2020 IEEE 7th International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Applications
Route Planning for Automatic Indoor Driving of Smart Cars
Sandip Roy
School of Software Engineering
Tongji University
Shanghai, China
e-mail: sandip@tongji.edu.cn
Abstract—While various types of traffic navigation maps play
an important role in our life, the complex layout of large
number of buildings in the city makes it difficult for people to
find destinations and walking routes indoors. Since GPS does
not work very accurately inside the buildings, for indoor
navigation problem we still have to depend on the traditional
front desk human resource consultation. In recent years, the
rapid development of artificial intelligence technology has
made it possible for smart car navigation instead of the manual
consultation. Not only that, smart cars can even handle short-
distance goods transportation. Combining indoor positioning
technology with different video signals or any other non-GPS
satellite positioning technology for directing the smart car to
the designated position is a hot research direction these days.
In this paper, we mainly study the realization and application
of a smart car in the indoor automated driving system. Our
proposed smart car, built using the Raspberry Pi 3, uses a
series of famous path planning algorithms such as Dijkstra’s
algorithm, Best priority search and A*(A star) algorithm to
plan the driving path of the car's automatic driving. Finally,
the real-time obstacle avoidance function is also realized by
using ultrasonic ranging, infrared ranging and pan-tilt camera.
Several experiments were conducted to compare the efficiency
of using different path finding algorithms and the results of
using infrared ranging and ultrasonic ranging during obstacle
avoidance.
Keywords-raspberry Pi; smart car; ultrasonic ranging; polar
map; A* algorithm; Dijkstra algorithm; best priority search;
indoor route planning
I. INTRODUCTION
With the development of human lifestyles and living
standards, these days human beings tend to spend more than
70% of their time inside of the large and complex indoor
locations. Thus, efficient indoor navigation [1, 2] or route
planning [14, 18, 20] has become a very important research
direction these days. While the GPS technology doesn’t
work very accurate for the indoor locations, previous
research works have tackled this problem of indoor
navigation using Wi-Fi [9] and sometimes using both Wi-Fi
and Bluetooth together (hybrid) [17]. In [21] W. Yuan and
M. Schneider have introduced 3D route planning for indoor
space. When developing our research, we have studied a lot
of works [16, 22, 24] that have provided a nice overview of
different path planning algorithms for robots. The application
978-1-7281-6785-5/20/$31.00 ©2020 IEEE
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Zhiyang Zhang
School of Software Engineering
Tongji university
Shanghai, China
e-mail: zhiyang@tongji.edu.cn
scenarios of the automated smart car navigation can be
summarized as follows:
 Indoor positioning and navigation inside large
buildings: When entering a large complex building,
it is quite a difficult task for people to quickly and
accurately find the target location. Smart cars can
help people to plan the route, find the best route, and
direct to the designated location.
 Indoor express sorting and delivery: With the
increase of courier temporary storage services these
days it greatly facilitated the time coordination
between courier delivery and customer pickup, but
customers still sometimes feel that this pickup could
have been more convenient. The smart car can
improve this efficiency by sorting those parcels and
then deliver it to the intended person at the entrance
of the customer’s building.
 Finding lost people: In large public places or
buildings, such as airports, train station, shopping
malls etc. when the companion or child is lost, the
smart car can monitor the images in real time by
downloading it from the server through the network,
identify the furnishings and modeling and thus
quickly locate the lost children. It can also guide
people to the location of their lost baby/companion.
 Public safety: If there is a serious accident inside
the room, the smart car can help people quickly
locate themselves and plan their escape route. In
extremely serious incidents, smart cars can help
rescuers locating the victims and thus assist in the
rescue process.
In this paper, we mainly study the realization and
application of a smart car in the indoor automated driving
system [4]. After using the horizontal steering angle and
ultrasonic distance measuring device to determine its
position in the scene map model, our proposed smart car has
implemented few famous path planning algorithms such as
Dijkstra’s algorithm [10, 11, 19], Best priority search [8] and
A* algorithm [3, 23] to plan the driving path of the car's
automatic driving. Here the real-time obstacle avoidance [6]
function is realized by using ultrasonic ranging [5], infrared
ranging and pan-tilt camera [12]. Our overall system
combines path planning algorithm, embedded system design,
infrared ranging, ultrasonic ranging, pan-tilt camera, image
