230 PART II + RESEARCH DESIGN FORMULATION reflected in the number of product improvements Tide has made, P&G had modified this produ times in its 21 years of existence. It also makes modifications to cater to market segments such as geogra- phies, For example, a Tide bar was introduced in the Indian market after considering the opinion of its Indian users.°> Mt Observation Methods observation Observation involves ce as eset ¢ behavioral patterns of ee eee le, objects, and as ina The recording of behavior systematic manner to obtain information about the phenomenon of interest. The observer patters of people. obits. does not question or communicate with the people being observed. Information may be and events in a systematic recorded as the events occur or from records of past events. Observationa’ methods may be ‘manner to obtain structured or unstructured, direct or indirect. Fucthermore, observation may be conducted in a eter nation Doi Ae) natural or contrived environment. phenomenon of interes, Structured Versus Unstructured Observation structured observation 1 example would be an auditor performing inventory analysis, Obsenation techniques “in store. This reduces the potential for observer bias and enhances the reliability of the data. where the researcher dearly Structured observation is appropriate when the marketing research problem has been clearly Gefines the behavioss tbe defined and the information needed has been specified. In these circumstances, the details of the chseved andthe methods phenomenon to be observed can be clearly identified. Structured observation is suitabe for use in ty which they val be measured. conclusive research. Observation that moves flexibility is needed in observation to identify key components of the problem and to develop ‘esearcher monitoring all ypotheses. In unstructured observation, potential for observer bias is high. For this reason, ‘elvant phenomena the observation findings should be treated as hypotheses to be tested, rather than as conclusive wout sping tHe Fngngs. Thus, unstructured observation is most appropriate for exploratory research. Disguised Versus Undisguised Observation inis fo behave naturally, since people fend to behave differently when they know they are being observed, Disguise may be accomplished by using one-way mirsors, hidden ‘cameras, or inconspicuous mechanical devices. Observers may be disguised as shoppers or sales clerks or in other appropriate roles. example, they may be aware ofthe presence of the observer, Researchers disagree on how much effect the presence of an observer has on behavior. One viewpoint is that the observer effect is minor and short-lived The other postion is thatthe observer can seriously bias the behavior patterns.'5 Natural Versus Contrived Observation natural observation Natural observation involves observing behavior as it takes place in the environment. Obsening behavior asit For example, one could observe the behavior of respondents eating fast food at Burger Ki takes place in the environment. contrived observation ‘The advantage of natural observation is that the observed phenomenon will more accurately Thebehavior is observed in _feflect the true phenomezon. The disadvantages are the cost of waiting for the phenomenon to an artifical environment. deur and the difficulty of measuring the phenomenon in a natural setting. ‘The Canon Cameras example in the “Overview” section presented an example of unstructured, disguised observation in a natural setting Observation Methods Classified by Mode of Administration ‘As shown in Figure 6.3, observation methods may be classified by mode of administration as Personal observation, mechanical observation, audit, content analysis, and trace analysis,CHAPTER 6 * DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN: SURVEY AND OBSERVATION 231 FIGURE 6.3 A Classi of Observation Methods. Personal Mechanical gp Content ‘Trace Observation Observation Analysis. Analysis, Personal Observation strategy n which human manipulate the phenomenon being observed. The observer merely records what takes place. bserves record the For example, a researcher might record traffic counts and observe traffic flows in a department Phenomenon being store. This information could aid in designing store layout and determining location of indi- served as occurs Vidual departments, shelf locations, and merchandise displays. Companies like Microsoft also make use of personal observation in fearing about the software needs of users. Another example is provided in the context of the department store project. Project Research License Plate Personal Observation In the departnent store project, license plate observations could be used to establish the primary trading ‘area ofa shopping mall. These observations help marketers determine where their customers live. In a license plate study, observers record the Fiense late numbers ofthe automobiles in a parking lot, These tubers ate fed into a computer and puted with automobile registration data. This results in a map of customers located by census tract oF Zipcodes, Such a map, along with other demographic data, can help 2 department store chain determine new Ibcations, decide on billboard space, and target direct marketing ‘elfrts, License plate observation studies cost less ($5,000 10 $25,000) and ate believed to be quicker and tore reliable than direct communication methods such as interviews with shoppers. Mechanical Observation mechanic In mechanical observation, mechanical devices, rather than human observers, record the