Front.
Energy 2011, 5(4): 419–434
DOI 10.1007/s11708-011-0166-6
REVIEW ARTICLE
Pinting ZHANG, Shuhong HUANG
Review of aeroelasticity for wind turbine: Current status,
research focus and future perspectives
© Higher Education Press and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011
Abstract Aeroelasticity has become a critical issue for
Multi-Megawatt wind turbine due to the longer and more
flexible blade. In this paper, the development of aero-
elasticity and aeroelastic codes for wind turbine is
reviewed and the aeroelastic models for wind turbine
blade are described, based on which, the current research
focuses for large scale wind turbine are discussed,
including instability problems for onshore and offshore
wind turbines, effects of complex inflow, nonlinear effects
of large blade deflection, smart structure technologies, and
aerohydroelasticity. Finally, the future development of
aeroelastic code for large scale wind turbine: aeroservoe-
lasticity and smart rotor control; nonlinear aeroelasticity
due to large blade deflection; full-scale 3D computational
fluid dynamics (CFD) solution for dynamics; and aero-
hydroelasticity are presented.
Keywords wind turbine, aeroelasticity, aeroelastic code
1 Introduction
Wind energy provides an environmental friendly option for
energy security at a time when decreasing reserves of fossil
fuel threatens the long-term sustainable development of
economy. Aerodynamic and structural dynamic perfor-
mances of the wind turbine rotor directly affect the
efficiency and the lifespan of the whole rotor. Aerody-
namic plays a crucial role in wind turbine design, and
determines the structural dynamics properties of the
turbine. The structural dynamic issues, i.e., the flapwise,
edgewise and torsional vibration, are interpreted by the
coming wind flow as it changes the effective angle of
attack and therefore impacts the aerodynamic performance
Received June 17, 2011; accepted July 27, 2011
Pinting ZHANG, Shuhong HUANG ( ) ✉ models and computer codes. Figure 1(b) shows the
School of Energy and Power Engineering, Huazhong University of
Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China
E-mail: zhangpinting@smail.hust.edu.cn
back, which indicates a strong coupling between aero-
dynamics and structural dynamics, namely the aeroelasti-
city.
The most important design trend for wind turbine has
been up-scaling. Currently, the size of wind turbine has
increased dramatically from a rated power of 50 kW with
rotors of 10–15 m diameter up to commercial 3–3.5 MW
turbines with rotors of 80–90 m diameters. The more
flexible and lower stiffness blades lead to a severer
coupling between aerodynamics and structural dynamics;
hence the aeroelasticity has become one of the most critical
problems during the design of modern wind turbines. The
research on aeroelasticity was not only satisfies the
requirements of the increasing size of wind turbine, but
also pushed wind turbines to be more highly efficient.
In this paper, the development and models of aero-
elasticity for wind turbine are reviewed, and current
research focuses are discussed. In addition, future trends of
aeroelasticity research for wind turbine are presented.
2 Development of aeroelastic research
Figure 1 illustrates the distribution of the retrieval results
of research paper in “Engineering Index” database using
“wind turbine” and “aeroelastic” as the key words.
According to Fig. 1(a), the aeroelasticity of wind turbine
has been increasingly a major concern. In early designs,
loads on wind turbine were evaluated on the basis of
quasi-static aerodynamic calculations, with the effects of
structural dynamics either ignored completely or
included through the use of estimated dynamic magni-
fication factors [1]. With the turbine size increasing,
although quasi-static models give comparative results for
small wind turbines or those with rigid blades, more
reliable models for flexible wind turbine blade have been
developed for dynamic analysis, including aeroelastic
leading position of Europe and the US in research of
aeroelasticity of wind turbine.
420 Front. Energy 2011, 5(4): 419–434

Fig. 1 Distribution of the retrieval results in “Engineering Index” database

(a) Distribution according to time; (b) distribution according to country (1990–2011)

2.1 Aeroelastic research in Europe configurations [6]. In 1992, Technical University of

The earliest research on aeroelasticity for wind turbine
began in Europe. In 1976, Friedmann derived a set of
coupled flap-lag-torsional equations of motion for a single
wind turbine blade to determine the aeroelastic stability or
responses of wind turbine blades [2]. Later, both Ottens
et al. [3] and Vollan [4] presented the methods for
aeroelastic responses or instability calculations to whole
wind turbine. These earliest models or methods of
aeroelastic responses calculation for wind turbine were
originally used for helicopter designs.
Garrad [5] conducted a review of the development of
wind turbine dynamic modeling, and discussed the three
principal aspects of the dynamics of wind turbine behavior,
which were forced response to deterministic loads, forced
response to stochastic loads, and stability problems. Garrad
Hassan and Partners, Ltd, one of the world’s leading wind
energy consultants, published the aeroelastic code, ‘GH
Bladed’ in 1996, and it was validated against measuring
data for a wide range of turbines of many different size and
Denmark (DTU) published the wind turbine load simula-
tion code FLEX4, which also was a very commercial code
for wind turbine design [7]. The newer version of FLEX is
FLEX5 developed by Risø DTU National Laboratory for
Sustainable Energy (Risø-DTU), DK.
Currently, Risø-DTU has been in a leading position in
the research of aeroelasticity of wind turbine. A review of
Risø’s research work before 2003 has been given by
Rasmussen et al. [8]. In 2005, the new non-linear
aeroelastic code HAWC2 was developed by Risø. The
code is intended to calculate wind turbine response in time
domain and has a structural formulation based on multi-
body dynamics which allows the code to simulate the
nonlinear problems. The aerodynamic part of the code is
based on the blade element momentum (BEM) technique,
but extended from the classic quasi-steady approach to
handle dynamic inflow, dynamic stall, skew inflow, shear
effects on the induction and the effects of large deflections
[9,10]. From 2005 to 2008, under the support of Program
for Research in Applied Aeroelasticity (EFP2005, 2006,
 Pinting ZHANG et al. Aeroelasticity for wind turbine 421

2007) [11–14], Risø-DTU applied and further developed
the tools for the “aeroelastic design complex”, which
consist of CFD simulation tools, noise calculation tools,
airfoil and blade design, aeroelastic codes (FLEX and
HAWC) and aeroelastic stability and control. The results
were reported in the fields of the aerodynamic damping,
the nonlinear effects of large blade deflection, the complex
inflow and wake effects to loads, etc.
