registers a pulse frequency of 509 Hz. Estimate the time taken to fill the
tank with oil.

(iii) The standard unit of volume of oil is the barrel- this is a volume of
0.159 m3. Calculate the number of pulses that would be counted during
the passage of 1 barrel of oil through the meter.

77
Unit 28-Flow of transparent
fluids
PROBLEM

When a transparent fluid completely fills a transparent tube it is

difficult to tell whether it is moving or stationary. It is relatively
straightforward to design an indicator which shows whether there
is motion or not but it is not so easy to design an accurate
flowmeter which allows direct reading of the rate of flow.

PRINCIPLES

(i) The flow of the fluid itself is produced by a pressure difference or

pressure head. A pressure difference is required to maintain steady flow
as there are forces due to viscosity and friction with the walls of the tube
resisting the flow. If the tube or pipe is narrowed a larger pressure
difference is required for a given rate of flow.

(ii) An object placed in a flowing fluid experiences a force which tends to

displace it from its original position. The force F exerted on an area A
when the pressure is p is given by the expression F = P x A.

.,..,------......
1
w

»" .•....
,

Figure 1

If the pressure at one end of an object is greater than at the other end
there is a resultant force acting on the object from the high pressure end
to the low pressure end. The object will not start to accelerate if there is
another force present which opposes and balances the pressure
difference force. Such a force is the weight W of the body.

For balance W = Fl - F2

W=(Pl-P2)A

For a particular rate of flow the pressure difference across the ends of an
object (float) placed in a tube depends on the cross-sectional area of the
tube.

A larger pressure difference is required for a given rate of flow through a

narrower section of tubing. Thus there can be only one position in a
tapered tube where this pressure difference results in a force exactly
balancing the weight of the float.

78
PRACTICE

The range of rates of flow for which a given tube may be used can be
altered by using a float of a different weight. A lighter float would
balance at a broader part of the tube for the same rate of flow.

Displacement flowmeters of the Rotameter type are often used to

monitor the flow of steam. Figure 3 shows flowmeters and pressure
gauges side by side, close to reaction vessels. Often it is the differences
in flow rate that are of interest in the industrial process and changes in
the level of one flowmeter relative to another are readily noticed.

Weight

f
Flow
direction

Figure 2

Figure 3 Flowmeters and pressure gauges.

In the textile industry, Rotameter flowmeters have been employed to

provide a rapid means of measuring the average diameter of a sample of
fibres. The opposition to flow of a given mass of fibres is related to the
thickness of the fibres. The scale has to be carefully calibrated. The most
reliable calibration involves many tedious direct measurements using
standard optical micrometer methods. The accuracy of the direct
diameter measurements made by a few skilled technicians dictates the Thick
accuracy of the calibration and thus the usefulness of the information fibres
given by the calibrated flowmeter. <}--

Designers of flowmeters have taken the trouble to shape the tube in such
a way that the calibrated scale turns out to be linear, which makes Figure 4
interpretation of the readings easier for the industrial operator.

The float itself is often designed with fluted edges which ensure a more
stable fluid flow past the float and hence a steadier positioning of the
float in the tube.

PRACTICAL

A low density ball of expanded polystyrene placed in a tapered tube

section of a large filter funnel allows the operation of a flowmeter to be
simulated. Air blown in through the bottom of the tube forces the ball up
•
the tube.

The ball comes to rest in different positions depending on the rate of air .• Air
flow through the tube. Figure 5

79
Unit 29-Differential pressure
metering

PROBLEM

If the final product from a reactor vessel is to be of a consistently

high quality, then exact quantities of the reactants have to be
supplied. This means that the flow rate of the reactant fluids to the
vessel needs to be accurately monitored so that the volume of fluid
added can be measured.

Ways of measuring fluid flow are discussed in other Units dealing with
turbine and vortex meters. However, these devices need moving parts for
their operation. This means that, on occasion, parts have to be replaced
as a result of wear. These metering devices are also contained within the
pipes carrying the fluid and so, when servicing is required, fluid flow has
to be stopped. The maintenance operation can be inconvenient and
expensive.

If a way of measuring flow rate could be devised that involved no moving

parts, it could offer certain advantages in terms of capital and
maintenance costs over other metering methods.