phenom- observation «non being observed. These devices may or may not require the respondents” direct participation ‘An cservational research They are use for continuously recording ongoing behavior for later analysis. ‘strategy in which Of the mechanical devices mechanical devices rather than human observers record the phenomenon being observed ently, people meters have been introduced. People meters attempt to isto which a set is tuned but also who is watching," Arbitron has developed the portable people meter, a device wor by people that measures their TV and rao programming during their waking hours. The PreTesting Company (www.pretesting.com) uses the ely records reading material and reader’s eye movements to deter- ‘mine the reader's habits, the stopping power, and the brand recall associated with different size ads. Ore enn eae nie alles at le uD EE ego (G3Ging a Bilding) and tcaftic counters placed across streets to determine the number of vehicles passing certain locations. On-site cameras (still, motion picture, or video) are increasingly used by retailers to assess package designs, counter space, floor displays, and traffic flow pattems. ‘Technological advances such as the universal product code (UPC) have made a major impact on ‘mechanical observation. The UPC system, together with optical scanners, allows for mechanized information collection regarding consumer purchases by product category, brand, store type, price, and quantity (see scanner data in Chapter 4). ‘The Internet can be a very good source for observation and can provide valuable informa- tion. The observations can be made in a variety of ways. The primary observations can be made by the number of times the Web page is visited. The time spent on the page can also be measured by advanced techniques of starting the timer when the person visiting the page clicks on a certain232 PARTI psychogalvanometer An instrument that measures a respondent’ ‘galvanic skin response. galvanic skin response CChanges in the electrical resistance ofthe skin that relate to a respondent's affective state voice pitch analysis Measurement of emotional reactions througt changes, in the respondent’ voice, RESEARCH DESIGN FORMULATION icon and stopping the timer when the person clicks on the next button. Further, various other links can be provided by the researcher on the Web page, and it can be observed to see which links are accessed more often, This wii! provide the researcher with important information about the information needs of the individuals and also the interests of the target segment. The analysis cof the links from where the company site is being approached by the individuals will provide the market researcher with important information regarding the consumers’ related interests, and an in-depth analysis of the link sites will provide information on advertising, competitors, consumers, and target market demographics and psychographics. ‘Web-based tracking of Infemet users is one exciting and controversial electronic observation technique. Web surfers are served cookies. The cookie is group of letters and numbers stored in a Web surfer’s browser that identify the user. It is a sophisticated means by which a Web site can collect information on visitors. Often this process takes place without the Web surfer’s knowledge. ‘Companies and individuals that host Web sites use cookies fo collect marketing research informa- tion on visitors. Cookies follow the traveler through the Web site and record the pages accessed by’ the visitor and the number of minutes spent on each page. Your name, address, phone number, and access site can be collected by the Cookie and saved into a database if the visitor enters any infor- ‘mation. During a follow-up visit, the cookie accesses this information and has the ability to repeat it to the visitor, In essence, the cookie collects data on the user during every visit tothe site. The online advertising company DoubleClick (www.doublectick.com) uses the information obtained {from cookies to target advertising, For example, i a user visits an aiine site and then a hotel site, that individual will be targeted with Delta Air Lines and Marriott advertisements, Such practices are controversial because they raise privacy concerns amongst individuals and policy makers. In contrast to the Internet, many mechanical observation devices do require active respondent involvement. These mechanical devices may be classified into five groups: (1) eye-tracking ‘monitors, (2) pupilometers, (3) psychogalvanometers, (4) voice pith analyzers, and (5) devices ‘measuring response latency, Eye-tracking equipment, such as oculometers, eye cameras, or eye view minuters, records the gaze movements of the eye. These devices can be used to determine how a respondent reads an advertisement or views a TV commercial and for how long the respon- dent looks at various parts of the stimulus, Such information is directly relevant to assessing advertising effectiveness. The pupilometer measures changes in the diameter of the pupils of the respondent's eyes. Respondents are asked to look at a sereen on which an advertisement or other stimulus is projected. Image brightness and distance from the respondents’ eyes are held constant ‘Changes in pupil size are interpreted as changes in cognitive (thinking) activity resulting from exposure to the stimulus. The underlying assumption is that increased pupil size reflects interest and positive attitudes toward the stimulus.