In Europe, there are other universities and research
centers which focus on the aeroelasticity of wind turbine.
Center for Renewable Energy Source (CRES), Greece and
National Technical University of Athens (NTUA), Greece
developed the codes ‘Alcyone’ [15]. NTUA also devel-
oped the aeroelastic code ‘GAST’ [16], which includes a
simulator of turbulent wind fields, time-domain aeroelastic
analysis of the full wind turbine configuration and post-
processing of loads for fatigue analysis. Both of the two
codes used finite element method (FEM) techniques.
Technical University of Delft (TUD) developed the code
‘DUWECD’. The code has been improved to be available
to the offshore wind turbine, and to be ulteriorly extended
to corporate the wave loads [17]. In 2007, by coupling with
close-loop control theory, the Energy Research Centre of
the Netherlands (ECN) developed the linearised aero-
hydro-servo-elastic model and the active aeroelastic
control code, TURBU. The nonlinear simulations in time
domain showed significant load reduction and good closed
loop stability. The fatigue impacts in full load operation
were reduced by 10% to 30% for the rotor blades and 4%
to 6% for towers [18]. Apart from these research centers,
Siemens Wind Power developed a non-linear code, named
BHawC, based on co-rotating elements [19].
‘UpWind’ is a European project in prospect of the wind
power of tomorrow, which precisely means the design of
very large wind turbines (8–10 MW), both onshore and
offshore. Risø-DTU is the project coordinator and other
participants working for the work package of ‘Aerody-
namic and Aeroelasticity’ includes ECN, TUD, CRES,
NTUA, etc. This work package mainly aims at pursuing
the research about blade bending-torsion coupling vibra-
tion, wind shear, smart rotor control for load alleviation,
nonlinear effects to stability and noise prediction [20].
The well-known aeroelastic codes are listed in Table 1.
There are noticeable differences between these codes. For
instance, not all codes include torsional blade deflections
and most of them assume that the deflection is not
significant while some can handle the lager blade
deflection problem. However, these codes are commonly
used in wind turbine design, whose validity has been
proved in their own applicable scope.
2.2 Aeroelastic research in US
In the US, many research centers are also interested in

Table 1 Aeroelastic codes for wind turbine [15,18,21–24]

Name Participants Structural dynamic model Aerodynamic model
The ADAMS package is developed by
Mechanical Dynamics, Inc., and the
ADAMS/WT Multibody dynamic BEM theory
add-on Module WT is developed under
contract to the NREL
Alcyone CRES and NTUA, Gr FEM Free wake panel method
BHawC Siemense, Ger Co-rotaing elements BEM theory
DUWECS TUD, NL Multibody dynamic BEM theory
FAST NREL and Oregon State University, US Modal approach BEM theory
FLEX5 Technical University of Denmark, DK Modal approach BEM theory
FLEXLAST Stork Product Engineering, SPE, NL Multibody dynamic BEM theory
GAROS Modal approach BEM theory
GAST NTUA, Gr FEM Free wake panel method
GH Bladed Garrad Hassan and Partners, Ltd. UK Modal approach BEM theory
HAWC Risø, DK FEM BEM theory
HAWC2 Risø, DK Multibody Dynamic BEM theory
Modal approach for support structures
PHATAS ECN, HL BEM theory
and FEM for Rotor and Nacelle
TURBU ECN, HL Multibody Dynamic BEM theory
TWISTER Stentec B.V. BEM theory
VIDYN Teknikgruppen AB, Swed Modal approach BEM theory
YawDyn University of Utah and NREL, US BEM theory

Notes: NREL–National Renewable Energy Laboratory, US

422 Front. Energy 2011, 5(4): 419–434
aeroelasticity of wind turbine. Together or contract with
companies or universities, NREL developed three types of
wind turbine design codes: ADAMS/WT [25], FAST [26]
and YawDyn [27] (see Table 1).
Besides aeroelastic codes, NREL also designed the
“NREL phase I-VI turbine”. Both simulation and wind
tunnel tests were conducted to investigate the 3-
dimensional and unsteady aerodynamic [28–30]. In
1995, the new “NREL airfoil family for horizontal-axis
wind turbines (HAWTs)” was presented [31], and all
NREL phase II-VI turbines were based on the new S809
airfoil. In addition, NREL presented the “Reference
Wind Turbines” for onshore and offshore cases respec-
tively in 2005 [32] and 2009 [33]. In NREL’s reports
[32,33], the airfoil data, detailed structural dynamic and
aerodynamic properties of blades, and other component
and their properties of NREL-RWTs were presented. A
lot of research on the instability problem of Multi-
Megawatt turbine was conducted based on the NREL-
RWTs [34,35].
Under the support of the US government, Illinois
Institute of Technology is planning to setup a GE 1.5
MW wind turbine and the University of Minnesota is
planning to setup a Siemens 2.3 MW wind turbine. The
research plan of the two universities are working to
improve aeroelastic models, new sensors suitable for
rotating blades, and control strategies aimed at alleviating
the load of the turbine. The University of Maine at Orono
ME also got the support from the US government for the
research on offshore wind turbines1).
There are many other universities or research centers
interested in aeroelasticity of wind turbine, too, e.g. San
Diego State University [36], Montana State University
[37], Sandia National Laboratories [38], etc.
2.3 Aeroelastic research in China
The research on aeroelasticity of wind turbine in China
began in 1996 [39–41]. Li and An established the
nonlinear equations of the motion of a wind turbine
blade; by using the modal approach, the differential
equations of flapping-lead-lag and torsion were solved
and the aeroelastic stability properties of the wind turbine
were given based on the numerical results.
