Transp Porous Med (2009) 80:253–267

DOI 10.1007/s11242-009-9355-8

Capillary Pressures by Fluid Saturation Profile

Measurements During Centrifuge Rotation

Martin A. Fernø · Øyvind Bull · Pål Ove Sukka ·

Arne Graue

Received: 11 July 2008 / Accepted: 5 February 2009 / Published online: 26 February 2009
© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009

Abstract A novel centrifuge technique to obtain the capillary pressure curve by measur-
ing the local fluid distribution in a spinning core is presented. The Nuclear Tracer Imaging
Centrifuge (NTIC) method measures the fluid saturation profile along the length of the core to
directly obtain the capillary pressure curve. The proposed method is superior to conventional
centrifuge techniques because (1) the capillary pressure curve is obtained at one rotational
speed, (2) core plugs are not removed from the spinning centrifuge for imaging, and (3) no
mathematical solution is needed to calculate the capillary pressure curve. The literature states
that the various mathematical solutions used in conventional centrifuge tests are the greatest
source of error, not the uncertainty in the experimental data. By eliminating the dependence
of such solutions, the NTIC represents an alternative to conventional centrifuge tests, and
may be used to validate the various mathematical procedures applied in conventional cen-
trifuge capillary pressure tests. NTIC may also confirm the applicability of other imaging
techniques that rely on core plug removal for saturation imaging, by verifying if there is no
fluid re-distribution at static conditions.

Keywords Capillary pressure · NTIC · In situ fluid saturations · Centrifugal rotation

1 Introduction

Experimentally obtained capillary pressure curves may directly assist in determining the oil
reserves in hydrocarbon reservoirs by reflecting its oil saturation distribution. This is partic-
ularly useful when assessing the vertical distribution of oil in place in transition zones. The
capillary pressure curve also gives information on petrophysical properties including pore

M. A. Fernø (B) · Ø. Bull · P. O. Sukka · A. Graue

Department of Physics and Technology, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
e-mail: ferno@ift.uib.no

Present Address:
Ø. Bull · P. O. Sukka
StatoilHydro, Bergen, Norway

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254 M. A. Fernø et al.

size distribution, irreducible water saturation, residual oil saturation, and wettability con-
ditions. Centrifuges have traditionally been used in the measurement of capillary pressure
curves, starting from the original work reported by Hassler and Brunner (1945). The majority
of reported centrifuge methods measure the expelled fluid as a function of rotational speed,
and fit the produced volumes to a mathematical model (Chen and Ruth 1995). A variety of
reported mathematical solutions that invert the integral equation, i.e., convert average pro-
duction data as a function of rotational speed to the local fluid saturation as a function of the
capillary pressure, were evaluated by Forbes (1997a). He found that the greatest source of
error in centrifuge tests was not the uncertainty in experimental data, but rather the deviation
from one mathematical solution to the next. The implementation of approximate solutions
may be avoided by direct measurement of the fluid saturation distribution in a core plug dur-
ing centrifugation. This is preferred because it is fast, requires less approximate mathematical
solutions and may produce more reliable results than existing conventional methods. Local
fluid saturation measurements, in combination with average production, will also improve
the estimation of relative permeabilities when using a centrifuge (App and Mohanty 2002).
Methods that measure fluid saturations along the length of a core plug during a flooding
test are frequently reported in the literature. Methods that measure the fluid saturation profile
in centrifuge experiments, however, are not widely reported. Chardake-Riviere et al. (1992)
measured local saturations at three locations along the core using ultrasonic transducers
while spinning to estimate capillary pressure and relative permeability during a centrifuge
test. Other methods for direct measurement of fluid saturation in a centrifugal field using
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are more recently reported (Baldwin and Spinler 1998;
Chen and Balcom 2005). These methods generate a fluid saturation profile in core plugs dur-
ing dynamic operation of a centrifuge, and apply MRI to obtain the fluid saturation profile
at static conditions. Disadvantages with these methods include the need to remove the core
from the centrifuge to obtain the fluid saturation profile, the lack of overburden pressure,
and some limitation on fluids used. Use of X-ray attenuation techniques for fluid saturation
measurements has also been proposed (O’Meara and Vinegar 1988).
A feasibility study to use radioactive tracer technology for measuring the locally distrib-
uted fluid saturations established in the centrifugal field during centrifugation was reported
by Graue et al. (2002). The current study reports improvements made to the experimental
setup and reports novel primary drainage capillary pressure curves. The experimental setup
is improved by (1) installing a Germanium detector with improved gamma energy resolution,
(2) building a more effective collimator to shield the detector and better focus measurements,
(3) including a set of shape factors to correct and optimize detector operation, and (4) gating
the measured gamma radiation to minimize background noise and enhance spatial saturation
measurements. The Nuclear Tracer Imaging Centrifuge (NTIC) method has the following
advantages compared to conventional centrifuge methods and other existing methods for
direct measurement of saturation using centrifuges:

