Seminar Report - 2017

1. INTRODUCTION

An offshore wind farm is a wind turbine mounted on a floating structure that

allows the turbine to generate electricity in water depths where bottom-mounted towers
are not feasible and these wind turbines are sited closely together to produce electricity.
The wind can be stronger and steadier over water due to absence of topographic features
that may disrupt wind flow. The electricity generated is sent to shore through undersea
cables. The initial capital cost of floating turbines is competitive with bottom-mounted,
near-shore wind turbines while the rate of energy generation is higher out in the sea as the
wind flow is often more steady and unobstructed by terrain features.

The relocation of wind farms into sea can reduce visual pollution. If the windmills
are sited more than 12 miles (19 km) offshore, provide better accommodation of fishing
and shipping lanes. Floating wind parks are wind farms that site several floating wind
turbines closely together to take advantage of common infrastructure such as power
transmission facilities.

A few 100 meters offshore, winds are twice as strong as on land in much of the
world. Offshore wind energy has huge potential, and floating wind turbines is a promising
technology. Such turbines are now being developed. Criteria for location of an offshore
wind farm are excellent wind condition and suitable water depth. The wind farm must be
situated near a strong onshore wind power grid and near harbours and shipyards. Some
factors governing the need for offshore wind farm are:

• Energy is a major factor in today’s society.

• Alternative fuel and alternative energy resources are in great demand.
• Most of them in the world are looking for more energy-efficient ways to live.
• Hybrid vehicles and other fuel-efficient technology are arising around the world.
• To develop new technology in very little time.

Department of civil engineering 1 M DIT, Kozhikode

 Seminar Report - 2017

2. WIND ENERGY

The exponential growth in the rate of energy consumption is the main cause of
energy shortage, as well as energy resources depletion worldwide. Electricity shortage is
very common in country like India where most of the population (i.e. over 40 percent) has
no access to modern energy services. On an average, electricity demand is expected to
raise 7.4percent annually for next 25 years. According to International Energy Agency,
more than 28 percent share of the world’s total energy will be consumed in India and
China by the year 2030. Therefore a significant amount of energy must come from
renewable sources.

Wind power is an affordable, efficient and abundant source of domestic electricity.

It's pollution-free and cost-competitive with energy from new coal- and gas-fired power
plants in many regions. The wind industry has been growing rapidly in recent years.

To obtain wind power, the kinetic energy of wind is used to create mechanical
power. A generator converts this power into electricity so that it may be used for the
benefit of mankind. Recently, different types of electricity generation have been a
frequent topic of debate amongst experts. Surely, wind energy is one of the frontrunners
of the technological break thoughts that might lead to more efficient energy production.
At a glance, the future of wind energy seems promising. This may be the case, but there
are also some disadvantages that must be considered.

2.1 ADVANTAGES OF WIND POWER

• It’s a clean fuel source: Wind energy doesn’t pollute the air like power plants that
rely on combustion of fossil fuels, such as coal or natural gas. Wind turbines don’t
produce atmospheric emissions that cause acid rain or greenhouse gases.

• It is a domestic source of energy: The nation’s wind supply is abundant. Over the
past 10years, cumulative wind power capacity in the US increased an average of
30% per year, outpacing the 28% growth rate in worldwide capacity.
• It’s sustainable: Wind is actually a form of solar energy. Winds are caused by the
heating of the atmosphere by the sun, the rotation of earth, and the earth’s surface
irregularities. For as long as the sun shines and wind blows, the energy produced
can be harnessed to send power across the grid.
• Wind creates jobs.
• Wind turbines can be built on existing farms.
Department of civil engineering 2 M DIT, Kozhikode
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2.2 DISADVANTAGES OF WIND POWER

• Aesthetic impact: Many people are concerned with the visual effects that wind
turbines have on the beautiful scenery of nature. They believe that giant wind
turbines distract viewers from the beautiful surroundings.

• Wildlife: Wind turbines may be dangerous to birds. Many birds and bats have been
killed by flying into the rotors.
• Remoteness of location: Although this may be an advantage (placing wind turbines
in desolate areas, far away from people), it may also be a disadvantage. The cost of
travel and maintenance on the turbines increase and is time consuming. Offshore
wind turbines require boats and can be dangerous to manage.
• Noise: Some wind turbines tend to generate a lot of noise which can be unpleasant.
• High initial investments: Depending on how energetic a wind site is, the wind farm
might not be cost competitive but the technology requires a higher initial
investment.