Since 21st century, more and more universities and
research centers have paid due attention to solving the
aeroelastic problem, and domestic design codes and
aeroelastic models of wind turbine have been gradually
developed. Shantou University developed the computer-
aided design (CAD) software–“Blade Design for
Window” in 2001 [42], in which the strip theory was
used to calculate the aerodynamic performance, taking
into account the angle effects, solidity, wind shear and
1) http://chinaneast.xinhuanet.com/zhuanti/2009-12/14/content_18496336.htm
yawing effect. Liu [43], by simplifying the turbine
blade as cantilever beam, established the motion
differential equation of airfoil, obtained the aerody-
namic and structural damping, and finally got the
instability properties of 2-dimensional airfoil. Cao et al.
[44] presented a new aeroelastic model of wind turbine
blade based on the pressure piecewise representation.
The Wind Energy Utilization Laboratory of the
Institute of Engineering Thermophysics, Chinese Acad-
emy of Sciences developed a series airfoil for wind
turbine [45,46] and studied the kind of viscous model
for blades [47]. To satisfy the experiment requirements
of Multi-Megawatt wind turbine blade, the Wind
Energy Utilization Laboratory and Wind Turbine
Engineering Research Center of Hebei Province jointly
built a test rig by which a 65 m blade can be tested,
and presently, it is the biggest test rig for wind turbine
blade [48].
Under the support of the Hi-Tech Research and
Development Program of China (National 863 Program),
Shenyang University of Technology, one of the earliest
Universities in aeroelastic research in China, designed the
rated power of 1 MW and 1.5 MW wind turbines. The
aeroelastic stability problems and dynamic responses of
megawatt wind turbine were investigated by modal
approach [49–52]. To support another important China
national research program, the National Basic Research
Program of China (National 973 Program), fundamental
research on aerodynamic of large-scale wind turbine was
conducted by Nanjing University of Aeronautics and
Aerospace [53,54], China Aerodynamics Research &
Development Center [55,56], Peking University, Beijing
University of Aeronautics and Aerospace [57–60], and
Lanzhou University of Technology [61,62]. The aero-
dynamic performance, aeroelastic stability, and the noise of
the megawatt wind turbine are being investigated in this
program.
Other universities are focusing on the aeroelasticity in
China includes Tsinghua University [63,64], Shanghai Jiao
Tong University [65,66], and Northwestern Polytechnical
University [67–69], etc.
2.4 Remarks
Since 1990, the aeroelasticity of wind turbine has
become a major concern, especially in Europe and the
US. The researchers in Europe and the US concern
themselves with the next generation of wind turbine, the
multi-megawatt rotor. The research on wind turbine not
only concerns the discipline of aerodynamic but also an
integration of multiple disciplines. While in China, the
research id mainly aimed at the aerodynamic of wind
turbine, with a few researchers focusing on the
 Pinting ZHANG et al. Aeroelasticity for wind turbine
structural dynamic of the composite blades and the
coupling between aerodynamic and structural dynamic
characteristics. As far as the aeroelasticity of multi-
megawatt wind turbine rotor are concerned, there are
still so many concepts and questions which have to be
further investigated.
3 Aeroelastic modeling for wind turbine
rotor
In order to accurately predict the dynamic performance of
wind turbines, aerodynamic models for determining wind
loads and structural models for describing the dynamic
response of the wind turbine have to be involved in the
aeroelastic code.
Most of the current available aeroelastic tools for wind
turbine use 2D aerodynamic airfoil data models, such as
the linear Beddoes-Leishmann [70] or the nonlinear
ONERA model [71], where a strip-by-strip basis was
applied which fits well with BEM techniques [72]. By
combining the structural dynamic equation of motion with
the ONERA lift and drag model equations, Chopra
presented a so-called “aeroelastic finite element model”
applied to the hover blade [73]. The “aeroelastic finite
element” is an extended two-node beam element with both
deformation and aerodynamic degrees of freedoms
(DOFs), and gives a unified description of the coupled
aeroelastic problems. With the introduction of 8 additional
aerodynamic DOFs, a numerical tool was presented by
Chaviaropoulos for investigating the aeroelastic stability of
a single wind turbine blade, and applied to a 17 m stall-
regulated wind turbine blade [74]. Three additional
aerodynamic DOFs per node were introduced into “elastic
finite element” by Riziotis et al. [75], and the aeroelastic
element was obtained comprising of totally 21 DOFs, 15 of
which are for the structural side and 6 for the aerodynamic
side. Another approach, which can give a better definition
of the coupled system, was presented by Hansen et al.
[72,76] with the modal expansion of the structural DOF at
standstill.
The other tendency in aeroelastic modeling is the
application of CFD model. In the viscous and aeroelastic
effects on wind turbine blades (VISCEL), a European
project [77,78], an unsteady Navier-Stokes treatment of the
aerodynamics, inevitably, in the time domain was applied
to verify the correctness of the typical section stability
problem with an engineering-type aerodynamic model. In
another European research project, the KNOWBLADE
[79,80], both the quasi-3D approach which coupled a 2D
Navier-Stokes solver on individual blade sections to a 3D
elastic solver, and the followed fully 3D approach were
used to verify the available tool for full but still isolated
blade in DAMPBLADE project.
Such models represent a complex interaction between
423
aerodynamics, structural dynamics.
3.1 Aerodynamic models
There are four typical types of aerodynamic model for
wind turbines [15,72], including BEM model, lifting panel
and vortex model, actuator line model, and CFD model.
3.1.1 BEM model
Compared to other models, BEM provides comparatively
accurate results and less time-consuming calculations
[8,15], therefore BEM model is widely used in aeroelastic
code, (see Table 1). Classic BEM model uses a quasi-
steady assumption, hence it gives the correct values only
when the wake is in equilibrium with the aerodynamic load
and is sufficient for the steady calculation in wind turbine
design and in rated power output [81]. In order to figure out
the unsteady aerodynamic response of a temporal variation
input in aeroelasticity, several engineering models, such as
dynamic inflow model, yaw/tilt model, and dynamic stall
model have to be included.
