NOTE(HOW TO ANS 101 QUESTIONS 1ST DEFINE IF POSSIBLE USE DIAGRAMS TO EXPLAIN YOUR

ANSWERS)

latency average wait required for a sector.

central processing unit consistes of two amin components : alu, cu

alu is where all the calculations are made while the control unit contains
registers that controls and synchronises execution of instructions.

A register is a single cell that holds an item of a data.

egs...
* Program counter. : It holds the next instruction to b executed.
* Instruction Registeer : It holds the instruction that is currently beig executed.
* Memory Address Register : It holds the address of a memory location.
* Memory Data Register : It holds the data that is to be read to/from the main
memory.
* flag register : It shows the status of an operation

Memory conntains maCHINE CODES AND DATA that are stored as bytes.

Fetch Execute cycle......

* Contents of PC are moved to MAR
* Increment in PC
* instruction are placed in IR
* Decode instruction
* Fetch
* Execute

Virtual memory is the ability to address a memory space larger than its main
memory.

Paging is where the memory is divided into a numberof fixed size blocks called
pages.

System software is a set of instructions that is provided the pc manufacturer to

control the performance of te pc system
App software is set of instructions provided by the manufacturer but is used by the
user to produce apps for a specific task.

OS is a sofware that makes it possible for a pc to produce reliable and efficient

service without the user inteference.
Main function of the OS is that it controls and manages the CPU. It also
establishes a user interface. Process management.

Single user, multitasking... means one user running different programs at the sae
time
11 , single tasking..... means one user running one program at a time.
Server systems...... is when many programs running on pc are accessed by remote
programs (client)

Cache memory is a SRAM that stores little pieces of data temporally so that future
requests for that data will be retrieved faster.

Database Mgt Systems is a system that helps a user to create and maintain a
database.

A File is an object that contains data, information, settings and commands used
with a program.

Moore's Law states that the number of transistors in a dense integrated circuit
doubles approximately every year.

How OS access memory... For eg, when youre uing your browser, wordpad vlc, th OS
works with the RAM to control the amount of memory sapce you are using to access
those apps including the OS itself.

Fragmentation is where a file is stored on several separate memory location

scattered throughout the hard disk.

Scheduling in computing occurs when resources of a computer completes a task

assigned by the user.

LOng term... : decides which program process are to be admitted in the queue in the
main memory. When the user attempts to run a program, in the long term scheduling,
it is up for it to decline or run that process

short term... : decides which in-memory process are to be executed afer an

interrupt.

Midterm... : it swaps out processes which have not been active or uses a larger
amount of memory and then swaps it in back when theres an availabe memory in the
main memoru.
function... it reduces multprogramming.

interrupts are signalss emitted by hardware or software indicating an event that

needs immediate attention.

In software engineering, busy-waiting, busy-looping or spinning is a technique in

which a process repeatedly checks to see if a condition is true, such as whether
keyboard input or a lock is available.

A scheduler is what carries out the scheduling activity. Schedulers are often
implemented so they keep all computer resources busy (as in load balancing), allow
multiple users to share system resources effectively, or to achieve a target
quality of service.

Lexical scanner
Identify mnemonics and symbolic instructions.
Determine address of each instruction.
Build table of symbol addresses and values.
Create intermediate file.

Internet telephony is a type of communications technology that allows voice calls

and other telephony services like fax, SMS and other voice-messaging applications
to be transmitted using the Internet as a connection medium. ... Internet telephony
is also called IP telephony or broadband telephony.
1 Start

This is the initial state when a process is first started/created.

2 Ready

The process is waiting to be assigned to a processor. Ready processes are waiting

to have the processor allocated to them by the operating system so that they can
run. Process may come into this state after Start state or while running it by but
interrupted by the scheduler to assign CPU to some other process.
3 Running

Once the process has been assigned to a processor by the OS scheduler, the process
state is set to running and the processor executes its instructions.

4 Waiting

Process moves into the waiting state if it needs to wait for a resource, such as
waiting for user input, or waiting for a file to become available.