PRINCIPLES
(i) Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782), a Swiss mathematician, produced a
treatise on fluid flow called 'Hydrodynamica'. In his work Bernoulli
presented an equation which described mathematically the flow of
non-viscous (non-sticky), streamlined (steady moving), incompressible
fluids in very smooth, frictionless pipes. Bernoulli, therefore, was
concerned with the flow of ideal fluids. Bernoulli's equation applied to the
steady flow of a fluid in a horizontal pipe of varying bore gives the result

p + ~QV2 = a constant
where p is the pressure of the fluid at a given point in the pipe, v is the
fluid speed (in m S-l) at that point and Q is the density of the fluid.

This mathematical principle of Bernoulli's is really nothing new. We can

quite easily deduce his mathematical equation by applying Newton's
Laws to fluid flow. However, Bernoulli's description serves as an
alternative, and perhaps more convenient way of analysing fluid flow.

One startling consequence of Bernoulli's equation is that the pressure of

a fluid depends on the speed of flow of that fluid!

Figure 1

Consider Figure 1 and accept for the moment that the speed of fluid
particles in the narrow part of the pipe must be greater than the speed of

80
those particles in the wider part of the pipe. This may be obvious to you!
If not, it is proved later on.

Now, because p + ~QV2is constant, as v gets bigger p must get smaller

i.e. a bigger v in Bernoulli's equation must mean a smaller p, if p + ~QV2is
to remain constant. This means that the pressure a fluid exerts is
dependent on the speed of flow. Bernoulli's equation gives rise to the
prediction 'fast flow- pressure low'.

(ii) Imagine a situation in which a fluid of density Q flows from a wide

pipe, to a narrow one and then into a wide one i.e. the flow is constricted
(Figure 2).

Figure 2

The speed of flow in the wider pipe is u and in the narrower pipe v. The
cross-sectional area of the wide pipe is A and of the narrow pipe a; thus
in a time At the mass of fluid making its exit from the narrow pipe is
QavAt.

In the same time the mass of fluid entering the narrow pipe from the
thick pipe is QAuAt.

Now if we apply the principle of conservation of mass to this situation we

can say that the mass entering the pipe in a certain time must equal the
mass leaving in that time. Otherwise the pipe must swell up somewhere
or there is a leak in the system!

So QAuLlt = QavLlt
HenceAu = av
Au
i.e.v=-
a
Hence v > u (since a < A)

This is perhaps what you had already imagined i.e. the speed of the fluid
in the narrow pipe is greater than that in the wider pipe.

Figure 3

Now according to Bernoulli

p + ~QV2= a constant for this pipe system.

So P1+ ~QU2= P2+ ~QV2

where P1is the pressure in the wide pipe and P2the pressure in the
narrow pipe (Figure 3).
Now since v> u
P1> P2
81
(iii) You may prefer the Newtonian viewpoint to the Bernoullian one.
Imagine that a bubble is introduced into the stream (Figure 4). In the
wide pipe it moves with a steady speed u, and as it enters the narrow
pipe its speed increases to v. This means that the bubble has been
accelerated.

-----[>
""-"i> O~~---
~
____-_~~~~
p,

__~;1----------- P2

Figure 4

From Newton's Second Law an accelerated motion requires an

unbalanced force in the direction of the acceleration. The only possible
origin of this force is the fluid pressure.

Since the acceleration of the bubble is to the right, the force on the left
hand side of the bubble due to the fluid pressure p must exceed the
force on the right hand side of the bubble due to the fluid pressure P2.

So again p,:> P2

(iv) If you care to do some algebra on the equations

and Au =av
you can produce the result u a ..J[p, - P2]
u = K..J[p, - P2]

i.e. the speed of flow in the wide pipe is proportional to the square root
of the difference in pressure of the fluid in the wide and narrow pipes. K
is a constant which will depend on the nature of the fluid and the
diameter of the pipe.

(v) The rate of discharge R (in volume units/unit time) from this pipe
system will be given by the expression

R =Au
R = KA..J[Pl - P2]

i.e. R = K'..J[Pl - P2]where K' = KA

PRACTICE

In an oil refinery smooth, large diameter pipes carry fairly non-viscous

fluids at steady flow rates. This means conditions approximate to those
assumed by Bernoulli in his analysis of fluid flows. The equation relating
pressure differential and fluid flow speed can therefore be used for
metering purposes.

Several flow metering methods that produce a pressure difference over a

short section of pipe are used.
82
 Venturi . ~s::::::;:;::;::);;;;;;::::>:;.;.:.:»:=:>:·:=·······===

n
===.:.:.;.;.;.;~>~<

Flow~;~~sureI :sure
5a

Flow--~.