Department of civil engineering 3 M DIT, Kozhikode

 Seminar Report - 2017

3. OFFSHORE WIND FARM LAYOUT

Primary components of a typical offshore wind farm include several wind turbines
located in the water, connected by a series of cables to an offshore transformer station
which in turn is connected by an undersea cable to an onshore transformer station linked
to the existing power grid (Fig 3.1). The wind turbines are usually spaced laterally at
several (4 to 8) times the rotor diameter and staggered so as to minimize wave effects.
Placing turbines closer reduces the quantity of electric cable required but it increases
turbulence and wave effects thereby reducing power generation. Therefore, laying out
wind turbine farms includes minimizing the length of cabling required yet maximizing
power generation so as to optimize costs per unit of power produced.

Fig 3.1. Wind farm components and layout

3.1 WIND TURBINE COMPONENTS

The components of a wind turbine system (Fig 3.2) include the foundation, the
support structure, the transition piece, the tower, the rotor blades and the nacelle. The
foundation system and support structure, used to keep the turbine in its proper position
while being exposed to the forces of nature such as wind and sea waves, can be made
using a variety of materials such as reinforced concrete or steel. Support structures
connect the transition piece or tower to the foundation at seabed level. In some cases, the
foundations serve as support structures as well by extending from the seabed level to
above the water level and connecting directly to the transition piece or tower. The
transition piece connects the tower to the support structure or foundation. The transition
piece also provides a means to correct any misalignment of the foundation that may have

Department of civil engineering 4 M DIT, Kozhikode

 Seminar Report - 2017

occurred during installation. The towers are made of steel plate rolled into conical
subsections that are cut and rolled into the right shape, and then welded together. The
nacelles contain the key electro-mechanical components of the wind turbine, including the
gearbox and generator. The rotor blades are made of fiberglass mats impregnated with
polyester or carbon fiber composites. The power cable from each turbine is inserted in a
“J” shaped plastic tube which carries the cable to the cable trench in the seabed.

Fig 3.2.Wind turbine components

Department of civil engineering 5 M DIT, Kozhikode

 Seminar Report - 2017

4. DESIGN PROCESS

The design process involves an initial site selection followed by an assessment of

external conditions, selection of wind turbine size, subsurface investigation, assessment of
geo- hazards, foundation and support structure selection, developing design load cases,
and performing geotechnical and structural analyses. A flow diagram for the design
process of a typical offshore wind turbine is shown in Fig 4.1.

Fig 4.1 Design Process for a typical offshore wind turbine

Department of civil engineering 6 M DIT, Kozhikode

 Seminar Report - 2017

4.1 SITE SELECTION

Besides favorable wind conditions, factors that govern selection of a wind farm
site include site availability, visibility and distance from shore, proximity to power
demand sites, proximity to local electricity distribution companies, potential impact to
existing shipping routes and dredged channels, interference with telecom installations,
buried under-sea cables and gas lines, distance from local airports to avoid potential
interference with aircraft flight paths and interference with bird flight paths. An offshore
wind farm faces numerous challenges in all phases. Locating the wind array farther from
shore obviously will reduce visual impact. Obtaining suitable connections to the power
grid and early collaborations with various suppliers of the wind turbine and cable systems
are crucial for the successful project design and implementation.

4.2 ASSESSMENT OF EXTERNAL CONDITIONS

Following initial site selection, the developer makes an assessment of external

conditions such as the level of existing wind conditions, water depth, currents, tides, wave
conditions, and ice loading, the site geology and associated geo-hazards, such as sea-floor
mudslides, scour and seismic hazards.

4.3 DESIGN LOADS

Since wind loading is the dominant loading on an offshore wind turbine structure,
it results in dynamics characteristics that are different from the wave and current loading
that dominates the design of foundations for typical oil and gas installations. The loading
on wind turbine foundations is characterized by relatively small vertical loading and larger
horizontal and moment loads which are also dynamic. The design loads are classified into
permanent, variable and environmental loads.

4.3.1 Permanent loads

Permanent loads include the mass of the structure in air, including the mass of
grout and ballast, equipment, or attachments which are permanently mounted onto the
access platform and hydrostatic forces on the various members below the waterline. These
forces include buoyancy also.

Department of civil engineering 7 M DIT, Kozhikode

 Seminar Report - 2017

4.3.2 Variable loads

Variable loads are loads that may vary in magnitude, position and direction during
the period under consideration. These include personnel, crane operational loads, ship
impacts from service vessels, access ladders, platforms and variable ballast etc. Loads that
arise during fabrication and installation of the wind turbine or its components also classify
as variable loads. During fabrication, erection lifts of various structural components
generate lifting forces, while in the installation phase forces are generated during load out,
transportation to the site, launching and upending, as well as during lifts related to
installation. The necessary data for computation of all operating loads are provided by the
operator and the equipment manufacturers. The data need to be critically evaluated by the
designer. Forces generated during operations are often dynamic or impulsive in nature and
must be treated as such.