*¥ The psychogalvanometer measures galvanic skin response (GSR) or changes in the elect cal resistance of the skin. The respondent ix fited with small electrodes shat monitor electrical resistance and is shown stimuli such as advertisements, packages, and slogans. The theory behind this device is that physiological changes such as increased perspiration accompany emotional reactions. Excitement leads to increased perspiration, which increases the electrical resistance of the skin, From the strength of the response, the researcher infers the respondent's interest level and attitudes toward the stimuli Voice pitch analysis measures emotional reactions through changes in the respondent's voice. Changes in the relative vibration frequency of the human voice that accompany emotional reaction are measured with audio-adapted computer equipment.” Response latency isthe ime a respondent takes before answering a question. Its used as a measure of the relative preference for various alternatives." Response time is thought to be directly related to uncertainty. Therefore, the longer a respondent takes to choose between two alternatives, the closer the alternatives are in terms of preference. On the other hand, if the respondent makes a quick decision, one altemative is clearly preferred. With the increased popu- larity of computer-assisted data collection, response latency can be recorded accurately and ‘without the respondent's awareness. Technological developments are giving rise o new ways of observation. Tools such a func tional magnetic resonance imaging (FMRI) that were originally developed to see brain tumors are now being used to see how someone reacts to different stimulants, The use of these devices allows a researcher to place Grane HEART aMERITand Kw SiHOA_ These Cools help measure the emotional and thoughReal Research pantry audit A type of audit where the researcher inventories the brands, quantities, and package sizes of products ina consumers home, content analysis The objective, systematic and quantitative description of the manifest content of a communication CHAPTER 6 + DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN: SURVEY AND OBSERVATION 233 se asucited with decision making and highlight how the brain functions during a decision By discovering what elements trigger positive brain responses, marketers may be able to devise more appealing products or nore effective advertising campaigns. Use of eye-tracking monitors, pupilometers, psychogalvanometers, and voice pitch analyzers assumes that physiological reactions are associated with specific cognitive and affective responses. This has yet to be clearly demonstrated. Furthermore, calibration of these devices to measure physiological arousal is difficult and they are expensive to use. Another limitation is that respondents are placed in an artificial environment and know that they are being observed, Mirro: “Nonsticking” Itself from a Sticky Situation In 2004, Global Home Products LLC purchased the Miro, Regal, and WearEver brands and combined them to forin The WearSver Company (www.searever.com). Miro manufactures inexpensive cookware ‘and conducted exploratory research to try to increase market shate by introducing a new product. The ‘objective ofthe research was to determine what characteristics could be added to their kitchenware in order to he more beneficial to the user. The company hired Metaphase design group (www.metaphse.com) to conduct observational market research by using in-house personal meetings with female heads of households. The cities that Metaphase targeted were St. Lovis, Boston, and San Francisco. All in-house observations were videotaped for later analysis. The results showed that the most problematic activities involving kitchenware were its pouring characteristics, its storage problems, and its difficulty ¢o cfean, ‘More specifically, the company found, “Pouring was s problem, as was moving food in and out of the pan, And people dike know what to do with their lids while they were cooking. They complained about the mess that lids leave when you have to set them on the counter or on the stove top.” Metaphase also noted that most consumers were unhappy with the ability of “nonstick” pans to not stick, After analyzing the results, Miero, along with Metaphase, designed a new pot, Allegro, that had a square {op with a circular botiom. The square top allowed for easier storage the ability to pour more carefully, and added volume. All three of thse features were directly related to the exploratory research results that the ‘company obtained. The tesults of the new product were explained by president Gerry Paul: “Allegro sales hhave topped expectations, and production has finally caught up with the overwheliaing demand generated by the early infomercials. Consumer seacton is very good."* my Audit Eee have (wo distinguishing features. Firs, data are collected —_ by » researcher. Second, the data are based upon counts, usually of physical objects. Retail and Wholesale audits conducted by marketing research suppliers were discussed in the context of secondary data (see Chapter 4), Here we focus on the role of audits in coltecting primary data In this respect, an important avait conducted at the consumer level, generally in conjunction with ‘ont of the survey methods, is the pantry audit, In a pantry audit, the researcher takes an inven- tory of brands, quantities, and package sizes in a consumer's home, perhaps in the course of a personal interview. Pantry audits greatly reduce the problem of untruthfulness or other forms of response bias. However, obtaining permission to examine consumers’ pantries can be difficult, aud the fieldwork is expensive. Furthermore, the brands in the pantry may not reflect the most preferred brands or the brands purchased most often. For these reasons, audits are most common atthe retail and wholesale level, and these audits were discussed ir Chapter 4. Content Analysis as rather than behavior or physical objects. It is defined as the objective, == and quantitative description ofthe manifest content of a communication.