CARBONATE SEDIMENTOLOGY Maurice E.Tucker V. Paul Wright BLACKWELL SCIENCE Oh — ts BEAM | i Eb Ta ks rc é os a se ta ‘i : € 7 eA Orem Re« C7 oven LG |.GEOLoGiA UNIcIT ffCarbonate Sedimentology Maurice E. Tucker University of Durhaen V. Paul Wright Lnwersily of Reading with a chapter by JAD. Dickson University af Gamboage b Blackwell Science1 Flachaed! Science Id dora Ofc Gsnsy Mead. Oxtord OX2 HE fae Str, tsi WCTS 2B 2% Asmalig Place, Ediabtah EH? HAD S50 Mute Sree Maden MA O28 9005, ES 4 Univetty Steet Calta ‘Vitara 2057, Austin 10. rae Crs Deli “sto Paris, Fre (nor Eder Oro Baskmll Wsenshal- Verlag Gan Kurtrientann TPG Pel, Gorman Iiackelt Scienve KR MG Koenmashy Malle 2 UW Kadenmato Nihomtbashi ‘Chuva, Tukye 168, Japa “The mgt of he Avior tobe identi asthe Author oF his Work has bo asserted accordance sev the Cuparigh esis 36 Potency Aer 108, lh gis reserved No pare this publican mrho reproduce se bvtnetal sor, of mans, Jae tam orb any micas electron trothanieal potepving recrding 9 herve excep as gente the UK Copyright Des Pato: Act 1988, swithon he prs pees oe oper ti: est pushed L980 Repcimed 1992, 1994. 1996, 1094 Sex hy Senco Typeset. Fong Kong Printed nd tour nthe ited Kingdom the Livery Bees. arbyidge The Blache Seenee ogy i ead pu of Wisk Seience Lak cegsiered at the United Ringo Trae Macks Reet? 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Sedimenition and deposit 1 Wrighs, Poul, 1983 1, Dickson Ur Ti, EATS CYTE 1990 S82.58 dont Fe Eorhermformatica on iyskuelt Science, visit ove website swore hlackellscienes oomContents Preface 91 Acknowledgements. xii Carbonate sediments and limestones: constituents 1 Paul Wright 1.1 Intraduction 1 1.2 Nom-skeletal praias 1 121 Coad rainy 1 1.2.2 Peloids 1 12.3. Grain aggrogates 11 124 Clasts (2 Skeletal grains 12 4 Matric 14 Girnulometric and aiarphomerne properties 17 6 Grain oriemtation anel packing 18 Limestone elissification 18 Data collection and processing 22 Porosity 25 19.1 Porosity eypes 24 Geological background to carbonate sedimentation 2x Maurice Tucker Introduetion 28 Major controls on earhonate sedimentation 28 2.21 Organic preductivicy gad sedimentation rites: 33 23 Cotbonate f 2.3.1 Depositional prucesses and facies sequences in cearbonate racks 36 4° Carbonate plattorms 38 Carbonate rimmed shelves 49 2.8.1 Modern cummed shelves 41 2 Rimmed shelves amd seu-level ehanges 4 “es and facies sequences: Mb 5.2 Rimmed shelt types 43 2.5.4 Ancient carbonate rimmed shelves 4 >s Maurice Theker Introduction te pelagic carbonates 2 Pelagic oases seul organisms 228 Controls on pelagic carbonate sedimentation 229 Pelagic casbo Deposition of pustern pe rate sealirnertation cates 232 isle carhomate ficies sis of modern pel svat pelagic carbonates 238 carbonates 236 S71 Tethyan pelagic limesones 23 57.2 Devonian Cephalapodenkulk ane! Griowe M4vill | CONTENTS. 7.3 The Chalk 248 5.7.4 Ordovicun Orhoceras limessoney 254 5.8 Pelagic tacies models 2 5.9 Introduction 10 resedimemted carbonates. 256 5.101 Processes of carhomate resedimentalion 257 5.10.1 Turbidity currents and limestone urbidites 25 1.2 Other sediment gravity flows 2600 5.10.3 Bottom currents and contourites 262 5.10.4 Classification of deep-water facies 262 5.11 Modem resedimented carbonates: The Bahama slopes and basins 262 5.111 Bahamian slape sedimentary facies: 264 5.11.2 Facies miadels from the Bahama stapes 269) 11.3 Other modern carbonate stapes 271 5.12 Facies models for resedimented carbonates: aprons and fans 271 13 Ancient resedimented carbonates 274 TS Ancient apron cathonazes 274 5.13.2 Ancient carbonate submariag fan sequences 280 ves 282 