• no need to apply mathematical solutions to average production data for finding the capillary
pressure curve since water saturation along the core is measured directly
• the fluid saturation profile is measured during centrifuge rotation, and hence no need to
remove the core from the centrifuge to obtain fluid saturation profiles.
• possible fluid redistribution during deceleration when removing the core for imaging is
eliminated
• crude oil may be used
• the method has capability to measure the capillary pressure curve at reservoir conditions
with live crude oil

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Capillary Pressures by Fluid Saturation Profile Measurements 255

2 Experimental Setup

The NTIC method is developed and operated in a centrifuge laboratory located at the
Department of Physics and Technology, University of Bergen, Norway. The centrifuge sys-
tem consists of a Beckman J-6B centrifuge, a collimated Germanium detector, an automated
detector positioning rig, a gating device to reduce background noise, and software for data
acquisition.
The Beckman J-6B centrifuge is equipped with a custom-made rotor, capable of carrying
four individual swinging bucket core holders with confinement pressure. Rotational speed
is limited to a self-imposed maximum of 3,000 RPM to avoid fluid spill into the centrifuge
drum in case of failure of the collection cup.
The water saturation profile in a spinning core plug is directly measured by detecting
the emitted gamma energy from the 22 NaCl isotope added to the aqueous phase using a
Germanium (Ge) detector. Ge detectors are semiconductor diodes sensitive to ionizing radi-
ation, particularly X-rays and gamma rays. The detector is cooled by liquid nitrogen at
−196◦ C (77◦ K) during operation. The Ge detector operates at 3.5 kV, and is collimated in
a 200-mm-diameter lead drum to reduce background radiation. The collimator focuses the
measurements to a thin cross-sectional slice of the core. The volume of the cross-sectional
slice is a function of collimator opening and distance from the detector, and is designed to
include the whole core plug diameter in the measuring range (see Fig. 1A). The collimator has
been optimized to focus measurements to a 6-mm-thick cross-sectional slice, thus producing
ten points in the water saturation profile on a 60-mm-long core plug (Sukka 2004). The col-
limated Germanium detector is mounted on an automated positioning rig, and is positioned
just above the centrifuge lid during centrifugation.
The detector is gated to further reduce the background noise. The gating system consists
of a steel disc with a 40◦ slit installed at the bottom of the centrifuge shaft. During each
centrifuge rotation, a photodiode triggers the detector to open only when the slit is directly
under it. The detector is otherwise closed during the remaining rotation. Thus, the gating
system controls the operation of the detector during each rotation, and limits the operation

Fig. 1 A: The geometry of the collimator opening has been optimized to focus measurements to a 6-mm-thick
cross-sectional slice. B: Schematic of centrifuge setup

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256 M. A. Fernø et al.

to 1/9 of a rotation (40◦ of 360◦ , see Fig. 1B). In this way, unwanted radiation from the core
when it is not positioned directly under the detector during spinning is reduced. Thus, the
signal-to-noise ratio is increased and the quality of measurements is improved. The gating
of the detector also effectively increases the resolution of the system since measurement in
each slice along the core is less influenced by the radiation from neighboring slices.
The NTIC method counts, analyzes, and stores the signals from the detector using a MCA
emulator interface program. The emulation software package provides a histogram display
for pulse heights as well as utilizes a computer for display and control functions that would
normally be done in older stand alone multi-channel pulse height analyzers. The software
is designed for germanium detector spectra, and has been tested to operate at speeds above
maximum experimental centrifuge speed (3,000 RPM) to ensure that every signal generated
is recorded and stored.