The dynamic inflow model was presented by Øye [82],
and a filter model which consisted of two first-order
differential equations was proposed to describe the induced
velocity. With EU JOULE program, a large number of
experiment data on different turbines with a size ranging
from D = 1.2 m to D = 60 m verified the model. The
measurements and calculation results both demonstrated
important effects of dynamic inflow on the mechanical
loads at fast pitching transients where large overshoots in
the loads were apparent [83–85]. The description of the
Yaw/Tilt model was proposed by Glauert, which was
introduced in detail by Snel and Schepers [83], and the
experiment data in the EU JOULE program also indicated
that under yawed conditions, the skewed wake not only
impacted the axial induction (which was expected from
helicopter aerodynamics), but also the radial velocity [82].
The influence on induced velocity will further lead to a
periodic alternating flapwise moment and cause the fatigue
of blades [85]. Dynamic stall is a phenomenon directly
related to the boundary separation. During the dynamic
stall, the separation of the boundary begins at the trailing
edge, and gradually moves upstream with the increasing
angles of attack [72,86,87]. To instability problems, the
dynamic stall model is especially important. Øye [86]
pointed out that if a dynamic stall model was not used, the
might compute flapwise vibrations, especially for stall
regulated wind turbines, were non-existing on the real
machine. Leishman et al. [88] put forward a semi-empirical
model for dynamic stall and investigated the differences
between lift coefficient under static stall and dynamic stall
situations [89]. The results revealed that, for a harmonic
variation of the angle of attack, the occurrence of stall is
delayed, and the lift during a decreasing phase is
424 Front. Energy 2011, 5(4): 419–434
considerably lower than that during the increasing phase,
resulting in the negative aerodynamic damping of stall
flutter [90]. Wu and Wang [54,91] calculated the unsteady
aerodynamic characteristics of wind turbines using the
BEM theory with dynamic stall model, and further
extended the model to include the 3D rotational effects.
The calculated results, with and without 3D effects, were
compared with the experimental data, and showed that the
calculation was improved by the inclusion of the 3D
rotational effects.
3.1.2 3D CFD model
Due to the development of computer technology, CFD
method played a significant role in the calculation of
aerodynamics.
The first application of CFD on the wind turbine was
finished by Hansen et al. [92,93]. NREL also performed
CFD simulations of NREL phase-II rotor [94,95]. The
experiments conducted by Fingersh et al. [96] and Simms
et al. [97] showed a good agreement between the CFD
simulation results and the experimental data, which
confirmed the ability of CFD method for aerodynamic
simulation.
Numerical simulations of scale effect for NREL Phase
VI were performed by CFD, and a method based on two
dimensional airfoil analysis results was presented and
applied to NREL Phase VI wind turbines for the
correction of scale effect [98]. Sørensen et al. [99] and
Zahle et al. [100,101] discussed the influence of wind
shear and tower presence on rotor and wake aerody-
namics by using CFD method. In China, CFD models
were also widely used. Chen et al. [102] and Zhao et al.
[103] both gave the dynamic stall properties of airfoil by
two-dimensional CFD simulation. Wang et al. [104]
simulated the aerodynamic performance of a turbine with
70 meters long blades, which is perhaps one of the
earliest literature on the whole megawatt turbine
simulation in China.
Due to various vortex length scales, ranging from
micro-scale with order of millimeter to large scale with
order of magnitude of wind turbine rotor radius, the
turbulence model has to be included for micro-scale
vortex modeling. The standard approach to derive
turbulence models is so-called Reynolds averaged NS
equations (RANS), by time averaging the Navier-Stokes
equation, and it lacks the capability to simulate the
stalled flow regime at high wind speeds [72]. Hence,
other viscous models, such as, k-ω SST model, Spalart-
Allmaras model, Baldwin-Barth model, were widely
used in the wind turbine simulation [47,105]. For high
angle of attack and strong separation of boundary, Lei
and Zhou [106] compared the S-A model and the large
eddy simulation (LES) model in the simulation of
aerodynamic performance of SVIAB WG500 wind
turbine. The results demonstrated that the LES model
can provide a higher precision result in large-scale
vortex than the S-A model. The disadvantages of the
LES involve that the LES model is computationally
much more expensive than the RANS model and have
little differences to RANS model at distance regime to
the surface of blades. The technology of detached-eddy
simulation (DES) was developed [107] and applied in
simulations of NREL phase IV blade [108]. The DES
model combines the LES model at the near regime of
blade and the RANS model at the distance regime of
blade.
3.2 Structural models
In order to calculate the aeroelasticity of a wind turbine, the
structural model has to be included to determine the
temporal variation of the loads in the various components.
3.2.1 Full 3D modeling and 1D equivalent beam modeling
Wind turbine blades are items with complex structure,
typically comprising many layers of fiber reinforced
composite material with necessary shear webs, root
fixtures, and tapering cross sections. 3D models are of
value in, for instance, examining the internal stresses
distribution. Special codes were developed to construct 3D
finite element models of wind turbine blades by Laird,
typically using thousands of composite shell elements
[109]. Kallesøe et al. [110] imposed an aerodynamic force
distribution extracted from HAWC2 on a detailed finite
element model of blades, and gave the detailed local airfoil
deformation caused by the deflection of blades.
Because the full 3D model is computationally too
expensive, the blades were treated as a series of 1D beam
elements in many aeroelastic codes [111]. Friedmann [2]
derived a set of coupled flap-lag-torsional nonlinear partial
differential equations of motion for a single blade which
was assumed as an elastic beam with the root being fixed
at the hub and the tip being exactly free, which was the
earliest literature on aeroelasticity(structural dynamic) of
wind turbine. Hodges and Dowell [112] derived the
nonlinear motion equations of hingeless helicopter rotor
blades undergoing moderate displacements, by using
Hamilton’s principle and the Newtonian method. The
resulting equations were valid for second order for long,
straight, slender, homogeneous, isotropic beams. Kallesøe
[113], extending Hodges-Dowell’s equation, constructed
the equations of motion for blade, including gravity, pitch
action and rotor speed variations. The model itself was
suitable for the low order beam and could model the non-
uniform and anisotropic beam with kinds of complex
shape of section with the assistant of FEM, and it was
widely used. Malcolm and Laird [111] presented an
 Pinting ZHANG et al. Aeroelasticity for wind turbine
overview of equivalent beam models and reported the
application of the procedure to completed blades and wind
turbines.