4.3.3 Environmental loading

Environmental loads depend on the site climate and include loads from wind,
wave, ice, currents and earthquakes and have a greater degree of uncertainty associated
with them. These loads are time dependent, covering a wide range of time periods ranging
from a fraction of a second to several hours. These loads act on the wind tower through
different load combinations and directions under different design conditions.

4.4. TYPICAL SUPPORT SUBSTRUCTURES

Foundation selection considerations for offshore wind turbines include:

• Soil Conditions that facilitate installation and performance,

• Drivability for driven piles and penetrability for suction anchors,
• Constructability and logistics of installation, including Contractor experience and
availability of equipment.
• Costs of fabrication, availability of steel and other materials.
• Environmental impact considerations.

Department of civil engineering 8 M DIT, Kozhikode

 Seminar Report - 2017

Fig 4.2 Offshore wind turbine development for deep water

First offshore wind facilities were built in locations close to the coast with
foundations below 25 meters and with favorable geotechnical properties, mainly sand.
Most of them were founded on steel monopile foundations and gravity based structures
foundations. As time passed, these facilities were extending to greater depths which,
added to an increasing size of wind turbine generators, led to other, more complex
foundation solutions appearing, such as tripod and jackets (see fig 4.2 and 4.3).

• Steel monopiles: They are deep and individual foundations that, by means of their
driving or/and drilling in the ground, achieve the load transmission. They are
competitive foundations for small and medium size wind turbine generators, although
can be competitive also for some big wind turbine generators. Their mass production
and their installation are easy, being the most difficult question to find suitable vessels
for their transportation and installation.
• Gravity Based Structures (also called GBS): They are able to maintain the stability
facing any conditions, only by means of the own weight of the structure. These
foundations are competitive when environmental loads are relatively limited and when
the own weight of the structure are significant. They are indicated when it does not
exist construction methods for another type of foundations. Also when it is high the
mobilization cost of the installation methods. This is because they are pre-cast

Department of civil engineering 9 M DIT, Kozhikode

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concrete structures in a port close to the final location of the offshore wind farm. They
can be manufactured by some constructor companies; in fact, there are research
projects looking for the optimization of this kind of structures for the offshore wind
industry.
• Tripods and jackets: They are steel tubular foundations inspired in the oil platform.
These foundations have been short tested up to this moment, but their future is too
promising. The diameters of the tubes forming part of them are, generally, between 1.5
and 2 meters. In particular, jackets used for offshore wind farms are tubular lattice
with four legs that, due to the small diameters of the tubes, are little exposed to the
wave and the currents; then, they are appropriate for severe maritime weather. And, on
the other hand, tripods have a central column below the wind turbine tower, following
the monopile philosophy somehow, but connected by means of a tubular structure to
three inferior legs.

Fig 4.3 Fixed bottom substructure technology

Department of civil engineering 10 M DIT, Kozhikode

 Seminar Report - 2017

4.5 FATIGUE

Fatigue is the process of gradual damage done to materials when subjected to

continually changing stresses. Due to these repeated stress changes, the material slowly
deteriorates, initiating cracks which will eventually propagate and lead to eventual failure.
Offshore wind turbines are by default subjected to loads varying in time from wind as well
as waves. This means that the stresses on the support structure will also vary continuously
making them prone to fatigue. Tubular steel structures such as monopiles, braced lattice
frames and tripods in deep water and exposed to wave loading are particularly susceptible
to fatigue.

Fatigue evaluation during design involves comparing the intended design life of
the structure with its predicted fatigue life as limited by “hot-spot” stresses, i.e. areas of
high local stress reversals. Fatigue, which spans the lifetime of the structure, is
particularly sensitive to any changes in the dynamic stiffness of the foundation.

4.6 OTHER CONSIDERATIONS

• Corrosion Protection: Since the most intensive corrosion typically occurs in the
splash zone, the transition piece is usually provided with a heavy duty protective
coating. To protect the underwater part of the transition piece and piles against
corrosion, sacrificial cathodic protection (in addition to the shop-applied coating) is
used.