*® It includes observation as well as analysis. The unit of analysis may be words (different words or types of words in the message), chatacters (individuals or objects) themes (propositions), space and time measures (length or duration of the message), oF topics (subject of the message). Analytical categories for classifying the units are devefoped and the communication is broken down according to prescribed rules. Marketing research applications involve observing and analyzing the content or message of advertisements, newspaper articles, television and radio programs, and the like For example, the frequency of appearance of blacks, women, and members of other minority234 PARTI + RESEARCH DESIGN FORMULATION Real Research groups in mass media has been studied using content analysis. Suppose we wanted to examine hhow the portrayal of women in U.S, magazine advertising has changed, positively or negatively, cover the 10-year period from 1998 to 2008. We could select a sampfe of 100 magazines that were in circulation in 1998 as well asin 2008, We could select 10 advertisements featuring women for ‘each of these magazines, from different issues of each magazine, for 1998 as well as 2008. This will give us a sample of 1,000 advertisements for each year. We could then develop positive as ‘well as negative categories for classifying the advertisements based on how they have portrayed the role of women. The number and percentage of advertisements falling in the positive and negative categories could then be conmpared. The analysis might fook something like this: 1998 2008 Categories Number Percentage Number Percentage Positive Invelligent 100 19 130 Is Contributes to society 200 » 350 35 Positive role model 150 15 200 20 Tota) Pasitive 450 45 700 0 Negative ‘Sex symbol 250 35 150 1s Looked down upon 200 0 150 1s Total Negative 550 35 300 30 Grand Total 1,000 100 1,000 100 ‘This analysis indicates that the positive portrayal of women in U.S. magazine advertising hhas gone up dramatically, increasing from 45 percent in 1998 to 70 percent in 2008. The greatest increase is in the contribution to society category, which has increased from 20 percent in 1998 {0 35 percent in 2008, On the other hand, the negative portrayal of women as sex symbols has markedly decreased from 35 percent in 1998 to 15 percent in 2008, Inthe department store patronage project, content analysis may be used to analyze magazit advertisements of the sponsoring and competing stores to compare their projected images. Content analysis has also been used in cross-cultural advertising researc, as in the following example. Cross-Cultural Content Makes Ad Agencies Content ‘As of 2008, the United States accounts for half of the world’s advertising expenditures, followed by Japan, ‘which accounts for 10 percent. Content analysis was used to compare the information content in American and Japanese magazine advertising. Six categories of magazines (general, women’s, men’s, professional, sports, and entertainment) were chosen trom euch country. Advertixements from these magazines were selected for analysis, resuing in a total of 1,440 advertisements: 832 from American magazines and 608 from Japanese magazines. Three judges independently noted whether each advertisement was informative or uninformative, which criteria for information content were satisfied by the advertisement, the size of the ad, and the produet category being advertised, Japanese magazine adverising was found to be eonsis- {ently more informative than U.S. magazine advertising. For example, more than 85 percent of the Japanese ads analyzed satisfied at least one cxtetion for information content and thus were perceived to be informative, compared to only 75 percent ofthe American ads. Likewise, Japanese ads had an average of 1.7 information cues pet ad, compared to 1.3 cues per ad for the American ads. This information is useful for multinational companies and advertising agencies including Young & Rubicam, Saatchi & Saatchi Worldwide, McCann Erickson Worldwide, Ogilvy & Mather Worldwide, BBDO Worldwide, and others with global operations condoeting cross-cultural advertising campaigns." mt Content analysis can involve tedious coding and analysis. However, microcomputers and main- frames can be used to facilitate coding and analysis. The manifest content of the object can be computer coded. The observed frequencies of category codes can be aggregated and compared ‘on the criteria of interest using computers. Although content analysis has not been Widely used in marketing research, the technique offers great potential. For example, it could be profitably employed in the analysis of open-ended questions.t trace analysis, ‘An approach in which data collection is based on physical traces, of evidence, of past behavior. Real Research CHAPTER 6 « DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN: SURVEY AND OBSERVATION 235 Trace Analysis An observation method that con EES SESE 10 trace analysis, data collection is based on physical traces, or evidence, of past behavior. These traces may be left intentionally or