3.2.2 Discretization to 1D equivalent beam model
Roughly, there exist three methods, modal approach,
multi-body dynamics and FEM, to model the structural
dynamic characteristics of the wind turbine.
The modal approach can maximally reduce the number
of DOF and thus reduces the size of the matrices to make
the computation faster. In modal approach, the description
of blade and tower deformations can be made as a linear
combination of some physical realistic modes, typically the
lowest eigenmodes. In the commercially available and
widely used aeroelastic code, FLEX4, only the first 3 or 4
(2 flapwise and 1 or 2 edgewise) eigenmodes are used for
the blades and the other 8 DOFs are used to describe the
motions of shaft, nacelle, and tower [7]. Results from this
model are generally in good agreement with experimental
data, indicating the validity of the modal approach.
Even though the modal shape function provides a
computationally effective way for structural dynamic
calculation, many recently developed aeroelastic codes,
such as VEWTDC and GAST as listed in Table 1, model
the wind turbine by using FEM. Lim and Lee [114]
discretized the composite flexible beam into beam
elements in order to investigate the effects of the arbitrarily
large displacement and rotation. The number of DOF of
FEM descretization is much higher than that of the former
method, which means it will cost more computational time
for each time step.
Multi-body dynamic method, in which different rigid
parts are connected through springs and hinges, is
computationally more expensive than the modal shape
function, but cheaper than FEM. The code HAWC2 was
developed by using the multi-body dynamic method [10].
3.2.3 Remarks
The aerodynamic and structural dynamic models in all of
the existing aeroelastic codes are listed in Table 1. The
BEM model and the 1D equivalent beam model for blades
have been applied in most aeroelastic codes, and have been
proved valid in practical simulations. However, with the up
scaling of wind turbine, the defects of these models for
detailed investigation of phenomena, e.g. wind shear,
tower shadow, and large blade deflection, which will be
described in the next part, are apparent. Although the CFD
method and full 3D model for wind turbine blades are
computationally more expensive than those simple meth-
ods, the application of CFD method or full 3D blade model
is the tendency for performing of aeroelastic calculation
due to the capability of more precise simulation for
complex cases.
425
4 Current research focus on aeroelasticity
4.1 Research on aeorelastic instability
In 2004, Bir and Jonkman [35] pointed out that future
turbine design would likely be stability-driven in contrast
to the loads-driven design during that time. The challenges
are here today for researchers to face, which include more
flexible design, especially the torsionally-flexible rotor
blades, material and geometric couplings associated with
smart structures, and even hydrodynamic interactions
brought by the ocean currents and surface waves for
offshore wind turbine.
4.1.1 Edgewise instability
Many modern pitch regulated wind turbines have an
inherent positive aerodynamic damping for flapwise
modes but a much smaller, even negative aerodynamic
damping for edgewise motions, so the edgewise instability
becomes the most critical instability problem for wind
turbine. Hansen et al. [72] described in detail and
illustrated the edgewise instability of wind turbine.
Lindenburg and Snel [23] investigated the reasons for
unstable edgewise vibration including the relatively small
tip chord, a decreasing slope of the torque-speed relation of
the generator at full-load, the application of carbon fibres,
more uni directional (UD) layers, and vacuum manufactur-
ing techniques.
Stability of wind turbine rotor has been systematically
considered under the European research program STALL-
VIB since 1998 [115]. Subsequently Thomsen et al. [116]
developed an experimental method to identify the effective
damping for the edgewise blade mode shapes. Rasmussen
et al. [117] and Chaviaropoulos [74] respectively investi-
gated the flap/lead-lag stability properties of an isolated
blade section with an engineering-type aerodynamic model
in a linearized sense. And as Riziotis et al. [75] discussed,
these models provided important knowledge at the
qualitative level but also significant uncertainty at the
quantitative level. The European project VISCEL
(2003,2004) revisited the stability characteristic of the
typical section using an unsteady Navier-Stokes treatment
of the aerodynamics [75,78]. The step from the typical
section to the full blade was taken during the European
research project, DAMPBLADE (2003), which was
reviewed by Lindenburg and Snel [23]. The program
BLADMODE (2004) was considered as a relatively simple
but fast calculating and practical tool for performing
sensitivity stability investigation. The research on instabil-
ity of wind turbine rotor was conducted under the project
STABCON, a Europe research project [118,119], in which
different methods for instability problems were cross-
validated using experimental data for a speed variable and
pitch regulated wind turbine.
426 Front. Energy 2011, 5(4): 419–434
Larsen et al. [120] investigated the stability of an
offshore wind turbine using HAWC2, including the
influence of water level on tower frequency and damping
during operation and standstill. Parameter variations were
carried out to investigate the influence of wind speed,
water depth, monopile length and diameter on instability.
Bir and Jonkman [35] investigated the instability problems
of both onshore and offshore NREL-RWT. The results
showed that both onshore and offshore configurations were
stable under normal operating conditions but were instable
under certain parked (idling) conditions, in particular the
yaw mode, and the instabilities were sensitive to rotor
azimuthal and nacelle yaw positions.
4.1.2 Flutter instability
Flutter has not been monitored on commercial wind
turbines [121]. However, with the increase of the size of
blades the flutter speed decreases due to increasing
structural flexibility of blades and especially decreasing
torsional frequency [72,121]. Lobitz [121] investigated the
predicted flutter speed of a MW-sized blade, and the results
indicated that the flutter speed was slightly twice greater
than the operational speed of the rotor. When a moderate
amount of aeroelastic tailoring was added to the blade, a
modest decrease (12%) in the flutter speed was predicted.
By comparison, for a smaller rotor with relatively stiff
blades the predicted flutter speed was approximately six
times the operating speed.