~
5b High Low
pressure pressure

Figures 5a and 5b

The Venturi tube (Figure 5a) and the orifice plate (Figure 5b), for
example, constrict the flow producing a pressure difference related to the
speed of flow in the pipe system. A mercury manometer can be used to
measure the pressure difference.

If the constant K' for the system under consideration is determined then
the rate of fluid discharge can be calculated from the relationship

R = K'.j[Pl - P2J
The Venturi tube is just a constricted tube. The orifice plate is a stainless
steel plate with a central, sharp-edged circular orifice. This plate is usually
inserted where two pipes are flanged together. Pressure tappings can be
made in the flanges and this avoids the need to drill holes in the wall of
the pipe. A differential pressure measuring device can be connected to
the pressure tappings. It could be a mercury manometer but more often a
differential pressure cell is employed. This is a transducer which can
convert a pressure signal into either a pneumatic or an electric signal. It
can be used where automatic control over a valve regulating the fluid
flow in the pipe is required.

The advantage of orifice plate and venturi tube metering methods is that
there are no moving parts and so they are easy to install and easy to
maintain. Costs are therefore low. A wide range of pipe diameters can be
metered in this way. However, these devices cannot normally be used for
very viscous or gritty fluids. The constrictions must be kept clear of solids
and residues as these would change the flow pattern around the device,
produce turbulence and introduce an error into the measurement.

PRACTICAL

1. Bernoulli's principle can be demonstrated with a Bernoulli tube

connected to a water tap (Figure 6). The rate of flow is controlled with a
clip and the pressure at different points in the system is measured by the
height of the water column in the manometers.

2. Bernoulli's equation would predict that the pressure of the fluid ~

Flow
downstream of the constriction should be the same as that above. from
Measure the level of the liquid in the manometer tubes, upstream and tap

downstream of the constriction and account for your observations. Figur~ 6

83
Unit 30-A vortex meter
PROBLEM

An important measurement in the petrochemical industry is the

flow rate of chemicals, both liquid and gaseous, as they are moved
through pipes to the various process units of the plant.

Safe, reliable and sensitive instrumentation is required for this kind

of measurement.

PRINCIPLES

(i) (a) -Vvhen a fluid flows past an obstacle patterns can be identified in
the fluid which are related to the speed of the fluid as it flows around and
past the obstacle. When the fluid speed is slow and steady the fluid is Figure 1
smooth and undisturbed by the obstacle (Figure 1).

We can think of the particles of the fluid following smooth, well-defined

routes as they move around the obstacle. These paths can be detected
by a dye if the fluid is a liquid, or by smoke if it is a gas. We call these
paths streamlines.

At higher speeds a very different flow pattern is observed (Figure 2). The
paths followed by the fluid particles now cross and intermingle and a
Figure 2
wake of small whirlpools called vortices is produced. Vortex production
was a phenomenon observed and recorded by Leonardo da Vinci as far
back as 1513. Close investigation of a flow pattern like this reveals that
the frequency of production of these vortices is related to the speed of
flow.

(b) In the region of the fluid where a vortex is formed a reduction in

the pressure of the fluid occurs.

Figure 3

A flag pole (Figure 3), for example, acts as an obstacle to the flow of air
around it. The flow pattern behind the flag is a wake of vortices.
Associated with each vortex is a region of lower pressure air.

The vortices produce low pressure regions on either side of the flag.
Thus the pressure difference across the flag causes it to flutter. In a way
we can think of the flag acting as a sensor of the progression of air
vortices along its surface.

(ii) In 1831 Michael Faraday demonstrated that a changing magnetic field

in the vicinity of a coil causes an e.m.f. to be induced in that coil.
84
 Field due to bar magnet alone

Figure 4

If a coil (Figure 4) is wound around a magnet there is a magnetic field

threading the coil. There is no e.m.f. induced in the coil, however,
because the magnetic field threading the coil is not changing in any way.
Magnejic field with soft iron near magnet

Figure 5
If a piece of soft iron is brought near (Figure 5), the field pattern is
changed by the presence of the iron. An e.m.f. is induced in the coil
while the field threading the coil is changing.

PRACTICE
A combination of the effect observed by Leonardo da Vinci and the
conclusions of Michael Faraday provide a means of flow metering.

Detector
[j1lmagnet
coil)
and Low press::0 U
~u
lr-1~~ 5
,.....------..rub
Higher
pressure ~ ~

Figure 6
A non-streamlined body (Figure 6) is inserted into a section of pipe. A
hole is bored through the object as shown and a steel ball-bearinq is
inserted so that it is free to move up and down the bored-out section.