5.13.3 Basin plain fimestone turbidite sequer Carbonate mineralogy and chemistry 23+ Tony Dickson 6.1 Inteodtuetion 284 4.2 Crystal chemistry of common carbonates 284 6.2.1 Caleite and dolomite structures: 284 6.2.2 Amtgonite structure 245 6.2.3 Salid solutions 285 6.24 Phase relationships 289 6.2.5 Magnesian calcites 280 6.2.6 Biomineralization 2 6.8 Trace elements 23 6.3.1 Closed system 295 62.2 Open sytem 207 6.3.3. & for alkaline earth elements Sr and Mg 299 6.34 k for transition metals 301 6.3.5. A for alkali metals 302 6.3.6 ke for anions 302 6.3.7 Discussion 393 6.4 Isotopes 303 6.4.1 Stable hydrogen and oxygen isotopes in water 303 644.2. Carbon 305 643 Carhonates 310) 644 Radiogenic isotopes: strontium 312viii | CONTENTS. 5.7.3 The Chalk 245 74 Ordovician Orrhoceras hmestones 254 Pelagic fucies models 253 Introduction 10 re Processes of carbonate resedimentation 257 5.10.1 Turbidity currents snd limestone turbidites 5.10.2 Other sediment gravity flows 260 5.10.3 Bottom currents and contourites 262 5.10.4 Classification of deep-water facies 262 5.1] Modern reseciimented carbonates: The Bahama slopes and basins 262 TL] Bahamian slope sedimentary facies 204 112 Facies models from the Bahama slopes 260 14.3 Other modern carbonate slopes 271 3.12 Facies models for resedimented carbonates: aprons and fans 271 5.13 Ancient resedimented eachonates 274 S.1R1 Ancient apron carbonares 275 5.13.2 Ancient carbonate subraanag fin sequences 280 asin plain limestone turbidite sequences: 282 edimented carhemates 256 5 6 Carbonate mineralogy and chemistry Tony Dickson fA [atoduetion 254 2 Crystal chemistry of common carbonates 284 6.2.1 Caleite and dolomite steuctures 284 6.2.2 Aragonine structure 2 6.2.3 Solid solutions 285 6.24 Phase relationships 28% 6.2.5 Magnesian calcites 289 6.2.6 Biomineralization 292 6.3 Trace elements 293 6.3.1 Closed sysiem 295 63.2 Open system 297 6.3.3 k, for alkaline earth elements Se and Mg 299 6.3.4 ky for transition metals 301 6.3.5 k for alkali metals 302 63.6 ky foranions 402 6.3.7 Discussion 303 6.4 Isotopes 303 6.4.1 Stahle hydrogen and oxygen isotopes in water 303 64.2. Carhoa 305 643 Carhonates 310) 4.4.4 Radiogenic isorapes: strontiam 312CONTENTS f ix Diagenetic processes, products and environments 11 Marve Tueker 3.1 Introduction 313 2 Diagenetic processes: a brief introduction 315 7.3. Diagenetic environments 316 7.4 Shullow-maring diagenesis 318 74.1 The Recent 318, FA.2 Geochemistry of modern marine cements 324 7.4.3. Modern marine cementation: discussion 325 7.44 Marine diagenesis in the geologival recorct 327 FAS Ancient marine aragonite cements 329 FA.6 Ancient marine ealeite cements 330 7.7 Marine dissolution 336 7.5 Meteorie diayenusis. 336 Pant Weigh 7.5.1 Introduction 336 7.5.2. Meteoric environments 337 7.3.3 Meteorie processes 23% F.54 Products of metworie diagenesis FSS Sunumary 358 7. Diagenesis in the burial environment 4X, Maurice Tucker 7..1 Inteoduetion 348 T.h2 uit cementation 35% 7.3. Compaction 357 T.h.4 Lime mud diagenesis and avomerphisrn 360) 7.6.5 Huritl dissolution 361 7.7 Diayonetic sequences and models 362 32 Dolomites and dolomitization models 365 Maurice Tucker S.1 Introduction 365 82 ‘The dolomitization reaction 366 Dolomite crystal structure, stoichiometry and ordering 370 Dolomite petrography 372 8.4.1 Replacement dolomite 373 84.2 Dolomite cements 378, 843° Baroque dolomite 378 8S. Trace clement geochemistry of dolomite 379 85.1 Strontium in dolomite 379 2 Sodium in dolomite 381 8.5.3 fron gad manganese in dolomite 342 S.6 Stable ietope geochemistry of dolomite 382 8.7) Models of dolomitization, madorw and ancient examples 386 8.7.1 Evaporative dolomitization 38h1 CONTENTS 87.2, Seepage=retlax dalomitization 3 827.8 Mising-zone dolomitization 292 S74 Burlal dolonbtization 295 A7.8 Seawater dolomitzation 386 The geological record of carbonate rocks 11 Mawice Tucker SOP Intractuetion 491 Crrbonate facies through time 401 21 Cushonate sinds 401 V2.2 Reet compleses and patel reefs 403 3 Peritidal facies and stromgcolites. 