4.2 Research on complex inflow and upstream wake
operation
For modern large wind turbines with rotor diameters in the
order of 100 m, the influence of the wind shear, interaction
with tower, atmospheric turbulence and upstream turbine
wakes will result in severe variation of the induction as
function of the azimuthal position of the blades [99]. In
traditional aeroelastic codes with the BEM model for
aerodynamic calculation, the consideration of these effects
are not sufficient to understand more of the actual flow
physics, so more and more researchers investigated the
effects of complex inflow with a CFD aerodynamic model.
4.2.1 Wind shear and tower shadow effects
In Risø’s report [122] and ‘UpWind Project’ report [99], a
three blades rotor with a diameter of 126 m was simulated
in wind shear by using the EllipSys3D code which is a
multiblock finite volume discretization of the incompres-
sible RANS. The results only predicted a small deviation
of the averaged mechanical power production under a
power law profile wind shear compared to the case with
uniform inflow, but a clear 3P variation of the torque and
an axial and tangential force variation under variable
azimuthal angle during the revolution were shown. The
axial and tangential forces on the blades can vary as much
as +/ – 40 percent during a revolution. The variation and
alternating force may cause a fatigue damage which has
not been taken into account in wind turbine design.
Further CFD simulations were conducted on the
Siemens 3.6 MW wind turbine for not only the wind
shear but also the interaction with tower [100]. An
additional wind direction shear model was added to the
former speed shear to make the results a little different in
integrated rotor thrust and power, but the great azimuthal
variation in the blade load compared to uniform inflow.
The results of the tower shadow simulation indicated that
CFD results under predicted the tower shadow effects by as
much as 100% compared to BEM computations. And a
further investigation was conducted by Zahle et al.
[101,123], where 2D and 3D CFD simulations of the
unsteady flow over the NREL Phase VI turbine were
presented. The computational results were in good
agreement with the experimental data, which confirmed
the validity of the CFD method.
4.2.2 Wake operation
Most turbines are presently set up in clusters or in wind
farms, which means that turbines may operate in wakes
from one or more other turbines sometimes. Traditionally,
the increased loading to blades when operation in wake can
be taken into account by using an increased and effective
turbulence model [72]. It might be suitable for limited
cases, i.e., fatigue load simulation, but it has turned out to
be unsuitable in such a case as extreme response
simulation, where more detailed investigation of the
increased loading from wake operation is needed.
Thomsen and Madsen [124] and Madsen et al. [125]
both presented the more detailed aeroelastic models than
those methodologies which just consider the wake by
increasing the turbulence. But it is still expected that more
aeroelastic models involving wake operation, such as full
3D CFD model, will be developed in the years to come.
4.3 Research on nonlinear effects of large blade deflection
Up to the present, most aeroelastic codes have assumed
that the displacement and the deformation of blades are
small, and effects of large deflection on modeling
responses and loads are not considered. But the continuing
up-scaling of wind turbine make its flexibility be increased
and therefore the blades’ deflection, which may bring
uncertainty and lead to some significant nonlinear effects,
has to be considered.
Larsen [126] and Rasmussen et al. [8] investigated the
nonlinear effects of large blade deflections, which mainly
include the reduced diameter of rotor and coning of the
rotor; the increased flapwise stiffness caused by geometric
 Pinting ZHANG et al. Aeroelasticity for wind turbine
nonlinearities; and the coupling between edgewise and
torsional forces and motions. The reducing effective rotor
area leads to a lower power production than assumed in
linear calculation, which will not be harmful to the security
of wind turbine. However, the other effects with respect to
the instability or flutter boundary of the wind turbine have
to be considered carefully.
The simulations of the 5 MW NREL-RWT [127]
showed a coupling of blade torsion to the edgewise
bending, due to the curvature of a blade with large flapwise
bending under the aerodynamic loading. It led to an
increasing blade torsion and angle of attack along the blade
near the rated speed, which caused a higher thrust, mean
flapwise deflections and the flapwise stiffness. The
increasing flapwise stiffness here suppressed the increasing
flapwise deflection and yielded that the blade deflection
tended to be smaller than linear calculation.
The instability and flutter boundary to a blade with
prescribed deformation was investigated [128]. The
theoretical analysis showed that the large blade deflection
introduced a new route to instability and flutter boundary.
The blade deformation, but not the actual deformation, was
prescribed at the given operation conditions. Conse-
quently, the calculated instability boundary under the
prescribed deformation case cannot be described as the
stability criterion of the turbine blade during practical
operation. In the research that follows, the results showed
no significant change of the flutter boundary on the rotor
speed due to the blade deflection, whereas the first
edgewise bending mode became negatively damped on
account of the coupling with torsion which caused a
serious instability problem [129]. Anyway, the nonlinear
effects of the large blade deflection is expected to be
comprehensibly studied, and the nonlinear aerodynamic
model and structural dynamic model applicable to the large
blade deflection, especially to such a composite blade with
a box girder, are the key issue for such a nonlinear
simulation. Kallesøe and Bjerring [130] investigated the
effects of large blade deflection on local airfoil deformation
and aerodynamic performance. However the structural
dynamic model also need to be investigated.
4.4 Research on smart blade and smart rotor control
With the increasing size of wind turbine blades, the
traditional control technologies for wind turbine blades
showed their limitation: only the entire span of the blade
can be pitch controlled. Therefore, more sophisticated load
control techniques are necessary to control the blades at
any moment and any position in the blade span, alleviating
blade loads, and adding aerodynamic damping to avoid
instability when necessary. To achieve this, the locally
distributed aerodynamic control devices with build-in
intelligence, such as the similar devices to airplanes, the
flaps at the wings, have been introduced to the blades,
namely the ‘Smart Blade’.
427
Preliminary investigations of aerodynamic control
devices on wind turbine blades have been performed by
the NREL during 1990s [131,132]. The trailing edge flap
concepts had been used for power regulation purposes and
series of wind tunnel experiments were conducted to
examine different configurations. Marrant and van Holten
[133] studied the feasibility of smart blade control with
regard to sensors, actuators, aerodynamic devices and
control strategies, and investigated the application on large
offshore pitch regulated variable-speed wind turbines
under the project of ‘Smart Dynamic Rotor Control for
Large Offshore Wind Turbines’. Recently, the ‘UpWind’
work package 1B3 ‘Smart Rotor Blades and Rotor
Control’ have been conducted by Barlas and van Kuik
[134], aiming to provide a low maintenance solution for
dynamic load alleviation and increasing aeroelastic damp-
ing.