As the fluid in the pipe flows around and past the body, vortices are
produced. As they flow past the bored-out section, these vortices
produce alternating low pressure regions on either side of the
ball-bearinq. A pressure difference is produced across the ball and the
resulting unbalanced force causes it to be accelerated up and down the
hole with the same frequency as the production of vortices.
85
A magnet and coil arrangement is mounted on the pipe and is used to
detect the movement of the steel ball. As the ball moves towards and
away from the magnet and coil it causes the magnetic field threading the
coil to change. An alternating e.m.f. is induced in the coil of the same
frequency as the ball movement and vortex production.

The frequency of the e.m.f. induced in the coil can be measured and
related to the speed of fluid flow in the pipe.

PRACTICAL

Fluid flow patterns can be investigated using a sloping tray as shown in

Figure 7. Water flows from a metal tube drilled with holes (1 cm spacing),
over potassium permanganate crystals held at the top of the slope by a
perspex strip. With this arrangement parallel flow lines are produced.

Potassium

I\ 1
. (
\ \I \ \ I
\ )! ! I
I
\ I
I
I I~

Figure 7

Observe what happens to the flow pattern when blunt (non-streamlined

shapes) are introduced into the flow stream.

86
 SECTION D

MECHANICS
Unit 31-Plumbing the depths
Part 1
PROBLEM

Liquids produced in the oil and petrochemical industry often have

to be stored in tanks. It is important to keep a check on the level
of the liquid in the tank. An overflow causing spillage could be
costly and might constitute a safety hazard.

The problem is to find a device which will measure the level of

liquid in the tank, generate a signal related to the liquid level, and
relay this signal to some control point remote from the tank itself.

With some kinds of electrical sensor there can be the risk of an

electrical spark causing the ignition of some flammable vapour
and producing an explosion.

Figure 1 A typical storage tank.

PRINCIPLES
(il Gases exert a pressure.

Experiments with gases show that the gas pressure p is dependent on

the volume V of the gas container, the absolute temperature T of the gas
and the number of moles n of the gas occupying the container.

The equation which summarises the behaviour of gases over a range of

temperatures and pressures is the General Gas Equation given by:

pV = nRT where R is the Universal Gas Constant

So, for a given volume V of container, occupied by a gas at some fixed

temperature T, the pressure p of the gas is given by the relationship:

RT
p=n-
V

= constant x n
So the pressure of a gas is directly proportional to the number of moles
of gas present in the gas container.

The pressure of the air in a car tyre, for example, can be increased by
pumping more moles of air into the tyre.
88
When air is blown into a balloon the number of moles of gas (air) inside
the balloon is increased. This increases the pressure of the gas contained
in the balloon and so it inflates.

(ii) Even a balloon with a hole in it can be inflated (Figure 2). Attach a
tube to a balloon as shown in Figure 2 and blow air through the tube. If
the rate at which air goes into the balloon exceeds the rate at which air
escapes, there will be a build-up of moles of air inside the balloon. Thus
the gas pressure there increases and the balloon inflates. However, this
can only happen if the size of the air inlet hole is greater than the size of
the hole in the balloon. If the size of the hole in the balloon were greater Figure 2
than that of the air inlet hole there would be no build-up of moles of gas
in the balloon. The gas would escape just as quickly as it arrived and so
the pressure of the air in the balloon would not change.

PRACTICE

In the oil industry a device which converts a mechanical movement into a

change in air pressure can be used in liquid level detection. The device
incorporates the principles involved in inflating a burst balloon!

In this device air from a pressurised supply passes along a pipe and
through a small hole in a restricting barrier in the pipe (Figure 3). The air
pressure in this part of the pipe is high.

.
High pressure Nozzle compartment

• •• •• • • •
air

• • • •• ----... • • • • •
~

•• • • • •
• ••
\'- • Lower pressure air •

•
•• • • • Restricting
barrier
Figure 3

At the end of the pipe there is a nozzle through which the air arriving in
the nozzle compartment can escape. There are fewer moles of air per unit
volume on this side of the barrier and so the air pressure here is much
lower.

If a piece of metal (called a flapper) is moved up to the nozzle it will act

as a plug and reduce the rate at which air escapes (Figure 4). The rate at
which air enters the nozzle compartment is now greater than the rate at
which it escapes. The number of moles of air in the compartment builds
up and so the air pressure here increases significantly (just as it does in

......
. :.1.... · .~
the balloon).