retrieval technology etc. to realize the automatic driving of
smart cars. The camera that is put on the front of the smart
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car can take pictures of the target and then the target is
recognized by the camera. The ultrasonic detecting device
measures the distance from the target to the trolley and the
angle of the head of the gimbal is used to establish a polar
coordinate with the car itself as the origin. Specifically, the
main work is as follows:
 Collection of the data, the data source is the indoor
simulation experiment environment.
 Setting up a smart car experimental environment
based on Raspberry Pi 3.
 Calling the map model from the server through
WebSocket and returning the target recognition type
from the server and position coordinates.
 Determine the position coordinates of the car itself
by using the infrared detecting device, the ultrasonic
distance measuring device and the pan-tilt camera.
 Implementing Dijkstra’s algorithm, best priority
search and A* algorithm for path planning.
 Using the infrared detection device, the ultrasonic
distance measuring device and the pan/tilt camera to
realize the automatic obstacle avoidance function.
This paper is divided into five chapters. The first chapter
is the introduction. The development status and research
background of smart cars are introduced, and the main work
of this paper is illustrated. The second chapter is the
theoretical basis for the subsequent implementation, the
principle of ultrasonic and infrared ranging, Dijkstra’s
algorithm, best priority search and the A* algorithm is
introduced here. The third chapter is the realization part of
the smart car’s path planning and automatic obstacle
avoidance, showing how to use the theory described in the
second chapter. Here we have introduced the details of each
implementation separately. The fourth chapter is dedicated to
the experimentation part. Using the scene map as a model,
according to the realization of the third chapter, the whole
system is realized and finally different path planning
algorithms were compared to present the results. The fifth
chapter contains the summary and the outlook section. The
research results and significance of this topic are summarized,
and suggestions for the future development are put forward.
II. REVIEW OF THE RELEVANT THEORETICAL
FOUNDATIONS
In the smart car model proposed in this paper, after using
the horizontal steering angle and the ultrasonic distance
measuring device to determine its position in the scene map
model, the smart car uses a series of famous path planning
algorithms such as Dijkstra’s algorithm, best-first search and
A* algorithm to plan the automatic driving of the car. Finally,
the real-time obstacle avoidance is done by means of
ultrasonic ranging, infrared ranging and pan/tilt camera.
Overall, the main technical theories used in this paper
include infrared ranging, ultrasonic ranging, path finding
algorithms, and WebSocket technology.
A. Ultrasonic ranging principle
The principle of ultrasonic ranging [5, 7] is rather very
simple to understand. At first, the ultrasonic sensor emits
short and high frequency sound pulses at regular time
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intervals into the medium. When that transmitted sound
wave encounters any object during its propagation then that
sound wave is reflected back to the sensor as an echo. Finally,
the sensor measures the distance of that target object based
on the time spent between transmitting the signal and
receiving it back. For measuring the distance of any object, it
does not have to depend on the intensity of the reflected
sound wave and thus it works very good in avoiding any
background interferences like light, dust, smoke, mist, vapor,
lint etc. Pretty much all the materials that are able to reflect
sound can be detected using the ultrasonic sensor. Having
this great ability that it can also work in dusty air condition
gives us even more reliability. Only one disadvantage that is
found with using ultrasonic sensors is that they aren’t very
good when defining the edges of an object.
B. Infrared ranging principle
Infrared sensor is an instrument that uses infrared light to
detect the presence of an object. The infrared ranging sensor
uses the principle [13] that depending on the distance of the
obstacle, the intensity of different reflections of the infrared
signal is also different. When the distance is near, the
intensity of the reflected light is strong, on the other hand,
when the distance is far, the intensity of the reflected light
signal is weak. And that’s how the detection of the distance
of the obstacle is performed. The infrared ranging sensor has
a pair of diodes, infrared signal transmitting diode and the
receiving diodes. The transmitting tube emits an infrared
signal of a specific frequency and the receiving tube receives
the infrared signal of that frequency. When the transmitted
infrared ray encounters an obstacle, the infrared signal is
reflected back and received. After receiving and processing,
it is returned to the smart car host through the digital sensor
interface. In our system, the smart car can then use this
infrared return signal to identify changes in the surrounding