4.4.1 Aerodynamic devices for smart rotor control
Basically there are several kinds of aerodynamic devices:
trailing edge flaps [135] (including deformable and rigid
flaps), microtabs [136], camber control, active twist,
boundary lay control. Barlas and van Kuik [134]
investigated and briefly compared these concepts. Accord-
ing to the results of the comparison, aerodynamic control
devices with trailing edge flaps and microtabs were
considered the most feasible concepts for wind turbine
because of their high frequency capabilities and good
structural and safety features.
Trailing edge flaps can generate substantial change in the
lift coefficient of the airfoil by increasing or decreasing the
camber of the airfoil. Troldborg [137] studied the effects of
the size and shape of the variable trailing edge geometry on
the aerodynamic characteristics by using CFD method.
Hoogedoorn et al. [36] studied the aeroelastic behavior of a
flexible blade, and the results showed that it has the
potential to improve the lift over drag ratio at off-design
wind speed conditions, and has the capability of delaying
the stall to a large pitch angle hence increasing the
operation range of a flexible blade. Combining a simple
proportion-difference (PD) control algorithm with a target
control strategy to minimize the tip deflection variation of
the blade, Bergami [138] studied the aeroservoelasticity
stability of airfoil. As a result, the standard deviation of the
airfoil displacement was reduced to 25% of the value
corresponding to no control. Risø built a prototype of blade
equipped with trailing edge flaps, and the step and
sinusoidal responses of the lift due to the flap deflection
measured in the experiments. The results showed that a
reduction of 82% in lift force was measured in a prescribed
pitch and flap motion. The good agreement between
numerical simulation and wind tunnel test for trailing edge
flap proved that it was a concept of high potential in load
alleviation [139]. A comparison of smart rotor control
428 Front. Energy 2011, 5(4): 419–434
approaches using trailing edge flaps and individual pitch
control was conducted by experiment at NREL [140] and
the results showed that while pitch control more
substantially reduced the 1P load, the flap control approach
appeared to be more effective at reducing high frequency
loads.
The concept of microtab comes from the earlier concept
of Gurney flaps. Lift enhancement is achieved by
deploying the tab on the lower (pressure) side of the
airfoil, while lift mitigation is achieved by deploying the
tab on the upper (suction) side of the airfoil [134]. The use
of microtabs as aerodynamic devices for load control on
wind turbine blades was proposed and extensively
investigated by van Dam et al. [136,141–143]. The effects
of the varying tab location, height and width on the lift
coefficient of a blade with microtabs were studied by 2D
CFD simulation and confirmed by experiment results, and
the results showed that there was a 50% increasing for the
lift coefficient in the linear range of the lift curve. A 3D
CFD simulation was also conducted in order to investigate
the effect of gaps in the tabs [143]. The relationship
between tab solidity ratio and change in lift was found to
be highly linear, which is important for control purposes.
These researches were all focused on the static aero-
dynamic performance, and the results were extensively
validated against benchmark wind tunnel [143]. The
unsteady CFD simulations of deploying microtabs and
comparison with microflap (tiny trailing edge flaps) were
studied [143], and the transient response of airfoils with
microtabs and microflaps similarly showed that the global
temporal response was independent of the aerodynamic
device, and that the global temporal response was very
important for determining the deployment time require-
ments for these devices in the control algorithm. In China,
the research mainly focuses on the Gurney Flaps [144–
146] where the effects of gurney flaps on the aerodynamic
performance of 2D airfoils were studied. However, Hao et
al. began to investigate the aerodynamic performance of
Microtab with CFD method in 2010 [147].
4.4.2 Actuators — smart materials for smart rotor control
Due to the capability of fast response and light weight,
smart materials may become the promising solution for
aerodynamic devices actuators, yet they have not been
widely applied to a commercial wind turbine. Currently, in
active aeroelastic control, the smart materials, including
piezoelectric material, electrostrictive or magnetostrictive
material, electrorheological or magnetorheological mate-
rial and shape memory alloys (SMA), have been taken into
account [134,148,149]. Because of the so-called ‘shape
memory effect’, SMA has been widely reported. Gorda-
ninejad et al. [150] and Ghomshei et al. [151] respectively
presented a two-dimensional and a three-dimensional
theoretical model for thermally driven SMA actuator.
Chandra [152] investigated the ability of bending and
torsional deformation to a composite beam with SMA
actuator. SMA can be drown into any shape and can be
imbedded, attached, or included in composite blades;
therefore SMA are especially suitable for embedded
actuation for shape control of blades, i.e., trailing edge
flap, camber control and active twist [134]. However, a
great number of literature about the applications of SMA to
active aeroelastic control focuses on aircrafts or helicopters
[153,154], and only a little literature focuses on the wind
turbine [155,156]. Lindroos et al. [156] presented the
design that SMA wires can be implemented inside the
blade to pull on the skin for deformation purposes, and in
UpWind Project, Work Packages: 1B3 Rotor blades and
rotor control [157], such a SMA wire architecture was
designed in order to meet the requirements of fast cooling
of the actuator which allowed to decrease response time
hence increase the actuation frequency. According to the
description of UpWind Project, the characterizing of SMA,
including the mechanical and fatigue properties, in-situ
electrical resistivity, recovery stress tests will be investi-
gated and tested in the Institute of Physics, Academy of
Sciences of the Czech Republic.