04 9.24 Mudl mounds 406 Y.25 Pelagic facies 407 9.3. ‘Temporal variations in phanerozaic marine precipita Yt Secular variations in hiomineralization 430 95 Dias cis dhrough time 411 {6 Secular variations in carbonate geouhemistey 44 Yh Trace elements 1d Y.h.2 Stable isotopes 415 Precambrian dolomite there a problem? 419 Referenves 422 Index. 468Preface The inteation of this book is wo provide a detarledt synthesis of the enormous fly of research which has een published on carbonate sediments and rocks Such racks wwe worthy nf attention ler Sexeral Feasas They are volumetrically « most sisnificil part of the geological record and poseoss much cf the fossil ree for of Hfe om this planet. Most impoctantly chey contain tt Teast At" of the world’s known hydrie warhon reserves. They also play bost co base nietal deposits and groundwater resourves, and are raw materia tor the construction aid chen No ote rock spe Is. as economically important From a scientific viewpoint. canbonstes are es pecially imoresting lor the diversity of their av Most limestones are ultimately biogenic in origin snd ag appreciation of hiviogical and palwwobioloical factors is essential in understanding thei ferewation Their simple minerstogies, usually monominorallic. hotig their petugraphuc nd chemival complexity aad highly sophisticated microscopic and amalstieal tech: ues ore required to Uevipher their dis tories, Besides bioloieal aad seachemical expertise undlerstanding carbonate deposits ake serine an appreciation of physical sedimentulngy and ocesmography Carbonate deposition invelyes a more complex suite Of processes thot may other sediment typk Facies analysts has Been heat ily clependent on “com= parative” stuilies hut these have suttereil from several leashaeks. The present is got necessarily a hey te the hast @s regans carbonate deposition Mest modccn carbonute cepositional systems ate less that 600 yeaes ul and! these sell hardly reflect dhe sariety of settings established in dhe past, Many of the favies nodels cuitentty in use are haseel_om just several modern caviconments, tnd many deéseriptions ste now over 2H years ole The mitin danger in over cmphasizine the comparative approach is thar the preveat situstion hay mot Been the Boras bcause bach iological anc chenmeal actors have wot reminged As a resull of biological evolution and subsle changes in oveam chemistry, bokagival aed chemical wise varied through time, This has attocted sl inclst vies nut hs factors linvestome composition. diagenctic potential. and the voeh Tirestimes have through during their Burra! histories ur view wuul understanding ef carbonate depo sition and diagenesis hus changed greatly an the hist HW years sind this hook was conceived te sgathesicn this new knowledge. It contains coverage oF moderns depositional eystems, cls. mineralogy, and diagenesis. It i impossible, with the constraints of iate andl book size, kr caser every aspeet of the Subject: nor is it powsible to satisly every specialist or to inclu everyone's “tavourite ces. Some Copies, such as reets und carbonate diipenesis. require bucks of their own, We hope we hase provided (horough introduction. trom the basis, such 28 peter wrephy, to