environment.
C. Principle of Web socket
HTML5 defines the Web socket protocol [15], which
saves server resources and bandwidth and enables
communication with the server in real time. Web socket is a
protocol for full-duplex communication over a single TCP
connection. WebSocket makes it easier to exchange data
between the client and the server, allowing the server to
actively push data to the client. In the Web socket API, the
client/browser can directly create a persistent connection and
transfer data in both directions. Using HTTP protocol, the
client needs to constantly ask the server if there are any new
messages to be received. Web Sockets on the other hand
doesn’t require any request from the client side in order to
respond. The client can just listen to the server for any new
messages whenever its available. Web sockets work
perfectly for any real-time applications, chat apps, IOT,
online multiplayer games etc.
D. Path finding Algorithms
The path finding algorithm lets us to plan ahead, rather
than waiting until the last minute to find the problem.
Although motion without path searching can work in many
situations and can be extended to many more situations, but
actually path searching is rather a common approach to solve
more complex problems. Although Moving a simple object
seems to be a very easy job to do but Path finding is actually
quite complicated. For understanding the reason behind why
it is troublesome when it comes to path finding we have to
consider the following:
Figure 1. Concave obstacle path planning.
Figure 2. Path planning by avoiding obstacle.
We can consider a simple example (Figure. 1), where the
unit is initially at the bottom of the map and attempts to
move to the top. There is nothing in the area scanned by the
object (pink part) to act as an obstacle, so it continues to
move up. As it approaches the top, it detects an obstacle and
then changes the direction of its movement. Eventually, it
finds the red path along the U-shaped obstacle. On the other
hand, a pathfinder algorithm will scan a larger area (light
gray) in (Figure. 2) and thus, it does not allow the unit to go
to the concave obstacle and finds a shorter path (blue colored
path). However, one can extend a motion algorithm to deal
with the obstacles or to avoid creating concave obstacles
marking the concave exit as dangerous.
E. Dijkstra’s Algorithm
The Dijkstra’s algorithm accesses the nodes in the graph
starting from the initial point where the object is located. It
iteratively checks the unvisited nodes in the node set and
adds the unchecked node closest to the original node to the
set of nodes that need to be checked. The set of nodes
expands outward from the initial node until it reaches the
target node. The Dijkstra’s algorithm uses positive integers
or real numbers as labels which are totally ordered. It can be
generalized to use any labels that are partially ordered. The
Dijkstra’s algorithm guarantees that a shortest path from the
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initial point to the target point can be found, as long as all
edges have a non-negative value. In Figure. 3, the pink node
is the initial node, the violet node is the target point, and the
diamond shaped blue colored area is the area scanned by the
Dijkstra’s algorithm. The areas with the lightest color are
those that are furthest from the initial point, thus forming the
frontier of the exploration. One good thing about Dijkstra’s
algorithm is that although it runs slower, but it always does
guarantee that a shortest path will be found.
Figure 3. Dijkstra’s path finding algorithm.
F. Best First Search (BFS) algorithm
The Best First Search (BFS) algorithm operates in a
similar process, except that it can evaluate the cost of any
node to the target point by a heuristic process. Unlike
selecting the nodes closest to the initial node, it selects the
node closest to the target. But BFS cannot guarantee that a
shortest path will be found. However, it is much faster than
the Dijkstra’s algorithm because it uses a heuristic function
to quickly direct to the target node. For example, if the target
is located in the south side of the starting point, BFS will
tend to lead the path to the south. However, these two
examples are only the simplest case, where there are no
obstacles in the map, and the shortest path is quite straight.
G. A* algorithm
Like other common graph searching algorithms, A*
potentially searches for a large area of the graph. Just like
Dijkstra’s algorithm, A* can also be used to search for the
shortest path. Similar to BFS, A* can guide itself through a
heuristic function (the original is heuristic). In the simple
case, it is as fast as BFS. The secret behind its success is that
it combines the information blocks of the Dijkstra’s
algorithm (the nodes near the initial point) and the BFS
algorithm (the nodes near the target point). In the standard
language discussing a*, we can consider the equation (1):
F ( n)  g ( n)  h( n) (1)
Here, g(n) represents the cost from the initial node to any
node n, and h(n) represents the heuristic estimation cost from
the node n to the target node.
H. Heuristic Algorithm
The heuristic function h(n) tells us the minimum cost
