Thermal Physics

An absolute temperature scale is used for temperature. At absolute zero, all molecules have 0 kinetic
energy.

The temperature of a gas depends upon:

- The average particle speed
- The average kinetic energy of the particles

INTERNAL ENERGY – The sum of the randomly distributed kinetic and potential energies of all the
particles

The Maxwell Boltzmann distribution curve shows how the speed of particles
varies as at given temperature.

CLOSED SYSTEM – A system that does not allow the transfer of energy or
matter in or out of it.

A closed system will have a constant total internal energy. Energy is constantly
transferred between particles in a system via collisions, however, this does not affect the total
combined energy of the particles. The energy of each particle changes at a collision, the speed of that
particle might changed, but the average speed of the particles stays the same, provided that
temperature remains constant.

Heat is transferred from hotter substances to cooler substances, a greater difference in temperature
between two substances, the greater the rate of energy transfer. Hotter substances radiate heat
quicker than colder substances.

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY – Amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of 1kg of a substance
by 1K.
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇
A continuous flow calorimeter can be used to find the specific heat capacity of a substance. The
substance will increase in temperature as it is heated as it travels. Using the rate of flow of the
substance and its density, the mass heated can be found out and the equipment records the change in
temperature. The above equation can then be used to work out specific heat capacity.

When a substance changes state, its internal energy changes but the
kinetic energy of the system stays constant. The potential energy of
the particles is changing as bonds are broken/formed. We see this as a
substance will remain at the same temperature as it changes state.

SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT – The quantity of thermal energy needed to

be gained/lost to change the state of 1kg of substance.

𝑄 = 𝑚𝑙
BOYLES LAW – At a constant temperature, the pressure and volume of a gas are inversely
proportional.

𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
The above equation is so as PV = constant, so for at a certain temperature, the two can be equated.

CHARLES LAW – At a constant pressure, the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature.
Heating a gas causes its particles to gain kinetic energy and move more quickly, meaning that they
move further apart and their volume increases.

PRESSURE LAW – At a constant volume, the pressure of an ideal gas is directly proportional to its
absolute temperature.

Heating a gas causes its particles to gain kinetic energy and move faster, if the volume does not
change, then the particles will collide more often and at higher speeds, so the rate of change of
momentum increases, and so does the force exerted on the walls of the container.

RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS – Average mass of an atom of an element on a scale where c12 has a mass
of exactly 12.
AVOGADROS CONSTANT – The number of atoms in 12g of C12
MOLAR MASS – The mass that 1 mole of that substance would have.

𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝑘𝑇
IDEAL GAS – A gas that follows all three gas laws.

Work must be done to expand or contract a gas at a constant pressure, so energy must be
transferred. 𝑊 = 𝑝∆𝑉

Derivation of the ideal gas equation is in the textbook.

As temperature increases, average speed of molecules increases so the rate of change of momentum
increases meaning that the force exerted on the container increases. For a fixed volume, pressure will
increases as there are more collisions per unit time, and each collision will result in a larger change in
momentum.

If pressure inside the container remains constant, the volume must increase to maintain constant
temperature as a larger volume means that there will be a longer time between collisions so the rate
of change of momentum decreases, and the surface area of the walls will increases, meaning that the
pressure is stopped from increasing.

Assumptions made in kinetic theory are:

- All molecules are identical
- Gases contain large numbers of molecules.
- Molecules have a negligible volume compared to that of the container.
- Molecules move about randomly
- Newtonian mechanics apply
- Collisions are perfectly elastic
- Molecules move in a straight line between collisions
- Forces acting during collisions last for less time than that between collisions.

Ideal gases follow these assumptions.

Average kinetic energy of particles is given by the equations:

1 2
3𝑅𝑇 3𝑘𝑇
𝑚𝑐𝑟𝑚𝑠 = =
2 2𝑁𝑎 2

Total energy can be found by multiplying this by the total number of particles.

Kinetic theory is based on theory and not observations which empirical laws are based on. The gas
laws have been developed over time. New ideas are only accepted once they have been validated
which is when other people repeat the experiments and find the results to be true or using the theory
to make new predictions and testing those too.

Brownian motion gave evidence for the idea that all matter was made from atoms, this helped to
provide more evidence for kinetic theory. Brownian motion is the idea that the motion of particles
suspended in a fluid is random.