3 NTIC Calculations

3.1 Water Saturation Calculations

Nuclear techniques that use gamma rays are far less sensitive to the effects of pressure con-
tainment around the core than other imaging techniques, and nuclear isotopes in the aqueous
phase provide explicit fluid saturation values. The radiation intensity is directly proportional
to the fluid saturation, and can be detected with a moveable detector outside the rotating
pressure vessel. A 1D fluid saturation profile can be obtained by measuring along the core.
The water saturation at a location i in the core may be calculated by
ai
Siw = (1)
ai nor m
where ai is the intensity (disintegration per sec) in location i, and ainor m is the intensity during
the normalization scan when the core is fully saturated with water. Intensities at each location
are corrected for a constant, low background radiation. The uncertainty of these parameters
is the inverse ratio of the square root of the number of counts detected, i.e., uncertainty
decreases with increasing number of counts detected, expressed as
1

a = √ (2)
N
where
a is the uncertainty of disintegrations detected, and N is the number of counts. The
uncertainty of the calculated water saturation at a point i along the core may be found by
solving Eq. 3:


  2

a 2

Siw =  i
+
ai

ai nor m (3)
ai nor m ai2nor m

where
Siw is the uncertainty in the calculated water saturation at location i,
ai is the
uncertainty of the disintegrations detected at location i, and
ai nor m is the uncertainty in
intensity during the normalization profile. Under typical experimental conditions,
ai is in
the order of 2%, while
ai nor m is generally smaller (about 1%) due to higher N (see (2)).
Thus, the uncertainly of the calculated water saturation, according to (3), is in the order of
1%.

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Capillary Pressures by Fluid Saturation Profile Measurements 257

In a system with n different phases, n − 1 tracers are required to monitor the fluid move-
ments since the total fluid saturation equals unity. Thus, during oil–water displacements,
when only oil and water are present in the pore space, one tracer is sufficient to image the
fluid development. The factional water saturation, Sw , and fractional oil saturation, So , always
add up to one, and thus is related as Sw = 1 − So . The same is true for air/water fluid systems.
Based on this, a radioactive sodium isotope (22 Na), already present in its natural form, is a
suitable water phase tracer (Bailey et al. 1981).

3.2 Shape Correction Factors

At constant angular velocity, the transverse velocity of each measured cross section along
the core increases with increasing distance from the center of rotation. This implies that
the time each measured point is exposed to the detector during rotation depends on its dis-
tance from the rotational center. The shape of the collimated volume will also depend on
the length of the trajectory for the measured point within the angular counting sector. The
variable detector exposure at points along the core leads to decreasing counting time from
the inlet (closer to the center of rotation) to the outlet of the core. Experimentally, this pro-
duces a decreasing intensity profile with increasing radii, even though the water saturation is
uniformly distributed.
In order to calculate absolute fluid saturation values during drainage, two calibration pro-
files are obtained: one at static conditions and one while the centrifuge is spinning. The
calibration profiles are measured when the core is fully saturated with water (Sw = 1.0). The
spinning calibration profile is measured before the primary drainage is initiated, with the out-
lets closed to avoid water production. This profile is then compared to the static calibration
profile to identify possible leakages. In order to directly compare the shape of the two profiles,
the variable detector exposure along the length of the core during spinning conditions must
be accounted for.
A set of shape correction factors is applied to compare the profiles at static and spinning
conditions. Each factor is found using the inner measuring point as a reference, and normal-
ized with respect to distance from the rotational center (see Fig. 2). Each point generates an
angle, where α and β are the maximum and minimum angles, respectively. Each angle is
normalized with respect to angle α

α
fi = , where θi = {α, .., β} (4)
θi

The set of shape correction factors is applied to correlate the shape in the two Sw = 1.0 inten-
sity profiles obtained at static (0 RPM) and spinning conditions, which then ideally should
match.