estimation from any node n to the target node when using the
A* algorithm. Therefore, it is very important to choose a
good heuristic function. Heuristics can control the behavior
of A*. If we consider the general formula in equation (1), in
an extreme case, if h(n) is 0, then only g(n) works, and A*
evolves into Dijkstra’s algorithm, which guarantees the car
can find the shortest path. If h(n) is often smaller (or equal)
than the actual cost of moving from n to the target, A* is
guaranteed to find the shortest path. The smaller the value of
h(n) is, the more nodes in A* needs to be visited which
makes the operation very slow. Here we can consider few
scenarios:
 If h(n) is exactly equal to the cost of moving from n
to the target, then A* will only find the best path and
not extend the other. Although this can't happen in
all situations, one can still be in some special cases.
Let them be exactly equal (h(n) is exactly equal to
the actual value). As long as the perfect information
is provided, A* will run perfectly.
 If h(n) is sometimes higher than the actual cost of
moving from n to the target, A* cannot guarantee
that a shortest path will be found, but it will run
faster.
 In another extreme case, if h(n) is much larger than
g(n), then only h(n) works and A* evolves into the
BFS algorithm.
So here we have found a very interesting situation, we
can actually decide what do we want from A*. In the ideal
case we want to find the shortest path as quickly as possible.
If our goal is too low, we will still get the shortest path, but
the speed will be much slower. On the other hand, if our goal
is too high then might have to give up the idea of finding the
shortest path. Academically, if the heuristic function value is
an underestimation of the actual cost, the A* algorithm is
called the simple A algorithm (Simply A). However, here we
continue to call it A* because it is the same when it comes to
the implementation.
We have seen that it is a crucial decision to make during
choosing between speed and accuracy. A*'s ability to change
its own behavior is based on heuristic cost functions, which
are very useful in games. A compromise between speed and
precision will make the game run faster. In many games, we
don't really need to get the best path, just the approximation
is enough. What we need depends on what happens in the
game or how fast the machine is running the game. The
choice between speed and accuracy is not global. In certain
areas of the map, accuracy is important, we can use dynamic
selection based on this. For example, suppose we might stop
recalculating a path or changing direction at some point, then
it is more important to choose a good path near the current
position. So why do we need to bother with the accuracy of
subsequent paths? For a safe area on the map, the shortest
path may not be important, but when escaping from an
enemy village, safety and speed are the most important. Here,
in the safe area, we can consider not finding the exact
shortest path and taking the approximate path making the
pathfinding process very fast, but in the dangerous area, both
the safety and the speed of escape are equally important
factors to consider.
III. IMPLEMENTATION OF AUTOMATIC DRIVING FOR
SMART CARS
No doubt, the implementation of different smart cars can
bring great convenience to our life. Here in this work we
mainly focus on implementation of two aspects of automatic
driving of the smart car, these are:
 Implementation of route planning
 Real-time obstacle avoidance function
The route planning is implemented based on the path
finding algorithms and the car's own positioning system, and
the real-time obstacle avoidance function is realized with the
help of the infrared sensor, the ultrasonic sensor and the
pan/tilt camera.
A. System Architecture Overview
Figure 4. Smart car.
Due to the rapid development of the Raspberry Pi
microcomputer in recent years, considering its reach
functionality and better scalability, we have also chosen
Raspberry Pi 3 to build our smart car (Figure. 4). While
another open source electronic platform, Arduino is also very
easy to develop, but the open source community is not as
active as the Raspberry Pi's open source community and does
not have higher scalability. Therefore, after overall
comparison, we finally chose to use Raspberry Pi 3 [9].
During implementation of our overall design (Figure 5) we
focus on the following four points:
 Positioning of the trolley in the experimental scene
map
 Path planning of the car to the target
 Automatically generate the car driving code
according to the planning path
 Real-time obstacle avoidance function
The car is built using the Raspberry Pi 3 and it uses
Python scripts to control motor drives, pan-tilt camera and
infrared sensors. The experimental scene map model is
provided from the already conducted experimental results
stored in a server. The trolley determines the position of
itself by detecting the distance of the surrounding objects and
the angle of rotation of the steering gear by using infrared
rays. The path planning of the car to the target uses three
algorithms to compare the results, namely, Dijkstra’s
algorithm, Best priority search and A* algorithm.