• Scour Potential: A site specific study should be performed to assess potential

scouring of the seafloor. Typical scour protection measures include scour mats made
up of buoyant polypropylene fronds and polyester webbing which is anchored securely
to the seabed or crushed rock mattresses.
• Marine Growth: The plant and animal life on the site causes marine growth on
structural components in the water and in the splash zone. The potential for marine
growth should be addressed, since it adds weight to the structural components of the
system and may increase hydrodynamic loads. Special paints and coatings are
available that prevent marine growth.
• Impact from Ship Collision: Accidents between ships and wind farms can result in
damage to the wind farm, the ship and the local environment in a variety of ways.
Although the probability of occurrence of ship collisions should be relatively low, the
consequences could be serious. Accordingly, mitigating measures are warranted.

Department of civil engineering 11 M DIT, Kozhikode

 Seminar Report - 2017

Mitigation techniques involve a two pronged approach. Reduce frequency of collision

and reduce consequences of collision. Collision risks can be reduced by passive
measures, such as proper marking of the wind farm and the individual wind turbines
using classical techniques as marking lights, painting, buoys or by active measures
such radar based ship detection in combination with emergency towing capabilities.

Department of civil engineering 12 M DIT, Kozhikode

 Seminar Report - 2017

5. RELIABILITY, AVAILABILITY AND MAINTENANCE

ASPECTS OF LARGE-SCALE OFFSHORE WIND FARMS

At present a relatively small amount of wind turbines have been placed in an

offshore environment. Most of the projects so far have been realized in small farms in
rather benign sites. It is probable that future large-scale offshore wind farms will be
equipped with considerably larger wind turbines. Such large-scale wind farms will also
comprise a substantial number of such large wind turbines (typically about 100). It is by
no means evident that such large wind turbines will be scaled up versions of the presently
applied onshore wind turbines. One of the reasons is that the offshore environment yields
different loads and constraints, which may lead to another design solution. Another reason
is that the scale of the farm, the economy of operating and the ease of maintenance of such
a farm may dominate design choices.

Apart from the size of future offshore wind farms there is another evident and
important difference with on shore wind farms. Not only the installation is more difficult
and more expensive but also building wind turbines offshore has a major impact on the
accessibility for maintenance purposes. It may well be that the complete wind farm is
inaccessible by boat or helicopter for a period of one or two months because of harsh
weather conditions (wind and waves). And even when weather permits access to the
turbines, the cost of offshore maintenance is far higher than the equivalent job on shore.
Lifting actions are performed relatively easy on land, but in an offshore environment
require special, and therefore expensive and sometimes scarce equipment.

5.1 TERMS & CONDITIONS

• Reliability of a system is the probability that the system will perform its tasks. This
probability is usually determined as a percentage of time. For a wind turbine this
indicates percentage of time it is producing the power that corresponds to the acting
wind according to its nominal power curve.

• Availability is the probability that the system is operating satisfactorily. The major
difference between reliability and availability is the O&M strategy of the system. A
system can be very reliable: i.e. its failure frequency is extremely low, but when no
maintenance or repair action is taken after a failure its availability becomes very poor.
• Maintainability is a more qualitative issue that addresses the ease of repair issue. It
can though be expressed in terms of hours needed to complete a repair action.

Department of civil engineering 13 M DIT, Kozhikode

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• Serviceability regards in a similar way the ease of regular (scheduled) service.

• Failure is the termination of the ability to perform a required function of a system.
• Accessibility is the percentage of time that a (offshore) construction can be
approached. Evidently the accessibility depends upon the equipment used.

5.2 RELIABILITY

It was realized that the on shore level of failure rates (2.20 failures yearly) was not
adequate for offshore application, so an effort was made as well to assess improved
components. Per component category the following types of improvements are
considered:

• selection of the most reliable implementation (e.g. an electric yaw/pitch system

instead of an hydraulic system)
• adding redundancy to (sub-)components
• using MIL-specs components
This resulted in an estimate of reduced average failure frequencies that can be
achieved when rather simple measures are taken to modify the current onshore designs.
Evidently there is a cost penalty related to such increase in reliability. This will vary from
component to component.

5.3 MAINTAINABILITY

Maintenance (repair) actions have to be taken about two times a year. Usually a
repair action is taken by a crew of two persons that drive to the failed wind turbine with a
service van. At the spot they enter the wind turbine and try to determine the cause of the
failure and either start their repair action or come to the conclusion that extra equipment
and/or spare parts are needed for the repair action. The extra equipment can either be
"sky-work" utensils or a crane for heavier lifting operations. The repair time can be
anything between an hour (a simple inspect and reset action) to some days, when an
exchange of a major component turns out to be necessary. Reduction of maintenance
effort is essential when locating wind turbines offshore. At first there is the cost issue.
Offshore work is between 5 to 10 times more expensive than work on land. A second
example stressing the need reduction of maintenance demand is the so-called cranage
problem. A standard onshore wind turbine requires a lifting operation every 3 to 5 years.