Fig. 2 The variable angular velocity at each measuring point during rotation is normalized by calculating
each angle based on the distance from rotational center

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258 M. A. Fernø et al.

3.3 Capillary Pressure Calculations

The centrifugal force varies as a function of distance from the rotational center, and may be
used to calculate a range of capillary pressures. The conventional approach is to assume that
the capillary pressure is zero at the outlet face of the core, based on the work of Hassler and
Brunner (1945). Since the centrifugal pressure varies with distance, and it is assumed that
the pressure is zero at the outlet, a range of capillary pressures is generated along the length
of the core during spinning. The capillary pressure at any point in the core is related to the
distance from the center of rotation, the rotational speed, and the density difference between
the two fluids as
ω2
ρ(ro2 − r 2 )
Pc (r ) = , where r = {ri , . . . ro } (5)
2
where Pc is the capillary pressure, ω is the angular speed of rotation,
ρ is the density dif-
ference, ro is the distance from the center of rotation to the outlet face of the core, and r is
the distance from the center of rotation to any point in the core. r spans from its maximum
value at ro , outlet of core, to its minimum value at ri , at the inlet face of the core.
Equation 5 represents a simplified relation of the forces acting on the distribution of pres-
sures within a spinning rock sample in a centrifugal force field, and does not include cor-
rectional terms for radial and gravitational effects. It has been shown that the radial effect
may introduce an error in the calculation of local saturation from average centrifuge data
(Christiansen 1992; Forbes et al. 1994a). However, based on the geometric indicator (N)
presented by Christiansen (1992), the error introduced by neglecting the radial effect is less
than 1% using the NTIC geometries. The gravitational force, although small, has an effect
on the pressure field in a spinning rock sample in the centrifuge, which may be significant
for unconsolidated, high permeable samples at rotational speeds lower than 150–300 RPM
(Forbes 1997b). Gravity may also affect the procedure of inversion from average saturation
to local saturations in conventional centrifuge methods, whereas the NTIC method relies on
direct measurement of local saturation and is therefore less influenced. Nevertheless, in terms
of rotations per minute, the influence of the gravitational force on the pressure distribution
during rotation is lower than 10 RPM under normal measurements (Forbes 1997b). An uncer-
tainty of 10 RPM is in the same range as the accuracy of the centrifuge used. Hence, although
Eq. 5 does not include correctional terms for radial and gravitational effects, it reasonably
describes the pressure distribution within a spinning core plug using the NTIC method.
A key assumption in the derivation of Eq. 5 is that the capillary pressure is zero at the outlet
of the sample, and that the capillary pressure is only a function of the radial distance when
the RPM is constant (in a fluid-equilibrium system). This implies that a range of capillary
pressures are generated across the length of the core while spinning at constant RPM. Thus,
several capillary pressures vs. saturation points (i.e., the capillary pressure curve) exist for
any rotational speed. If the spatial distribution of the water saturation is measured, there is no
need for an approximate inversion solution since the capillary curve is directly determined
from the fluid saturation and pressure distribution profile.
Following the argument above, only one rotational speed is theoretically needed to gener-
ate most of the interesting portion of, e.g., the primary drainage curve for most porous rocks.
However, the rotational speed must be sufficient for the core inlet to reach irreducible water
saturation, and may be calculated from the Leverett J-function (Brown 1951)

ρω2 (ro2 − r 2 ) J (Swi )σ cos θ
Pc (r ) = ≥  (6)
2 k
φ

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Capillary Pressures by Fluid Saturation Profile Measurements 259

where J is the Leverett value, σ is the normal interfacial tension, θ is the contact angle, k is
the permeability, and φ is the porosity for a given rock.