the most up-to-date concepts. bn particular the “rock wspeets have heen emphasized, making the book of dite of casbunate ved veil by inconsistent lorminology andl. where possible, we bave argued for the use of specitic wens and the abandonment of ethers {is am exedling time an carbonate Sedimentology Now techniques in microanalysis are prssiding major opportunities for unraseliing detailed diagenetic his tories. Mt the opposite ent ot the spechum. seismic ate and sequence steativraphy ere enabl interpret the evolution of whole earhonate mical pathways evolved se to pructising geologists. The subject sessions. 8 current there is thy use el computer models 16 generate sedimentological or diagenetic sequences. To date these have bee used to model peritidal sequences and eachorrtte platform dy 1 sheers Ao important taewor en the Urise to develop models fs the more widesprewe aeceptance of Une rake of osbitully-foreed climatic eyeles, although there is Sl] much angument here Carbonnre sediments are particularly sensitive to en vironmental changes, Temperature influcnees. bit gemie production end most carbonate procluetion is Strongly depth dependent. so that een small-scale changes sea-level ean cause a decease i production as sh resull nf exposure or deepening, The recognition of Milankovitch eyclieity in ancient carbonates will beaii | PREFACE 4s major thenie over the next few yeurs, Another major trend will be the integration of hydrogeological and viagenstic models, This approach is already proving very successful in understanding: platform diagenesis, with The Kohout convection model, and the Lascinating disgoveri¢s of the “openness of dre Battaminn Plaviorm groundsater system, Such hyciro- seologivally-based diagenetic models may. at last. allow carbonate diagenesis (9 be predictive and not Simply descriptive The study of carbonate sedimentology is entering a period of sransition, from its cartier descriptive phase to one of quantitative models and synthesis. We hope this book will provide both a souree and a stimulus for this aew work, Maurice Tucker. Paul Wright and Tony Dieksort Seponiber TOS91 PREFACE 4 majar theme over the next few years, Another nnrajor trend will he the integration of hysirogeotogical and diagenetic models, This approach is already proving very successful im understanding platform Gagenesis. with the Kohout eaavection model. and the fascinating discoveries af the ‘openness of the Bahamian Plattorm groundwitter system. Such hydra- geologically-bused diagenetic models may. at lest allow earbonate diagenesis to be predictive and not simply descriptiv ‘The stady of carbonate sedimentology is entering 1 period of transition, from its earlier deseniptive phase to one of quantitative models and synihesis. We hope this book will provide both « source and stimulus for this new work, Maurice fucker, Paut Wright and Tony Dickson Sepreneber 1989Acknowledgements His book has tstoundarionsin mins veursat research and teaching in cirbonte geology by the authors. We ieknowledge the support of the unwersities where we have stuical and cughe over the years: at home — Bristol. Cambridge. Condit. Durham. Londan Neweintle, Nactiaghin, Reauhins and the Opea Un Sersiy andhan the USA Baton Rouge (Louisiana erkeley (Callomia) amd Stony Brook (New Vor) Support tor our rescareli has ako come from the NERC (Natural Environment Rescarelt Council. ee British Council, die Royal Soetety and of! companies 8P_Beituil, Chevron, Lasmo, Mobil, Shell (KSFPL), Texas and Unocal. The hook sel denses troy sourves which hase been given te the peivoleum inausiny, an! there iy alse the