4.5 Research on coupling with hydrodynamics
With the development of offshore wind turbine, the
aeroelastic problems coupling with hydrodynamic, viz
the aero-hydro-elasticity, were more extensively consid-
ered. In the offshore environment, additional loads, such as
waveload and sea current load, have to be taken into
account. Seidel et al. [158] presented a method which
employed a substitute Monopile in Flex5 and a more
detailed model of the substructure in a specialized offshore
program. The stiffness representation with a Monopile in
this method allowed for integrated wind/wave analysis of a
Monopile foundation but not available for complex
substructures. In order to overcome this shortcoming,
Seidel et al. [159] presented an improved method159,
where the Flex5 aeroelatic code was enhanced by coupling
with ASASTM(non-linear), which is a general finite
element program for static and dynamic non-linear
structural analysis provided by ANSYS for wave loaded
structures. The methods presented by Seidel simulated the
supporting structure by coupling the aeroelastic model
with a separate model, and therefore were the so-called
semi-integrated methods. In aeroelastic code HAWC2, a
complete integration of the aeroelastic model of the turbine
with a hydroelastic model of the foundation structure
including the hydrodynamic loads, the wave loading and
the soil forces on the part of the support structure in the sea
bed was constructed [10,72,120].
The majority of existing offshore turbines are with fixed-
bottom building on the sea bed, but with the development
of technology, the floating platform for offshore wind
turbine has to be considered, due to the extreme abundant
 Pinting ZHANG et al. Aeroelasticity for wind turbine
of worldwide the deepwater ( > 30 m) wind resource. In
Ref. [160], the work of NREL was focused on the
development of comprehensive simulation tools capable of
modeling the fully coupled aeroelastic and hydrodynamic
responses of floating offshore wind turbines. NREL made
an effort to upgrade FAST to include the additional loading
and responses representative of floating offshore wind
turbine. In NREL’s model, the support platform was
assumed as a six DOF rigid body whose three rotational
displacements were small, and the linear hydrodynamics
assumption was introduced, where the problem could be
split into three simpler ones: a radiation problem, a
scattering problem, and a hydrostatics problem.
5 Discussion
To a multi-megawatt grade wind turbine, there is a strong
coupling between the aerodynamic loads and the time
dependent structural behavior of the construction, and the
aeroelasticity cannot be avoided. To the author’s knowl-
edge, the following aspects will be considered more
frequently in further research and aeroelastic research.
5.1 Aeroservoelasticity and smart rotor control
Economic efficiency will continually push the size of the
wind turbine to increase, and more severe fatigue loads
problems will be confronted with. The active aeroelastic
control technology, with the assistant of smart rotor control
technology, can alleviate the blade loads and increase the
turbine blade length without exceeding original fatigue
damage on the system, resulting in larger swept rotor area
and more efficient power production. Although its
feasibility has been proved, smart rotor control technology
has not yet been applied to commercial turbines. The
prototype with sensors, actuators, aerodynamic devices
have to be built, and more simulation and wind tunnel test
have to be conducted concerning load alleviation and
increased stability. An additional challenge is to develop a
technology which is cost-efficient, extremely reliable and
maintenance-free. In a word, this program constitutes an
integrating, multi-disciplinary approach, i.e., material,
aerodynamic, control technology, and is an innovative
research area, providing possible solutions for next
generation of large wind turbines.
5.2 Nonlinear aeroelasticity due to large blade deflection
The linearization of aeroelastic equations certainly offers
computational efficiency. With the increasing size of
turbines and much more flexible blades, the assumptions
of small deformation and displacement for linearization are
not valid. To the aeroelastic code for the multi-megawatt
wind turbine, more and more nonlinear effects, i.e., the
nonlinear effects due to large blade deflection, have to be
429
included. For such a nonlinear simulation, the applicable
and credible nonlinear aerodynamic model is the first
question to confront with, and it is the base for nonlinear
aeroelastic analysis. Another key issue concerns the
structural dynamic model which includes the geometrical
and structural nonlinear effects, especially to such a
composite blade with a box girder. Finally, during the
practical modeling process, some nonlinear factors have to
be ignored while some key nonlinear factors have to be
reserved. Computationally efficient but effective numerical
methodology is also very important.
5.3 Full-scale 3D CFD solution for dynamics
In order to accurately resolve the blade shape with good
resolution of the leading edge and tip region, the discretion
of NS equation produces a set of numerous nonlinear
coupled equations, and all the equations have to be
computed at every time step in the wind turbine dynamic
simulation. Even to the present rapid development
computer technology, it is computationally too expensive.
However, with the up scaling of wind turbine, the
defects of BEM in detailed investigation of phenomena, e.
g. wind shear or tower shadow problems, have been
shown, and the CFD method will be widely used in dealing
with these phenomena. Additionally, the CFD method can
provide detailed 2D and 3D airfoil data, especially to
aerodynamic control devices, and further push the
development of advanced control algorithms adapted for
load reduction and can be used as a supplement to
experiment, where the scale effects can be investigated.
5.4 Aerohydroelasticity
Offshore wind turbine is the tendency of the future turbine,
due to the abundant wind energy on the sea and the
decreasing cost per kilowatt. The floating platform
offshore turbine confronts much more severe wave loads
and sea current loads compared to the turbine with fixed
bottom. In order to increase the reliability of the offshore
turbine, the intensive aerohydroelastic model has to be
investigated.
6 Conclusions
In this paper, the aeroelastic model, and the state of the art
in current research focuses are reviewed, and the future
development of aeroelasticity for wind turbine are
discussed. Great progress has been made in the research
of aeroelasticity for wind turbine during the last 30 years,
and many kinds of mature methods for aerodynamic and
structural dynamic modeling of megawatt grade wind
turbine have been developed. However, with the rapid
development of wind power industry, larger wind turbine
rotor and offshore turbine pose new problems for the
430 Front. Energy 2011, 5(4): 419–434
aeroelasticity of wind turbine. The nonlinear effects due to
large blade deflection, the coupling with hydro dynamic,
and the smart rotor control technology have to be taken
into account; therefore new and advance aerodynamic and
structural dynamic models have to be further investigated
with the disciplines of material engineering, control
technology, and hydrodynamics.
Acknowledgements This work was supported by the Key Laboratory
Scientific Project of Hunan Province Unversity (No. 2009NGQ004), and the
Independent Innovation Funding of Huazhong University of Science and
Technology (No. 2010MS115).
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