4 Experimental Procedure

In the conventional centrifuge method, the produced volume at a given rotational speed is
measured to obtain the average saturation, and the local saturation is calculated by, e.g., the
Hassler–Brunner solution (Forbes 1997a). This procedure will produce one saturation point
on the capillary pressure curve for each rotational speed. Hence, several rotational speeds
are required to define the entire capillary pressure curve. In contrast, the NTIC method mea-
sures a range of saturations during a single rotational speed by obtaining the local 1D fluid
saturation profile in the core while spinning. Thus, the part of the drainage or imbibition
capillary pressure curve established in the core plug for the applied rotational speed may
be found directly. For some core materials, one single speed may be sufficient to obtain the
entire transition zone, but for some higher capillary rocks like chalk, two rotational speeds are
usually required to obtain the drainage capillary pressure curve. The experimental procedure
for a primary drainage capillary pressure curve is presented below.

1. Saturate the rock sample. A fully brine saturated (Sw = 1.0) core plug is mounted in the
centrifuge core holder with a net confining pressure and flushed with 5PV of non-radioac-
tive brine to minimize salt absorption. The core is then saturated with the radioactive brine
in a miscible displacement between brine and radioactive brine at a slight backpressure.
2. Calculate rotational speed. A single rotational speed is often sufficient to generate the
entire primary drainage capillary pressure curve (see Eq. 5). It is important, however, that
the rotational speed is high enough to establish irreducible water saturation at the inlet
end of the core plug. This speed may be calculated from the Leverett J-function (see
Eq. 6).
3. Calibrate. A one-dimensional intensity profile at static conditions (0 RPM), with the
core positioned horizontally, is obtained to identify core porosity heterogeneities. Prior
to initiating the primary drainage process, an intensity profile at the desired rotational
speed is obtained at Sw = 1.0 (valves are closed to prevent fluid production). This profile
is used in the calculation of saturation during the subsequent primary drainage.
4. Apply shape correction factors and compare shape. The shape of two intensity profiles
(at 0 RPM and at the calculated rotational speed) are compared when the variable detector
exposure time at each location is accounted for by the shape correction factors. The two
profiles should coincide. Discrepancies may indicate confinement pressure fluid leakage
or outlet end piece leakage. If this is the case, remount the core in the holder and flush
more radioactive brine with backpressure through the core.
5. Initiate primary drainage. When the corrected shape of the static and spinning intensity
profiles coincide, open the valves and initiate the primary drainage. If oil is used to drain
brine from the core, confirm proper fluid circulation. Use balanced core holders if needed
and bring centrifuge up to speed. Use the rotational speed found in step 2.
6. Identify fluid equilibrium. When fluid production terminates (observed visually with the
aid of a stroboscope), the radiation from each point along the core is obtained with the
detector while the core is spinning. Two scans are usually obtained, at some time apart,
after equilibrium is established to ensure that no additional fluid production is observed.
7. Calculate capillary pressure and saturation. The intensity profile obtained after fluid
equilibrium is normalized with the profile generated at Sw = 1.0 (in Step 3), and provides

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260 M. A. Fernø et al.

the in situ saturation along the length of the core. It is recommended to use at least 10
saturation measurements to define the Pc curve for a 60-mm-long core plug. The primary
drainage capillary pressure at each location is calculated using Eq. 5.
The NTIC method has, in principle, the capability to measure the entire capillary pressure
scanning curve, but is currently limited to measurements of the primary and secondary drain-
age curve as well as the forced imbibition curve. The forced imbibition curve is obtained
after the drainage curve simply by turning the core holder 180◦ in the centrifuge so that
the producing cup faces toward the center of rotation. This will ensure that water, due to
higher density, is forced into the core during spinning, and the water saturation profile may
be measured after equilibrium is obtained.