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 Figure 7. Infrared ranging principle.

However, both of these ranging methods have congenital

defects.
Figure 5. Overall system architecture.

t1  t1  t0 , L   c  t   / 2 (3)

B. Realization of ranging of ultrasound detection device
It is only necessary to place the ultrasonic ranging Here, c represents the speed of light, the time of
module at the front of the trolley and access the Raspberry transmitting the infrared ray is represented by t0 , the time
Pi’s input and output port. Each time the ultrasonic wave is
received after getting reflected from the obstacle, the of receiving back that reflected infrared ray is t1 and t1
distance of the obstacle from the car can be calculated (figure
6) according to the following formula (2). represents the time interval between transmitting the sound
wave and receiving back the echo after its reflection. We can
calculate the distance from the obstacle in front of the car to
(2)
itself, L according to the formula (3)
D. Implementation of the Rotating Device Based on
Double-Steering Machine
As shown in figure. 8, each time the pan-tilt horizontal
servo scans from left to right, the orientation of the camera,
infrared detector and ultrasonic device is consistent with the
front of the servo. In the direction of the rotation ∆d, if the
camera is shooting when the object is matched with the
Figure 6. Ultrasound ranging principle. object in the map model, it is determined that the closest
object in the direction is the matched object
Here, the time of transmitting the ultrasonic wave is
represented by t0 , the time of receiving back the reflected
ultrasonic wave is t1 and t represents the time interval
between transmitting the sound wave and receiving back the
echo after its reflection. The measured distance is L and the
speed of sound is expressed by  . During conducting the
experiment, under standard atmospheric pressure and 15 ° C
temperature condition the speed of sound is taken as
  340 m/s. After each time the ultrasonic wave is
received, we calculate the distance from the obstacle in front
of the car to itself according to formula (2).
C. Realization of Ranging of Infrared Detection Device Figure 8. Implementation of the rotating device.
Just like the ultrasonic sensor it is only necessary to place
the infrared ranging module at the front of the car and access
E. Conversion of Coordinate System and Determination of
the distance from the raspberry pie to the obstacle in front of
the car. The output port can calculate the small time Coordinates of smart car
according to the formula (equation. 3) after acquiring the According to L and d （Figure. 9）, taking obstacle
time data of transmitting infrared rays and receiving back B as the poles and the counter clock wise direction as the
that reflected infrared ray, shown in figure 7 positive direction, it is possible to establish the polar
coordinate system with the horizontal steering gear. The