. ..
·~:-I·.... ·:~l
/. Flapper

..-- . .
~

Changing pressure
/" '
<Jr--~[>
Flapper
movement

Figure 4
89
 •.
An analogy would be a crowd leaving a football match (Figure 5). The High crowd Lower crowd

.,
pressure pressure
'crowd pressure' inside the exit gate is much greater than outside as
anyone who has attended a big game can testify! Partly closing the exit
gates makes matters worse; crowd pressure at the gate builds up as
more people come towards the gate and fewer are able to leave.

~:[J:~·
Opening more exit gates would reduce crowd pressure. In a similar way ••• •••• ••• -----+.
-----+
moving the flapper away from the nozzle increases the rate at which air
escapes, thereby reducing the number of moles and hence the pressure
of air in the nozzle compartment.
There is a range of flapper positions in which changes in the position of
the flapper produce proportionate changes in the air pressure in the
nozzle compartment. This range corresponds to the approximately Figure 5
straight line part of the graph (Figure 6).
Gas pressure in nozzle compartment
I I
I I

Distance between
flapper and nozzle

We now have a way of converting a small mechanical movement into a

proportionate change in pressure. We are part of the way towards
solving the level measuring problem.

PRACTICAL

If a pressurised air supply is available the effect can be investigated using

the experimental set-up shown in Figure 7.

Brass tube

--II--------...,J
Air from ---,----------- ..•...
supply Constriction
(3-5 psi) Flapper I
nozzle gap
approximately
1 mm ......u
------
lIlmmI __

Air outlet

manometer
(at least 2 m long)

Figure 7

The side wall of the microscope carrier on a vernier travelling microscope

serves as the flapper. With this arrangement it is possible to obtain
accurate measurements of the width of the gap and the pressure of the
air in the nozzle compartment. A graph of gap width against nozzle
compartment pressure can then be drawn.
90
Unit 32-Plumbing the depths
Part 2
PROBLEM

If the movement of the liquid level in a tank could somehow be

linked to the flapper of a flapper/nozzle arrangement, a pneumatic
signal proportional to the liquid level variation would be generated
and the problem described in Part 1 (Unit 31) would be solved.

PRINCIPLES

(i) The pressure of a liquid in a tank varies with the depth of the liquid.
From the definitions of pressure and density we can deduce that the
pressure p of a liquid of density Q at a depth h is given by the expression:

p = Qgh where g is the acceleration due to gravity

(ii) When an object is immersed in a liquid, the liquid pressure causes an

upwards force or upthrust to be exerted on the object.

Spring balance

T i -r-I (Length of
cylinder)

W 1 J__
U (Upthrust due to
water pressure)

Figure 1 Figure 2

(iii) If a metal cylinder (Figure 1) is weighed using a spring balance, then

the upwards pull T from the spring balance equals the downwards
gravitational pull W on the cylinder.

Thus T=W

Now if the cylinder is immersed in a liquid of density Q to a depth h

(Figure 2), an upthrust U acts on the cylinder due to the liquid pressure.

Applying the principles of Newtonian mechanics to this situation:

T1+U=W

T1=W-U

ThusT1<T

We call T1 the 'apparent weight' of the cylinder.

91
Now U = p x A where A is the cross-sectional area of the cylinder and p is
the pressure on that area.

Hence U = QghA

Therefore T1 = W - (QAg)h

This means that the apparent weight T1 of the cylinder is proportional to

the depth h to which it is immersed (Figure 3).

T1
(Apparent
weight)

·1

~----------~--------~h (Immersed
depth)

Figure 3

PRACTICE

A long cylinder is suspended in the tank (Figure 4). As the liquid level
changes the tension in the support changes proportionately. This tension
in the support can produce a movement of the flapper in a flapper/nozzle
arrangement (See Part 3).

T1 (Tension in support)

W (Weight)

Figure 4

PRACTICAL

Weigh a cylinder in water. Is the apparent weight proportional to the

length of cylinder submerged?

92
Unit 33-Plumbing the depths
Part 3
PROBLEM

The problem now is to make the change in the apparent weight of

a metal cylinder produce a proportionate change in the
displacement of a flapper in a flapper/nozzle arrangement. If the
flapper is operated within its linear range we will have a pressure
output proportional to the change in liquid level in the tank.