5 Results and Discussion

The effect of improved detector shielding by the lead collimator was investigated in a sep-
arate test prior to the capillary pressure experiments. The intensity of radiation (counts/sec)
was evaluated in 5◦ increments in the 40◦ sector in the circular gating disc. Two emitted
gamma energies were compared to establish the best suited energy to determine the satura-
tion of water. Figure 3 shows the measurements for the two gamma energies from the 22 Na
isotope (511-keV and 1,275-keV) at two locations (inlet and outlet ends) of the core plug.
The 511-keV profile (solid line) drops off to background radiation at ±15 − 20◦ for both the

Fig. 3 Comparing the effect of collimator shielding of the emitted 511 keV and 1,275 keV energy peaks from
the 22 Na radioisotope. The lower-energy peak (511 keV) is effectively stopped in the collimator outside the
measuring range and preferable in fluid saturation calculations

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Capillary Pressures by Fluid Saturation Profile Measurements 261

outlet and inlet slice. The 1275-keV profiles (dotted lines) show only reduced intensities at
±15−20◦ , revealing substantial radiation contribution from neighboring points. This implies
that there exists an overlap and a contribution from neighboring points when measuring the
1,275-keV radiation, which in turn will reduce the resolution of the water saturation profile.
The results demonstrate the improved shielding at 5◦ increment when using the 511-keV
peak compared to 1,275-keV peak, and show that the lower energy is best suited for water
saturation calculations.

5.1 Evaluate Shape in Saturation Profiles

Fluid leaks or redistribution can be identified by comparing the shape of intensity profiles at
static and spinning conditions before a primary drainage test is initiated. Figure 4 shows the
counts/sec profiles as a function of points along the length of the core when fully saturated
with radioactive brine during static (0 RPM—open triangles) and spinning conditions (3,000
RPM—open circles). The decreasing intensity from the inlet (60 mm) towards the outlet
(0 mm) at 3,000 RPM is a result of decreasing exposure time due to increasing distance from
the center of rotation, and is not related to actual decrease in water saturation. The water
saturation is identical for both intensity profiles.
A set of shape correction factors can account for the variable exposure time for each point
along the length of the core. The shape factors were calculated as follows: the distance from
rotational center to the inlet of the core was 117 mm. The distance to the middle of measuring
point 1 was [117 + 0.5 × 6] mm = 120 mm, where the width of each slice measured was
6 mm. The radius of the core sample was 19 mm, resulting in maximum angle α = 8.0◦ (see
Fig. 2). The corresponding value of measuring point 10 was [117 + (9.5 × 6)] mm = 147 mm,
resulting in minimum angle β = 12.5◦ . Each angle between these extremes was calculated,

Fig. 4 Intensity profiles as a function of core length at Sw = 1.0 during 0 RPM (open triangles), 3,000 RPM
(open circles), and 3,000 RPM when corrected for variable detector exposure time. Shape is equal at static
and rotating conditions when applying the shape correction factors

123
262 M. A. Fernø et al.

Table 1 Set of shape correction factors calculated to compensate for variable detector expose times along the
length of the core during spinning

Shape factor f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 f6 f7 f8 f9 f10

Value 1.00 1.11 1.16 1.22 1.27 1.32 1.38 1.43 1.49 1.54

Fig. 5 NTIC primary drainage capillary pressure curves for air/brine and oil/brine fluid displacements

and the shape correction factors were then calculated using eq. (2) (see Table 1). The shape
factors are based on geometrical consideration of the system and will be influenced by the
core radius, length of core, and the distance from rotational center. The shape factors must be
obtained for each core and core holder. Significant deviations in shape between the profiles
at static and spinning conditions after applying shape correction would indicate leakage, lack
of sufficient confinement, or mixing with confinement fluid. The shape factors in Table 1 pro-
vided a satisfactory match between static (0 RPM) and shape corrected dynamic conditions
(red dotted line) in Fig. 4.