unintentionally by the respondents. To illustrate, in the context of the department store patronage project, store charge card slips are traces shoppers leave behind, which can be analyzed to examine their store credit usage behavior. Several other innovative applications of trace analysis have been made in mi research keting ‘The selective erosion of tiles in a museum indexed by the replacement rate was used to determine the relative popularity of exhibits. ‘© The number of different fingerprints on a page was used to gauge the readership of various advertisements in a magazine. ‘©The position ofthe radio dials in cars brought infor service was used to estimate share of listening audience of various radio stations. Advertisers used the estimates to decide on which stations to advertise. The age and condition of cars in a parking lot were used to assess the affluence of customers, ‘© The magazines people donated to charity were used to determine people’s favorite magazines, ‘© Internet visitors leave traces that can be analyzed to examine browsing and usage behavior by using cookies. Have a Cookie! Many users do not realize i, but they have been served a cookie or two while onthe Internet. cookie is ‘not culinry delight inthis case tis a sophisticated means by which a Web ite can collet information on vistors. Often this process takes place without the knowledge ofthe Web surfer. The cookie isa group of letters and numbers stored ina Web surfer's browser that identify the use. ‘Companies and individuals that host Web sites use cookies to collect marketing research information on Visitors. Cookies foflow the waveler through the Website and record the pages accessed by the visitor and {he number of minutes spent on each page. Your name, addtess, phone number, aud access site can be collected by the cookie and saved into database if you enter any information. During a follow-ep vst, the cookie acesses this information and has the ability to repeat it to you. In essence, the cookie collects data on the user during every visit to the site, pedia (www.expedia.com) uses cookies to vofict information about ste Wali, The information hips marketing personel at we tavel sito collect demographics on the reader. Also, the company can monitor “hits” on particular topics and gain valuable feedback on user interest. Data collection is based upon visitor behavior. Tis disguised technique enables Expedia to monitor use pattems and to eliminate socially acceptable response bias. Information collected in this manner has been used to modify editorial content and format o make the Web site more appealing and useful o visitors. Although trace analysis has been creatively apptied, it has limitations. Current evidence indicates that it should be used only when no other approach is possible, Moreover, ethical issues, such as the use of cookies, should be duly addressed, “ACTIVE RESEARCH Observing the Popularity of Theme Park Exhibits | Visic ww aisney.com and search te Internet using a search engine as well as your library's online databases ‘» obtain information on the criteria that consumers use for selecting theme park. [Disney World wants to determine how many people visit its theme parks on a daily basis and which are the most popular exhibits, can the observation method be used? If yes, which observation method | ‘would you use? ‘As the marketing manager for Disney Wee, ow would you use information on criteria that consumers | use for selecting theme parks to formulate marketing strategies that would increase your attendance and market236 PART II + RESEARCH DESIGN FORMULATION A Comparative Evaluation of Observation Methods ‘A comparative evaluation of the observation methods is given in Table 6.4. The different observation ‘methods are evaluate in terms of the degree of structure, degree of disguise, ability to observe in a natural setting, observation bias, measurement and analysis bias, and additional general factors. ‘Structure relates to the specification of what is to be observed and how the measurements are to be recorded. As can be seen from Table 6.4, personal observation is low, trace analysis is ‘medium, and audit and content analysis are high on the degree of structure, Mechanical observation can vary widely from low to high depending upon on the methods used, Methods such as optical scanners are very structured in thatthe characteristics to be measured, for example, characteristics of items purchased scanned in supermarket checkouts, are precisely defined. Tus, these methods are high in the degree of structure, In contrast, mechanical methods such as use of hidden cameras to observe children a play with toys tend to be unstructured i The degree of disguise is low in the case of audits because it is difficult to conceal the identity of auditors. Personal observation offers a medium degree of disguise because there are limitations on the extent to which the observer can be disguised as a shopper, sales clerk, employee, and so forth. Trace analysis and content analysis offer a high degree of disguise as the data are collected “after the fact.” that is, after the phenomenon to be observed has taken place. Some mechanical observations, such as hidden cameras, offer excellent disguise whereas the use of others, such as the use of psychogalvanometers, is very difficult to disguise. ‘The ability to observe in a natural setting is Tow in trace analysis because the observation takes place afier the behavior has occurred. It is medium in the ease of content analysis because the communication being analyzed is