PRINCIPLES

(i) Metals are elastic materials. They can be twisted, stretched and bent. Flange
Partly hollowed·out rod
Like springs, if they are not deformed beyond their elastic limit, they will
Central
return to their former shape. rod welded
to bottom
(ii)A rod is partly bored out and a thin central rod is attached as shown of hollowed-out
(Figure 1). A piece of metal F is attached to the end of the central rod. rod Piece of ~
metal (F)
A torque (or moment) is applied about the central axis of the hollow rod.
Figure 1
The flange end of the hollow rod is held fixed. The torque causes a twist
in the hollow rod. The central rod is rotated and the piece of metal F on
the end of the rod undergoes an angular displacement e
(Figure 2).

Experiment shows that the displacement of F is proportional to the

applied torque.

PRACTICE Force applied e

here
The end of the hollow metal rod is welded to the inside of the tank. The Figure 2
metal cylinder is supported as shown in Figure 3. As the liquid level drops
the apparent weight of the metal cylinder increases. This produces an
increased torque about the central axis of the hollow rod. The hollow rod
is twisted slightly and the flapper on the end of the central rod moves
away from the nozzle of a flapper / nozzle arrangement reducing the
pressure in the nozzle compartment. This output pressure can be
recorded on a bourdon gauge.

Flange

f
~r~~~~re

nstriction

Air
t m high
pressure
supply

Figure 3

93
There is very little movement of the cylinder as the liquid level changes
but the range of movement of the flapper only requires to be a few
hundredths of a millimetre. Since the position of the metal cylinder is
relatively unchanged (only a few mrn) its apparent weight is proportional
to the level of liquid in the tank. Thus the output pressure from the nozzle
compartment will be proportional to the liquid level.

The scale of depth on the output gauge will therefore be a linear one.
Intermediate points are easily interpolated and there is no need to
calibrate the scale for all depths. We now have a sensor capable of
monitoring changes in liquid level in a tank.

Pressure changes as detected by the sensor can be amplified and

compared with some set value of pressure. If the output pressure
exceeds this set value, control technology takes over to open or close a
pneumatic valve and regulate the liquid entering the tank.

Figure 4 A flapper/nozzle arrangement.

PRACTICAL

The sensor described, although based on simple physics principles, is

quite sophisticated! Would it not be simpler to connect a Bourdon gauge,
as shown in Figure 5, to measure liquid level?

Can you give reasons why this is not done?

Gas under pressure

Figure 5

94
Unit 34- Tank full indicator
Pump

PROBLEM
Material
Silos are containers used for storing and dispensing large quantities 10 m (small solid
of materials such as solid polystyrene chips or liquids (Figure 1). chips or
liquid)
These containers are usually made of metal so it is not possible to
see how full they are. If they are overfilled damage could be
caused to the machinery as the pump and pipes become clogged
up. To prevent this the silo needs a device which automatically Tap
switches off the pump controlling the filling process when the Figure 1
container is nearly full. Other switches are needed to open the
control tap which allows the stored material to be delivered from
the container outlet.

PRINCIPLES

(i) A pivoted magnet may be balanced by adjusting the position of the

pivot so that the turning effects of the forces acting on the magnet
balance. When an additional turning effect (or couple) is applied to the
magnet the balance is upset and the magnet starts to rotate. This
rotation may be used to close or open electrical contacts.

A~~ ~ ~B

F2
Figure 2

(ii) In Figure 2, if AB is a balanced lever, it moves out of balance when

force Fl increases making it rotate anti-clockwise. If, when Fl increases,
another force F2also causes an equal increase in the clockwise turning
effect, the lever remains in the same position.

(iii) When the ends of bar magnets are brought close together each
exerts a force on the other. The simple rule is - 'like poles repel, unlike
poles attract'. The closer together the poles become, the greater the size
of the force. This force is very much bigger when the magnets are almost
Weight
touching one another. If a piece of iron or other ferromagnetic material is
placed between the magnets the effect is very much reduced as the
ferromagnetic material acts as a partial screen or magnetic shield.

(iv) The condition for floating has been known for a long time.
Archimedes, who died in the year 212 Be, is associated with the
principle - 'A body which displaces a fluid experiences an upthrust which
is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced'. This means that a floating
body displaces its own weight of fluid. When the float in Figure 3 is
pushed down, more liquid is displaced, increasing the upthrust which Figure 3
opposes the downwards push.
95
PRACTICE

Magnetically operated level-switches can be used in low temperature

conditions down to - 500e. It is often the repelling magnetic action
which is used, as this lends itself to the design of a snap action
changeover of switch contacts when the float reaches the operating
level. The standard switch action is illustrated in Figure 4.