5.2 Novel NTIC Drainage Capillary Pressure Curves

Figure 5 shows four primary drainage capillary pressure curves obtained with the NTIC
method, and demonstrate the reproducibility for two displacement processes: air/brine and
oil/brine. Rock properties are found in Table 2. The capillary pressure curves with identical
fluid displacement coincided for most of the saturation range, except for some deviation
at higher water saturations. The outlet end face did not remain fully saturated with water
during rotation, and hence, did apparently not uphold the Hassler–Brunner boundary con-
dition (Pc = 0 and Sw = 1.0 at the outlet). The water saturation at the outlet is further dis-
cussed below. The curves demonstrated a threshold pressure of about 100 and 300 kPa for the
oil/brine and the air/brine drainage, respectively. There was generally an excellent match in

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Capillary Pressures by Fluid Saturation Profile Measurements 263

Table 2 Core plug properties, displacement process, and comparison between saturation calculated using
material balance and in situ imaging

Core Porosity Abs. Perm. Centrifuge <Sw> material <Sw>

(%) (mD) displacement balance in situ saturation
process

B4 47.3 2.53 oil/brine 0.64 0.63

B8 48.2 4.27 air/brine 0.46 0.47
B21 47.2 4.18 oil/brine 0.62 0.63
B28 47.4 4.2 air/brine 0.51 0.56

Fig. 6 The Leverett J-function somewhat improves the agreement between displacement processes in NTIC
primary drainage curves. Water saturation is normalized to experimentally observed saturation values

the average water saturations obtained from material balance (measuring the fluid produced
in the collecting cup) and the average in situ water saturation calculated. Three cores matched
within ±1 saturation point (see Table 2).
Accounting for the differences in permeability, porosity, and interfacial tension between
the cores with the Leverett J-function increased the agreement between the air/brine curves,
but did not bring the air/brine and oil/brine displacement processes closer (see Fig. 6). The
deviation of results with different displacement processes after applying the J-function has
previously been observed by Sabatier (1994); Sallier and Hamon (2005), and Seth and Mor-
row (2007). Each saturation point in Fig. 6 was normalized with respect to the maximum
water saturation measured during the test to force the curves to uphold the Hassler–Brunner
boundary condition. This moved the air/brine curves slightly apart, while the match in the
oil/brine curves remained.

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264 M. A. Fernø et al.

Fig. 7 Comparison of primary drainage capillary curves in strongly water-wet chalk core plugs demonstrates
the consistency between results using the NTIC, the DMS and the conventional centrifuge method

5.3 NTIC Results Compared to Other Centrifuge Techniques

In order to validate the NTIC method as a reliable method for obtaining capillary pressure
curves, the results were compared to conventionally obtained capillary pressure curves and
to data from the direct measurement of the saturation (DMS) method (Baldwin and Spinler
1998) previously published in Graue et al. (1999). Figure 7 demonstrates the consistency
in capillary pressure curves obtained in strongly water-wet chalk using the three different
methods. The water saturation in the conventional capillary pressure curve was calculated
using the Hassler–Brunner equation. The NTIC curves are plotted with normalized water
saturation. The agreement between DMS and NTIC data were generally excellent over the
whole water saturation range. The discrepancy between the capillary pressure curves by
unconventional methods (DMS and NTIC) and the conventionally calculated curves at water
saturations below Sw = 0.2 is related to a weakness in the Hassler–Brunner solution, which
always provides significantly lower saturation values than the true water saturation (Forbes
1994b).

5.4 The Outlet Boundary Condition

The lack of upholding the Hassler–Brunner boundary condition has previously been observed
by several authors who measured saturation profiles in conjunction with centrifuges. All NTIC
capillary pressure curves demonstrated an apparent threshold pressure in the saturation region
Sw = 0.8 − 0.9, suggesting that this point should have been the Sw = 1.0 point, and that the
NTIC normalization procedure introduces errors. However, the experimental condition when
obtaining the normalization and primary drainage intensity profiles was identical, except for
the condition of the valves (open during primary drainage to allow circulation of fluids).