Department of civil engineering 14 M DIT, Kozhikode

 Seminar Report - 2017

5.4 SERVICEABILITY

The service demand of the presently manufactured wind turbines in terms of man-
hours is in the order of 40 to 80 hours. Service visits are paid regularly and usually (except
in the more demanding first year) about every 6 months. Often a more intensive service
action has to be taken every five years. At that service shut down, which will take around
100 man-hours, some major components are overhauled and worn out parts are replaced.
It will be clear that reduction of the number of service visits to wind turbines in an
offshore wind farm must be aimed at.

5.5 OPERATION & MAINTENANCE COST

Significant cost and schedule savings can be achieved by evaluating each step of
the construction process and assuring that it is indeed necessary and being performed in
the most efficient manner. Minor changes in design can often lead to significant changes
in the construction process, such as reducing the number of construction steps or
removing a construction step altogether. Therefore, designers should be familiar with the
construction processes involved and be able to assess that would consider a
constructability review as well as schedule and cost analysis.

The wind farm at Scroby Sands in Norfolk, United Kingdom is an example of how
minor design changes can lead significant savings in construction schedule and costs. The
designers decided to make minor modifications to the monopile by welding a flange to
which the wind tower could be bolted thereby getting rid of the transition piece and the
expensive grouting used to connect it to the monopile altogether.

Maintenance cost is also a consideration in the overall wind farm economics and
should be considered in the early phases of the development project. The operation of
wind turbines at sea is much more challenging than onshore operations. Offshore
maintenance and operations involve more costs, since the sea conditions are more
irregular and extreme, a higher level of specialist expertise is required, stricter security
requirements must be met and longer travel times are involved.

Maintenance is categorized into preventive and corrective maintenance. Preventive

maintenance comprises planned turbine maintenance according to a fixed maintenance
schedule at intervals of 4 to 6 months. Corrective maintenance is required when a
malfunction has occurred. In some cases, it is possible to remedy the problem remotely. In
other cases, a visit to the turbine is required. The costs of maintaining the turbines can add

Department of civil engineering 15 M DIT, Kozhikode

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up over their design life and should be considered in the initial financial rate of return
analyses.

Key factors to be considered when estimating costs for operational maintenance include:

• Distance from port

• Availability of boats
• Weather and insurance premiums.

Offshore turbines cost 1/3 of total project cost. Thus if a turbine gross larger then,

• Foundation cost decreases

• Electrical infrastructure cost decreases

• Operational expenses decreases

• More energy is generated per area.

Fig 5.1 Offshore wind life – cycle cost

Department of civil engineering 16 M DIT, Kozhikode

 Seminar Report - 2017

6. SUSTAINABLE DECOMMISSIONING OF AN OFFSHORE WIND

FARM

Offshore wind farms are relatively new, and therefore owner /operators have been
mainly concerned with improving installation techniques and achieving operational
efficiency. Despite the potentially large costs, logistical difficulties and environmental
Impacts, decommissioning has been given little attention to date. This is an important
matter because decommissioning is a significant part of any project, and should be
considered from the very beginning, from the design stage, as if not done then, impacts
can become more severe and costs can be higher than expected. Decommissioning is the
last phase in a project’s lifecycle and can be considered as the opposite of the installation
phase. The first offshore wind energy project to be decommissioned took place in 2016,
Yttr Stengrud, a 10 MW project with five 2 MW turbines which operated for more than a
decade, significantly less than the expected lifetime of 20-25 years .

An important early observation is that the requirements of a decommissioning

scheme are unique to each site, when referred to the operating procedures regarding the
site characteristics and the time, the type of structures involved, the equipment used, or the
market conditions and contractual terms. On the one hand, this complicates the
development of a general methodology that could be applied to any wind farm. On the
other hand, the majority of offshore wind farms that will be decommissioned in the next
decade will be monopile foundations, in relatively shallow waters (less than 50 m), and
with few small sized turbines, which will give the opportunity for decommissioning teams
to learn in “easy” environments. It is highly likely that, before a complete dismantling of
the site, repowering or refurbishment options will be studied by the owner/operator.

Repowering involves the replacement of the existing turbines into more powerful
ones, needing less for the same capacity and after having proof that the site is ideal for
exploiting wind energy at that site. It is sometimes taken into account since the very
beginning and not as a final decision, and so the seabed is leased for twice as long the
usual (40 or 50 years instead of 20-25).Refurbishment involves the replacement of minor
elements of the project such as the drive train and the rotor and keeping if possible,

the tower, foundations and cables. This would allow existing projects to be updated to
increase energy production.