A A

Figure 4

Conduit entry

Figure 5 A level switch.

Reproduced by kind permission of Bestobell Mabrey

Figure 5 shows a typical design of a commercial liquid level-switch. The

float is constructed of non-magnetic material which can withstand
reasonably high pressures as the liquid container is often a pressurised
vessel. (If the pressure were too high the float might collapse and cease
to function as a float.) The magnet which is inside the float unit is a
cylindrical permanent magnet which is arranged to repel a similar magnet
in the switch assembly. The switch unit is hermetically sealed with
silicone rubber. This keeps the contacts clean. In some cases gold
contacts are used in place of the usual self-wiping silver contacts.

This level-switch controls the small current required to operate a relay

and is not directly connected to the motors (which require a larger
current). The relay coil is part of the contactor starter, which makes use
of the magnetic forces available when there is a current in its solenoid to
operate the motors controlling the pumps and valves. Figure 6

Ring magnets
PRACTICAL

(a) Measure the weight of water displaced by a floating object using a

displacement (Eureka) can.

(b) Arrange a balance system which allows measurement of the force of

repulsion between two magnets. Adjust the distance between the
magnets to half its original value and note the effect on the force of
repulsion.

(c) Measure the weight of liquid displaced for different separations of

ring magnets arranged so as to repel each other. The lower of the two
ring magnets can be supported by a loaded can. The displacement can
should be made of a non-magnetic material. Figure 7

96
Unit 35-A current to pressure
converter
PROBLEM

Pneumatic valves are widely used in refineries. They have a much

larger power/weight ratio than electrical valves. However,
pneumatic valves need pressurised air to operate them. If an
electrical sensor is to be linked with a pneumatic valve to control
the flow in a pipe, then some means of converting the electrical
signal from the sensor into a proportionate pneumatic one is
needed.

PRINCIPLES

Electrical, mechanical and fluid principles are involved in the solution of

this problem.

(i) An electric current in a coil produces a magnetic field (Figure 1). The
magnetic field strength is directly proportional to the current in the coil.
Figure 1

Gas at pressure p

Figure 2

(ii) The lever in Figure 2 is balanced under the action of forces X and Y.
X results from the pressure p of the air in the bellows. The air presses on
the base of the bellows of area A to produce a force X on the lever. From
the definition of pressure
X=pA

Y is a magnetic force. A current i is generated in the coil and produces a

magnetic field. A magnetic force Y, proportional to the current in the coil,
is applied to the end of the lever.
i.e Ya i

(iii) If the lever is in equilibrium then:

Xa=Yb

Xa
SoY=-
b

pAa
b

So Ya p since A, b and a are kept fixed

Hence i a p
97
(iv) Gas exerts a pressure. The relevant principles are discussed in Unit 31 -
Plumbing the depths - Part 1.

PRACTICE

Figure 3 is a simplified diagram of the pressure amplifier device used.

Restriction Air from

...------- supply

Nozzle Output gauge

Flapper

~b----~~---------
Coil
X (Push from the bellows)
Y (Magnetic force)

Figure 3

When a current is applied to the coil, the core becomes magnetised. A

magnetic force is applied and the lever is pulled towards the coil. This
causes the flapper to move towards the nozzle. Only a small movement is
produced but this is sufficient to increase the pressure of the air in the
nozzle compartment. The increase in pressure causes the diaphragm in
the pressure amplifier to be pushed to the right which movement causes
the plug to block up plug hole P1 and open plug hole P2. The latter allows
air from the supply to be admitted past the plug through plug hole_P2 into
the bellows. This high pressure air at pressure p exerts a force on the
base of the bellows moving the lever very slightly to restore equilibrium.
Since the lever is disturbed only very slightly from its original position we
can still apply the simple lever principle to the forces acting on it i.e.:

Xa=Yb

Thus it follows that the output pressure p is proportional to the input

current i. i.e.:

po: i

PRACTICAL

1. It is an accepted standard in the oil industry that for safety reasons,

the current drawn by the converter coil will have a minimum value of
4 mA and a maximum value of 20 mAo This range is designed to
produce a pressure output of 0.2 to 1.0 bar above atmospheric
pressure. Thus 0.2 bar output would correspond to a valve fully closed
and an output of 1.0 bar means that the valve is fully open.

What would be the output pressure from such a converter when there
is a current of 10 mA in its coil? (1 bar= 105 Pa.)