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Capillary Pressures by Fluid Saturation Profile Measurements 265

The valves do not in any circumstance influence the detector used in obtaining the saturation
profiles; thus, an error in the normalization procedure is highly unlikely.
On the other hand, the assumption that the NTIC water saturations are real indicates a
breakthrough of the displacing phase (oil or air) at the outer parts of the core. The literature
refers to this as desaturation of the core bottom, and several authors present results that ques-
tions the Hassler–Brunner boundary condition (Sw = 1.0 at the boundary and Pc = 0 at the
outflow face). Some authors report desaturation above critical rotational speeds (Wunderlich
1985; Bardsen et al. 1991; Forbes et al. 1992), while others present a closely related critical
Bond number (King et al. 1986; O’Meara et al. 1992; Al-Omair and Christiansen 1998).
The lack of consistency between these publications has prevented any definitive conclusion
to be drawn (Forbes 2000). A modified description of the pressure field generated during
centrifugation (Forbes 1997b) has gained attention, and shows that gravity effects may have
greater influence on low capillary pressures than previously expected. These results suggest
that the capillary pressure varies along the core outflow face, allowing end face desaturation
while maintaining fluid connectivity and Pc = 0 (Forbes 2000).
By using MRI to image the distributed water saturation in a core plug after centrifugation,
Green et al. (2007) recently reported the lack of Sw = 1.0 at the outflow face. They speculated
that 100% saturation at the outlet was obtained only in a very thin layer, which could not
be resolved at the spatial resolutions of the MRI (<1 mm). In comparison, the NTIC spatial
resolution is 6 mm, meaning that the water saturation is measured in 6-mm slices along the
length of the core. Depending on the length of the Sw = 1.0 zone, the water saturation in
the outlet slice may or may not be complete. The length of this zone is sensitive to rock
properties, such as porosity distributions and permeability, the interfacial tension between
fluids, and the rotational speed of the centrifuge.

5.5 Application of the NTIC Method

Centrifuges are widely used in the petroleum industry today, both in routine core analysis
to, e.g., establish irreducible water saturations in core plugs, and in special core analysis,
to generate capillary pressure curves and measure relative permeabilities. The new NTIC
method is a special technique that can increase confidence in simulations of centrifuge tests.
The NTIC method does not replace existing techniques, but represents a highly sophisticated
alternative with the capability to validate the mathematical solutions applied in conventional
centrifuge techniques. The main advantage is its capability to simultaneously measure the
fluid saturation profile and average fluid saturation in centrifuge rotation during a single rota-
tional speed. In contrast, conventional techniques measure only the average saturation in the
whole core, using several time-consuming rotational speeds. Moreover, further information
can be extracted from one NTIC test than one conventional centrifuge approach, where sev-
eral tests (e.g., single-speed followed by multi-speed) must be performed to extract as much
information. The local fluid saturation information, in combination with average production
curves, improves the uniqueness of solutions achieved during simulation history match.

6 Conclusions

• The NTIC method directly measures the local saturations along the length of the core dur-
ing centrifuge rotation, and requires only one centrifugal speed to complete the capillary
pressure curve.

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266 M. A. Fernø et al.

• The number of rotational speeds required in a centrifuge test is reduced when using the
NTIC method. Hence, the number of fluid-equilibria is reduced, which is especially useful
in low permeable limestone and chalk, where each equilibrium may take over one month
to establish (Fernø et al. 2007).
• The capillary pressure curves generated with the NTIC method show agreement with other
centrifuge methods, demonstrating its potential.
• The NTIC method has advantages over other in situ capillary pressure measurement meth-
ods (Baldwin and Spinler 1998; Chen and Balcom 2005 ) since there is no need to remove
the core from the centrifuge for saturation imaging.
• There is no restriction to oil phase, and crude oil may be used if preferred. A small amount
of a sodium radioisotope is added to the water phase that does not alter the chemical
composition of the brine.
• At low water saturation values, the NTIC capillary pressure curves disagree with the con-
ventionally calculated Hassler–Brunner saturation values. This demonstrates the known
weakness of the Hassler–Brunner mathematical solution, and illustrates the capability of
the NTIC method.

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