Department of civil engineering 17 M DIT, Kozhikode

 Seminar Report - 2017

For the Yttre Stengrund project refurbishment was considered, but due to the
difficulty of getting hold of spare parts and the huge costs involved in upgrading the
turbines and gearboxes, it became financial and technically unviable and the decision to
decommission became relatively straightforward.

With the installation of offshore wind farms increasing rapidly, future decommissioning
will become an important issue for the industry.

6.1 END OF LIFE OF A WIND FARM

The designed lifetime of an offshore wind farm is expected to be 20-25 years.

During the design stage, considerations should be taken to ease and reduce the
decommissioning costs. The operations chosen will depend on the site’s specific factors
such as the foundation type, the specialized equipment and vessels available, the distance
to ports, the water depth and the weather conditions. The main scope is to transport
structures as complete as possible, simplifying the operations offshore and reducing the
time and economic expenditure. This is because offshore lifting is risky and dependant on
wind speed, so the preference should be to maximize onshore disassembly.

The decommissioning of an offshore wind farm can be divided in to three different

phases:

• Project management and planning, where the operations are scheduled taking into
account the time and costs involved, and trying to achieve the most efficient and
sustainable solution.
• The removal of the structures themselves.
• Post decommissioning processes such as the destination of the removed elements or
the monitoring of the sites’ recovery.

Repowering can also be considered as a type of decommissioning but with the

subsequent installation of more powerful wind turbines (heavier) trying to keep the
majority of the electrical system (cables and substations), reducing the capital costs of the
new project. The lifetime of the foundations will depend on the type and the loads it
receives, and can be projected to last over 100 years for gravity bases. On the electrical
side, array and export cables (transmission cables) could last more than 40 years, and the
transformers 35 years.

Department of civil engineering 18 M DIT, Kozhikode

 Seminar Report - 2017

6.1.1. Elements to remove

The structures that constitute a wind farm require different actions to be removed
and will usually require specific equipment.

➢ Turbines: As there are different methodologies used to install a wind turbine, there
will also be several ones to dissemble it. The procedure performed will depend on the
size and weight of the turbine, and will determine the lifting capacity and vessel’s
deck space. The majority of procedures proposed are the reverse of the installation
techniques .The disconnection procedures of the elements involved in a wind turbine
will differ, including the location of cutting cables.
➢ Foundations: The operations performed will mainly depend on the type of
foundation. Specialized vessels are required due to the heavy lifting as consequence of
the high weight of the foundations. There are two removal options proposed: the
complete removal of the foundation, or the cutting from a certain depth below the mud
line and leaving the rest in situ, so that it will not disturb the site’s activities. Cutting
and leaving in situ the rest is usually the preferred option as it reduces the risks, it is
more economical to perform, and the site is disturbed less. Land filling will be
necessary to cover the hole left after the foundation is removed. The foundation’s
removal operations will be fairly dissimilar depending on the type of foundation.
➢ Subsea cables: Subsea cables include both inter-array cables and export cables. They
are usually buried into depths of more than a meter below the seabed, which will not
pose safety risks for marine users and have limited environmental or pollution impacts
although this depends on the cable technology adopted. Cables can be partially or
wholly removed, but this will generally depend on if the cable is buried or not, as the
total removal of covered cables will involve extreme costs. Monitoring is important so
that cables do not become exposed, and if this happens, appropriate burial actions are
carried.
➢ Scour protection: Marine life will have flourished around scour protecting any
element of the wind farm, therefore it is sometimes difficult to determine if it is better
to remove it, or leave it. As a general rule, scour will be left in situ, but if it is
considered preferable to be recovered, then it will be dredged and shipped for reuse, or
to a disposal site.

If there is rock fill, the individual boulders can be collected with the help of a grab
vessel, loading them on a hopper barge and transporting them for reuse or disposal. If

Department of civil engineering 19 M DIT, Kozhikode

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there are frond mats, concrete aprons or other cable protections, a crane vessel is
used, and their recycling can be studied.

➢ Onshore elements: There is still no requirement for the decommissioning of the

onshore cables from an offshore wind farm, so their complete removal might not be
considered. Any onshore cables that are buried can be studied to be left in situ where
appropriate, as the potential environmental impacts involved will be similar to the
ones during the installation. The onshore converter substations and any other
structures must be properly dismantled, restoring the land to its original state.