2. How would you design a system using a modified version of this

converter, so that it gave you a pneumatic output proportional to the
depth of liquid in a tank?

98
Unit 36-Mass measurement

PROBLEM

An oil terminal is essentially a tap at the end of a long pipe

carrying crude oil from the oilfields.

The amount of oil arriving at the terminal must be measured

accurately. It is the amount of oil received at the terminal that
determines the tax to be paid to the government and the profit
made by the oil company.

Oil contracts as it cools. This means its volume decreases as its

temperature drops. Thus the volume of oil finally stored at the
terminal could be different from the measured volume flowing into
the terminal. Mass, however, is an invariable quantity and a flow
rate expressed in tonnes per hour, for example, could be a more
useful measure than a volume flow rate.

A measurement of the density and the volume flow rate of the oil
arriving at the terminal would enable the mass flow rate to be
calculated.

We need a way of obtaining an 'on line' measurement of fluid

density i.e. a measurement of the density of the fluid when it is
actually flowing in the pipes.

PRINCIPLES

(i) The density of a fluid is defined as the mass per unit volume of the
fluid, i.e.

. mass
density = I
vo ume

Thus mass = volume x density

(ii) All vibrating systems have a natural frequency of vibration. A mass

on the end of a hacksaw blade (Figure 1), for example, when displaced
and released will vibrate at a fixed frequency - its natural frequency of
vibration.

Lump
of
plasticine

Figure 1
99
If the tines of a tuning fork are struck so that they vibrate, then the fork
will vibrate with a certain fixed frequency - its natural vibration
frequency - and in this case will produce a note of a constant pitch.

(iii) The natural frequency of vibration depends on a number of factors,

one of which is the total mass of the system being vibrated. The natural
frequency of vibration of a tuning fork, for example, can be changed by
adding a small mass to one of its tines (Figure 2).

PRACTICE
Oil density can be measured by a densitometer. This device is connected
in parallel with the main pipeline, so that it can sample the oil flowing
through the pipes to the terminal and provide an 'on line' measurement of
fluid density.
Figure 2

Figure 3 A twin tube densitometer.

This particular design of densitometer operates rather like a tuning fork

(Figure 4). The oil is diverted from the main pipeline through a Y tube
into two parallel metal tubes each approximately 1 m long and 20 mm in
diameter. The oil flows out through a second Y tube. The parallel tubes
are connected to special flexible Joints so that they can vibrate quite
freely.

Detector (magnet and coil)

Flexible joint ~

Detector (magnet and coil)

Figure 4

An electromagnet situated between the tubes is used to attract and

displace the tubes slightly. The tubes are then released and they vibrate
at their natural frequency. The two tubes vibrate in opposition to each
other so that unwanted vibrations of the whole unit are minimised.
100
The movement of the tubes is detected by a magnet and coil
arrangement which responds to the changing magnetic field threading
the coil caused by the movement of the tubes near the magnet. The
operation is similar to that described in Unit 2 'A magnetic metering
method'. The voltage induced in the detector coils has the same
frequency as the natural frequency of vibration of the tubes. Electronic
circuitry is used to count the voltage pulses from the coil in a given time
and hence measure the frequency.

The actual frequency of the tubes is dependent on the mass of oil

contained within them. Since these tubes are of a fixed volume, the mass
contained is proportional to the density of the oil in the tubes. Thus the
natural frequency of vibration of the tubes is a function of the density of
the fluid contained.

The frequency of the voltage from the magnet-coil transducer is fed to a

microcomputer which has stored in its memory the calibration constant
for the densitometer. Information about the volume flow rate is also
supplied to the microcomputer and the data are quickly processed to give
a read-out of the mass flow rate.

PRACTICAL
1. In the densitometer the relationship between the vibration frequency
and the density is
fo
f=----
.J(1+KQ)

where fo is the natural frequency of the densitometer tubes empty of

fluid, and f is the natural frequency when the densitometer is full of
fluid of density Q.

What are the dimensions of the calibration constant K?

2. For a typical densitometer

fo = 1350 Hz

The numerical value for the calibration constant K is 6.53 X 10-4.

When filled with oil from the main pipeline the natural frequency of
the tubes is 1080 Hz.

What value does this give for the density of the oil in the main
pipeline?

3. (a) Predict how the natural frequency of a spring mass system might
be related to the mass being vibrated (Figure 5).
(b) Test your prediction experimentally.
(c) What is the calibration constant for your oscillating system?

Figure 5
101