5 Terminated or Exit

Once the process finishes its execution, or it is terminated by the operating

system, it is moved to the terminated state where it waits to be removed from main
memory.

In computer science, a thread of execution is the smallest sequence of programmed

instructions that can be managed independently by a scheduler, which is typically a
part of the operating system.

Multithreading is mainly found in multitasking operating systems. Multithreading is

a widespread programming and execution model that allows multiple threads to exist
within the context of one process.

Parallel port tranmits data in 8 bits of a byte in parallel

Serial port tranmits one bit of data after another.

Seek time is the amount of time it takes for a hard drives read/write heads to find
the physical location of a piece of data.

latency time is the average time for the sector being acessed to rotate into a
position under a head, after a completed seek.

Disk capacity is the maximum number of bytes that can be held on a disk or disc.

OR is the amount of bytes that a disk drive or disc is capable of

holding.

Acess time : is the total time it takes the computer to read data from a storage
device such as computer memory , hard drive,CD ROM.

2 TYPES OF PAGING

1)DEMAND PAGING: is a type of swapping in which pages of data are not copied from
disk to RAM until they are needed.

2)ANTICIPATORY PAGING:IS the process in which the operating system attempts to

anticipate(to know something before) which data will be needed next and copies it
to RAM before it is actually required.

Difference between batch job and interactive job

2 types of computer archictecture

AMDAHL'S LAW:

TYPES OF OS
1)SINGLE-PROGRAM SYSTEM
2)simple batch system
3)multi-acess and time sharing sys
4)Real-time sys

polling interrupt is when the order of polling determines its priority and the
status register of each device e has a unique address

vectoring interrupt uses /sends an aknowledge signals which is passed from one
device to another(daisy chain) and if the signal reaches the interrupting device a
vector is placed on the data bus

interupt handler retrieves the address of the interupt service routine for the
device from the interupt table and initiates the interupt service routine

overflow may occur if the two numbers added are both either positive or negative

Seek Time is the average time to locate a required cylinder.

An interrupt service routine (ISR) is a software routine that hardware invokes in

response to an interrupt. ISRs examine an interrupt and determine how to handle it.
ISRs handle the interrupt, and then return a logical interrupt value. If no further
handling is required because the device is disabled or data is buffered, the ISR
notifies the kernel with a SYSINTR_NOP return value. An ISR must perform very fast
to avoid slowing down the operation of the device and the operation of all lower
priority ISRs.
Although an ISR might move data from a CPU register or a hardware port into a
memory buffer, in general it relies on a dedicated interrupt thread, called the
interrupt service thread (IST), to do most of the required processing. If
additional processing is required, the ISR returns a logical interrupt value, other
than SYSINTR_NOP, to the kernel. It then maps a physical interrupt number to a
logical interrupt value. For example, the keyboard might be associated with
hardware interrupt 4 on one device and hardware interrupt 15 on another device. The
ISR, which is in the OAL, translates the hardware-specific value to the Windows CE
standard value of SYSINTR_KEYBOARD. In this example, SYSINTR_KEYBOARD is the return
value from the ISR.
When an ISR notifies the kernel of a specific logical interrupt value, the kernel
examines an internal table to map the logical interrupt value to an event handle.
The kernel wakes the IST by signaling the event. An event is a standard Microsoft�
Win32� synchronization object that serves as an alarm clock to wake up a thread
when something interesting happens.
The following table compares hardware platforms that support a single ISR with
hardware platforms that support multiple ISRs.
Single ISR hardware platform
The name of the ISR is OEMInterruptHandler.
Multiple ISR hardware platform
The OAL does not provide an OEMInterruptHandler function. Instead, you must
register ISRs for each interrupt by calling HookInterrupt function in the OAL.
Note���Other than having to map from an IRQ to an interrupt service routine,
handling interrupts with multiple ISRs is identical to handling interrupts when a
single ISR is present. One reason not to process data in the ISR is that there is
no way to access the user buffer. The user mode IST routine can access this buffer.