Department of civil engineering 20 M DIT, Kozhikode

 Seminar Report - 2017

7. OFFSHORE WIND POWER FOR MARINE

CONSERVATION

Human pressures have resulted in biodiversity loss and structural changes in

marine ecosystems on local and global scales, with the seas of northern Europe being
among the most affected. This has created a need for marine conservation efforts, and
during the last decade the use of ecosystem-based spatial approaches has conspicuously
accelerated. Marine conservation areas, often referred to as marine protected areas
(MPAs), imply that human activities are restricted within designated areas in order to
create safe havens for valuable populations or ecosystems. The level of regulation varies
among different MPAs and strongest protection is typical where fishing is restricted or
prohibited (marine reserves).

7.1 MARINE LIFE IN OFFSHORE WIND FARMS

The aim of conservation is to preserve or enhance pristine ecosystems or promote

and provide protection for threatened populations and species. For offshore wind farms to
function in favor of marine conservation the long term viability of these ecological entities
must be higher inside the wind farm area than outside the area and before the installation.
For effective conservation positive effects should also diffuse out to surrounding areas.
Wind farms have different effects on different taxa and the potential for conservation
benefits are therefore dependent on the specific target for conservation. It may also
include wind farm induced changes to seabed habitats, fish, marine animals etc.

7.2. DIRECT BENEFITS FOR CONSERVATION — WIND FARMS

FUNCTIONING AS REEFS

Under water the most striking effect of wind farms is the introduction of hard
substrate and the associated colonization and attraction of fauna (the “reef effect”). This
kind of habitat enhancement and increased biodiversity in areas of hard bottom scarcity is
often regarded as positive, which is illustrated by the common practice of installing
artificial reefs for conservation purposes in parts of the world. The artificial reefs provide
space for settlement, shelter, foraging and for some species recruitment. While this is not
necessarily a means of effective conservation it may be a way of strengthening affected
populations. In some cases artificial reefs have been created specifically for conservation
purposes. In other cases man- made structures, such as oil platforms, have been shown to
improve biodiversity and benefit endangered species with time

Department of civil engineering 21 M DIT, Kozhikode

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7.3. INDIRECT BENEFITS FOR CONSERVATION— WIND FARMS

FUNCTIONING AS MARINE RESERVES

The potential restriction of fishing is likely the most potent benefit of offshore
wind farms from a conservation point of view. Trawling is always prohibited for safety
reasons. At locations previously exposed to bottom trawl fisheries this means an
elimination of disturbance for fish, benthos and benthic habitats. At shallow locations
fishing is typically carried out through gillnet fishing rather than trawling. If this means
fishing is also prohibited or reduced positive impacts will be even larger. By reducing
gillnet fishing not only fish but also marine mammals and potentially diving birds are
relieved from catch and bycatch.

7.4 AWARENESS AND NEGATIVE IMPACTS

The development of offshore wind farms in ecologically valuable areas obviously

requires strong precautions during the potentially harmful phases: prospecting, installation
and decommissioning. For instance, if acoustic disturbance from seismic operations, pile-
driving or decommissioning explosions kill or significantly disturb endangered animals
during their spawning or nursing periods this damage may overshadow any subsequent
conservation benefits.

Department of civil engineering 22 M DIT, Kozhikode

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8. FEASIBILITY OF OFFSHORE WIND FARMS IN INDIA

India is the country of population 1.252 billion in 2013 increasing annually at the
rate of 1.2%. Of the 1.252 billion population of India, approximately 300 million people
have no access to electricity. Energy shortage up to 11.3% is anticipated for Southern and
North Eastern regions of India according to a May 2015 report published by India's
Central Electricity Authority. There is need to generate new electricity to fulfill these
demands. There is increase in share of renewable energy sources as new technologies are
discovered. Wind energy is one of the most considered energy source which humans are
using from thousands of years. Generation of electricity through wind farm is one of the
key sources of energy in India. The onshore wind farms require more land. India has total
7600 km of coastline with three sides surrounded by the sea. Offshore wind farms
nowadays, because of new technologies and its benefits are globally getting accepted.
Over the open water surface the average wind speed is considerably higher which why
there is enough wind available for wind turbines. As compared to onshore wind turbines,
offshore wind turbines are less obstructive.

8.1 OFFSHORE WIND FARMS IN INDIA

Europe is leading in the generation of electricity by using offshore wind farms.

There are total 45 offshore wind farms, in 9 European countries, having average size of
wind farms of 3.2 MW. As India has the large coastline of length about 7600 km and most
of the land is surrounded by the sea, the country can produce well amount of electric
energy with the help of offshore wind farms. In India 22 GW of onshore wind capacity
already installed, India’s plans to expand offshore are worth learning from. The Indian
Government will provide subsidy for surveys and studies, as well as obtaining clearances
involved for the implementation of the project. The feasible areas for the installation of
offshore wind farm may include Gujarat coast, Tamil Nadu coast and Kerala coast.