only a limited representation of the natura? phenomenon. Personal observation and audits are excellent on this score as human observers can observe people or objects in a variety of natural settings, Mechanical observation methods vary from low (eeg,, use of psychogalvanometers) to high (e.., use of turnstile), Observation bias is low in the case of mechanical observation because a human observer is not involved. It is also low for audits. Although the auditors are humans, the observation usually takes place on objects and the characteristics to be observed are well defined, leading to low observation bias. Observation bias is medium for trace analysis and content analysis. In both these methods, human observers are involved, and the characteristics to he observed are not that well defined. However, the observers typically do not interact with human respondents during the observation process, thus lessening the degree of bias. It is high for personal observation due to the use of human observers who interact with the phenomenon being observed Data analysis bias is low for audits and content analysis because the varibles are precisely defined, the data are quantitative, and statistical analysis is conducted, Trace analysis has a medium degree of bias because the definition of variables is not very precise. Mechanical observation methods can have alow (eg, scanner data) to medium (¢ g., hidden camera) degree of analysis bias depending on the method, Unlike petsonal observation, the bias in mechanical observation i limited to the medium level due to improved measurement and classification, because the phenomenon to be observed can be recorded continuously using mechanical devices. A Comparative Evaluation of Observation Methods Personal Mechanical Content Trace Criteria Observation _ Observation Audit Analysis Analysis Degree ofsiructue Low Low to high High High ‘Medium Degree of disguise Medium Low to high Low High High Ability co observe High Low to high High Medium Low in natural setting Observation bias High Low Low Medium ‘Medium Analysis bias High Low to medium Low Low Medium General remarks Mos flexible Cane intrusive Expensive Limited to Method of communications last resort,Project Research Real Research (CHAPTER 6 » DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN: SURVEY AND OBSERVATION 237 In addition, personal observation is the most flexible. Human observers can observe a wide variety of phenomena in a wide variety of settings. Some mechanical observation methods such as use of psychogalvanometers can be very intrusive, leading to artificiality and bias. Audits using human auditors tend to be expensive. Content analysis is well suited for and limited to the observation of communications. As mentioned earlier, trace analysis is a method of last resort ‘The application of these criteria will lead to the identification of an appropriate method, if observation is at all suitable in the given situation Project Activities 1. Do yor think tha the use of personal in-home inerviews was the best method in the Sears project? Why or why not? 2. Ifthe Sears survey were to be conducted today, which survey method should be used and why? 3. Discuss the use of personal and mechanical observation methods to determine consumer preferences for departinent stores, ‘A Comparison of Survey and Observation Methods Only about | percent of the marketing research projects rely solely on observational methods to obtain prinary data, This implies that observational methods have some major disadvantages as coinpared to survey methods. Yet these methods offer some advantages that make their use in conjunction with survey methods quite fruitful Relative Advantages of Observation ‘The greatest advantage of observational methods is that they permit measurement of actual behavior rather than reports of intended or preferred behavior. There is no reporting bias, and potential bias caused by the interviewer and the interviewing process is eliminated or reduced, Certain types of data can be collected only by observation. These include behavior patterns that the respondent is unaware of or anable to communicate. For example, information on babies’ toy preferences is best obtained by observing babies at play, because they are unable to express themselves adequately. Moreover, if the observed phenomenon occurs frequently or is of short duration, observational methods may be cheaper and faster than survey methods, Relative Disadvantages of Observation “The most serious disadvantage of observation is that the reasons forthe observed behavior may not be determined because little is known about the underlying motives, beliefs, attitudes, and prefer- ences. For example, people observed buying a brand of cereal may or may not lke it themselves ‘They may be purchasing that brand for someone else in the household. Another limitation of obser- vation is that selective perception (bias in the researcher's perception) can bias the data. In addition, observation is often time-consuming and expensive, and itis difficult to observe certain forms of bbehavine such as personal activities. Finally, in some cases the use of observational methods may be unethical, as in monitoring the behavior of people without their knowledge or consent. ‘To sum up, observation has the potential to provide valuable information when property used. Froma practical standpoint itis best to view observation methods asa complemen o survey methods, rather than as being in competition with them. The following example ifustrates this point. How Do You Like