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coordinates of the obstacle B are    d , L  with respect B. Hardware Environment
to the coordinate system and the horizontal steering gear as TABLE I. HARDWARE ENVIRONMENT
the pole (figure 9). Then, according to the orthogonal angle
coordinates of the obstacle B in the map model the cartesian Raspberry Pi 3 model B+ Quad core 1.2 GHz 64-bit CPU
coordinates of the trolley are inferred. According to the
transformation and correspondence of the coordinates, the CPU 8 GB 1600 MHz DDR3

coordinates  xcar , ycar  of the cart in the map model are RAM 16GB
determined, where
WLAN BCM43438 wireless LAN

xcar  xb  L  sin   d  , Bluetooth Low energy (BLE) on board

ycar  yb  L  cos(  d )
Ethernet 100 Base Ethernet

GPIO 40 pins extended GPIO

USB 4 USB 2 ports

Video and Sounds 4 pole stereo output

Screen output Full size HDMI

CSI camera port For connecting Raspberry pi

camera

C. Software Environment

Figure 9. Conversion of coordinate system and determination of TABLE II. SOFTWARE ENVIRONMENT
coordinates.

IV. EXPERIMENT Operating system Linux Debian

Python environment Python 2.7.5

A. Experimental Process and Comparison of the Results
The experiment process is to first take a picture of the OpenCV environment OpenCV 3.4
target by using the camera of the car and then transmitting
the target photo to the server. The server program then Development platform PyCharm
recognizes the target and returns the target position and the
map model. After the car locates its position automatically it
then starts to plan the path towards the target. Furthermore,
during the whole process it also avoids any obstacles on the
way of its journey. During experimentation a large number
of different scene maps were tested. The experiments
compared the performances of the three path finding
algorithms (figure 11), and finally chose the A* algorithm as
the best path finding algorithm considering the path length
and calculation speed. When Comparing between two
distance measuring devices, ultrasonic and infrared sensors
(figure 10), the ultrasonic sensor is found to be working
better for the smaller distance (less than 6 meters), but
infrared light sensor worked better for the larger distance
(more than 6 meters). On the other hand, the infrared anti-
interference is poor and the result is very easy to vary with Figure 10. Obstacle avoidance performance.
light and high temperature interference.

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Figure 11. path finding algorithms performance.
V. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
Here in this work we have successfully completed the
positioning of the smart car, route planning and automatic
obstacle avoidance. The experiment is based on the raspberry
pie-based smart car plus the ultrasonic and infrared detecting
device and the cloud. Few famous path finding algorithms
are used here in the previously trained scene map model to
realize the route planning of the automatic car driving.
Finally, the real-time obstacle avoidance function is applied
by using the pan-tilt camera and the ultrasonic detecting
device to avoid pedestrians or any other unknown mobile
targets walking between the targets. In addition, here we
have used Python and WebSocket technology to achieve car-
to-server communication, showing high efficiency in writing
code and in actual use. The user only needs to take the photo
of the target using the camera of the car and no other further
operation is required. Everything else is independently
completed by the smart car, which greatly simplifies the
process and service of many manual consultations for the
production and life of the society.
A. Future work Recommendation
Now-a-days, although the research on smart cars are
endless, there is no mature car that is popular among the
public, the available ones are really expensive too. We feel
that with the continuous development of artificial
intelligence, the innovation of embedded robots, embedded
car chips and hardware technology can definitely bring
breakthroughs in quality and efficiency for the realization of
smart cars. In the present era of big data, positioning services
like Google or Baidu maps have a huge amount of data for
deep learning, which can support more accuracy. At that
time one can choose more efficient deep learning method
than the classic algorithm to complete the path planning. In
addition, obstacle avoidance technology can achieve more
precise positioning by combining multiple position signals,
such as Wi-Fi signals or communication signals. The
combination and correction of multiple signals can greatly
improve the accuracy in practical use. It is also expected that
more efficient computer vision algorithms will allow the
camera to do better obstacle avoidance.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We want to thank Professor Weixiong Rao of Tongji
university for his overall supervision and guidance.
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