8.2 ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS

The distance of wind farm from the shore inside the sea is directly related with its
effect on human societies. Though the floating platforms don’t harm the sea bed, the wind
turbines can directly or indirectly affect some sea water habitats. The sea birds can get
harm due to wind turbines while flying over that area. The sea species may get disturbed
directly due to the wind turbines in the following sense

• Noise

Department of civil engineering 23 M DIT, Kozhikode

 Seminar Report - 2017

• Vibration
• Physical Intrusion
• Visual Intrusion
• Interruption of known used routes
• Disturbance due to maintenance access during operation
• Potential barrier effects.
Seals can only get affected by pile driving operations, No general change in the behavior
of seals at sea or on land could be linked to the construction or operation of the wind farm.

Department of civil engineering 24 M DIT, Kozhikode

 Seminar Report - 2017

9. ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF AN OFFSHORE

WIND FARM

9.1 ADVANTAGES

• Offshore wind speeds tend to be faster than on land. Small increases in wind speed
yield large increases in energy production: A turbine in a 15mph wind can generate
twice much energy as a turbine in a 12mph wind. Faster wind speeds offshore mean
much more energy can be generated.
• Offshore wind speeds tend to be steadier than on land.
• Many coastal areas have very high energy needs. Building OWF in these areas can
help to meet those energy needs from nearby sources.
• They provide renewable energy.
• They do not consume water.
• They provide a domestic energy source.
• They create jobs.
• They do not emit environmental pollutants or greenhouse gases.

9.2 DISADVANTAGES

• OWF can be expensive and difficult to build and maintain:

▪ Wave action and very heavy storm may affect wind turbines.
▪ The production and installation of power cables under seafloor are very
expensive.
▪ It is very hard to built robust and secure wind farms in water deeper than
around 60 m.
• Effects of OWF on marine animals and birds are not fully understood.
• OWF built within view of the coastline (up to 26 miles offshore) may be unpopular
among local residents and may affect tourism and property values.

Department of civil engineering 25 M DIT, Kozhikode

 Seminar Report - 2017

10. CASE STUDY

1. The Vindeby wind farm in Denmark is named as the world’s first offshore wind farm,
which is constructed in the year 1991. The Vindeby is located in the country Denmark
and installed in the Great Belt Sea having GPS latitude 54.96 and GPS longitude
11.13. It has an alternative name as Ravens berg and is spread on area 3 km2. The
wind turbines are installed in two rows having 5 and 6 turbines in a row respectively.
2. The Walney wind farms have a total combined capacity of 367.2MW and have been
operational since July 2011 and June 2012 respectively. Offshore wind could deliver
c.20-50% of total UK electricity generation by 2050 supporting the reduction of
carbon emissions targets of 80%, which depends primarily on the constraints
(economic, technical or public acceptance) to alternatives (onshore wind, nuclear, and
CCS), and on the overall energy demand(fig 10.1).

Fig10.1 Walney wind farms

Department of civil engineering 26 M DIT, Kozhikode

 Seminar Report - 2017

11. CONCLUSION

Wind farms are one of the most considerable renewable energy sources since last
few decades. When there is comparison between the offshore wind farms and on shore
wind farms, the offshore wind farms has more advantages. Hence, offshore wind farms
should be adopted as feasible renewable energy source which will fulfill the electricity
consumption of the increasing population to meet the universal demand for clean, cost-
effective energy. The rated power-generation capacity of individual OWTs, and also of
wind farms, has increased many-fold over the past two decades, with strong growth
projected to continue for the near- to-medium future. Concepts for floating foundation
systems for OWT structures are also emerging, which will allow installations even farther
offshore, thereby benefiting from relatively higher wind speeds/power generation.
However, compared with conventional fossil-fuel fired technologies, initial capital
investment costs are both comparatively higher, particularly for offshore, on account of
challenges associated with the harsh marine environment.

Having the benefits of sea shore, there is immense potential for the development of
offshore wind farms in India. Offshore wind farm are available in the state of Gujarat and
Tamil Nadu, as there is sufficient wind speed and other necessary natural resources. This
report will assist wind farm developers and engineers in identifying various issues that are
likely to arise in the development phase of an offshore wind farm.

Department of civil engineering 27 M DIT, Kozhikode

 Seminar Report - 2017

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Department of civil engineering 28 M DIT, Kozhikode