Your Beef? When people shop for meat atthe grocery slore, they tend fo stick with what they know. This is what was ound when marketing esearch was conducted forthe National Cattlemen's Beet Associaton (NCBA). The research was performed to help the NCBA (wwrw:beetong) figure out why the sales of certain cus of beef had toon dropping by 20 percent over a period of 4 years. The research used mechanical observation and customer interviews. The researchers stationed themselves at the meat cases of stores in order to record the buying behavior of consumers. The consumers were videotaped while shopping for beef. These observations showed that many consumers were not purchasing certain cuts of beef even when they looked good and were less238 PART II » RESEARCH DESIGN FORMULATION, Real Research mystery shopping Trained observers pose as consumers and shop. at company- or competitor owned stores to callect data about customer-employee imeraction and other ‘marketing variables fattening than the more popular sirloin or ground beef. When these consumers were asked why they didn't buy ‘certain cus of beef, the overwhelming response was that they didn’t know how to cook them, "The NCBA took several steps to address this situation, Appropriate cooking instructions for the cut of ‘meat are now clearly printed on the package. Additionally, the NCBA worked with grocers to change the store layout to display beef according to the cooking method. There are labels above each section that slate not only the nutritional facts, but also the ways in which a cut of beef may be prepared. Small recipe cards hhave also been placed alongside the beef cuts. ‘The demand for beef and cattle held steady during the tough economic environment of 2008. In fact, the ‘good news for the beef industry was thatthe demand for live catle was up 1.5 percent for January—Suly 2008 compared to the same months of 2007.47 m Ethnographic Research mop rescach ith suy of aman eke ints mata content ad imoes oben bf beter aa stng slong wk sep inrvews.Someines aio and vial ering asa ‘obtained. Thus, both the questioning and observation methods are combined to understand the tehinarafensaners Te faving cumple ister is mee PortiCo Documents with Documentaries PortiCo Research (www-porticoresearch.com) specializes in observing individuals, questioning them in depth, recording them on videos, and selling these tapes for tens of thousands of dollars to its major clients, such as Honda, Delta, Lipton, and Procter & Gamble, They have fine-tuned! the method of collecting ethno- ‘graphic data and have made it into a very profitable business. PortiCo’s specialty is total immersion in the lives of consumers in an effort to docoment how they make purchasing decisions. Research teams of anthropologists, social psychologists, and ethnographers (profes- sionals who comparatively study people) go into the subjects” homes with videographers. The teams tape the subjects in their homes and also go shopping with them to watch what they buy and ask questions on the reasons for their purchases. After filming, employees of PortiCo transcribe the findings of the videos and analyze them for their clients. The analysis is hasedl on the research problem that the client has set out to solve or get more information about, For example, PortiCo did large study for Lipton to find out people's atitudes toward tea. With the results of the study, Lipton would find out whether or not to invest mote in advertising, develop new flavors, or market more iced tea instead of hot tea. The findings showed that Americans don’t drink very much hot tea, especially because ofthe presence of caffeinated coffee in the ‘marketplace. I and when they do drink hot te, it is normally flavored, herbal tea. Most of Lipton's hot tea isnot in special flavors. However, they have recently begun to bring herbal teas to market. The study did find, however, that American consumers lke iced tea, Asa result ofthe findings, Lipton has done a lot of creative developments in the area of iced tes. They pushed the marketing of Brisk Iced Tea in the can, which is now the number one selling brand of ready-to-drink iced tea. Also, Lipton has created & Cold Brew Blend tea bag in both family size, to make a whole pitcher, and single-glas siz, for one serving. This tea bag allows iced tea to be brewed with cold water instead of having to use boiling water. Therefore, consumers can enjoy their tea faster with much less hassle. These marketing efforts, guided by the findings of PostiCo Research, have resulted in increased sales and marketshare for Lipton.!* Other Methods In addition to ethnographic research, there are also a variety of other methods that combine the use of questioning and observation, One such method that is commonly used is mystery shopping, ‘Trained observers pose as consumers and shop at company- or competitor-owned stores to collect data about customer-employee interaction and other marketing variables, such as prices, displays, layout, and so on. The mystery shoppers question the store employees, mentally take note of the answers, and observe the variables of interest. For more information on mystery shopping and firms that provide this service, visit www.mysteryshop org, International Marketing Research Given the differences in the economic, structural, informational and technological, and sociocul: tural environments, the feasibility and popularity of the different interviewing methods vary widely. Table 6.5 provides an illustration of how cultural and environmental factors may have an impact on