apa trom experiences gamed in underscaduate and postiriduate teaching botk here in Britain, elsewhete in burope and in Noith America Many mdividls have heen involved i the preps iow of this Book. Weare sincere Professor Fred Read of Virginia Polyteckite knsttate Blucksbur®, for his cetical weading aad inesive com mients on a dhaft ef the book. Ered make imany “alvable suggestions for the improvement af the text Weare abo grateful to Phil Choquette (Marathoa Oil Co, Hiitleton. Colorado) fll Mevers | State Lins er- Sily Of New York, Stony Brook}, Craig Smulley (BP Sunbury! and Rob Gasthorpe (University of Man chester for reacliag Some of thy chapters and siving their opinions Uhainks sare lus to mine people whe have pre Sidled photographs, slides. preprints of papers. per mission to use figures and adsiees Alfonse Bosellia (Univesini di Ferrara, Tealya. Mario Brasier (University of Oxford, Richard Bromley (Lniveisity of Copenhawen. Denmark), Rucbaira Brown and BP. Dunne (Uonersity of Neweasile upon Tyne), Pan Boxence (RHBNC. Unisersicy of London), ‘Trevor Aurchette (BP London}, Robert F, Dill (Universicy ot South Caroting, Columbia), Peter Ditch sity of Liserpool}. Y. Drucknnan (Geckos oF Israel). Peter Frykman (Guological Survey ot Peomurk), bot Goldsmith (Universiy of Durhann) Gill Harwood (Cnisersity of Fast Anilia, Norwich), Malvoln: Hart Plyauouth Polewechnig, Devon). Athert Hine (University of South Blorkla, St Petershurs Noe] James (Queens University, Ontitris. daha Koldi (Atco, Texas), Kerry Kelts (EAWAG. Zucteh Swirzerkind). Chris Kendall (Lriversity. ot South Carolina. Columbia). Jiny Kenedy ¢Liniversity el Ostend). David Kitson (Robevtsau Reseurehy Andrew Leitch (Agricultural Research Council. Hert forushire). Jonathan Lewis Clnaperial College Lamune ean-Paul Lora (Universi de Nancy. France) Roy MeGresor (St Andress: Gniversity. Sentland|. Clyde Moore (louisiana Sante University. Baton Rouged. Tank Mullins csvracine Liniversity. New York). Nigel Plait (Lniversity of Bern, Switeerkind). John Powell (british Geolesical Surser), Robert Riding (University of Wales. Caritth, An Sallee (Unocal. Californian. Cotin Seruiton (University ot Neweastle upon Tene). Gene Shing (USGS, Fisher Island, Minit. Peter Spit (Bristol University) Denys Smith (Lniversity of Durham), Roger Till (P. London). Bill Ward {Lniversiny of New Orlow) and Nigel Wants (Teven, Canales Permission uw use publishecl materia was kindly ghen by the Americiny Assneiation st Petrolcum’ Geolagisis: Ehevier. Amsterdam, Geological Associ ation of Canuck: Geological Soeicty of London: International Association of Sedimemoloxists, Mak muilian Journals Lal. Londen: Maseum Naatienat Histoire Naturetie, Antenne de Tabiti, Qxcan Drie ing Program, College Station. Suciery at Fennomie Palcontolosists and Minerlogists: Springes- Verlag. Heidelbers. sind Chestopher Sprin: Photoprapher Ine. Pt Reyes, Caifornia The authors are must grawctul to Carole Phaic aed lanette Finn. Alison Ruege, Elizsbeth Wyeth and Chris Chester. and Cheer Webre for typing mans drafts of this book over dhe Tist few years, We are fehted tw Karen Gittins amd Past Bahdaira tor their amwork, andl to Gerry Dresser tor photowraphy Thanks are alse required tor Vivienne, Ashley woud Ze (the Tucker references. Finally. at Blackeull Scientific Pubheations we should thank Navin Sullivan for is patience ancl en. enmagement andl mnie Willianison for her ea retul handing of the manuscript and pasos, 1 for theie assistance wath theCarbonate sediments and 1.1 INTRODUCTION Yor w student first looking al limestones in outcrop. they may look sery boring. for they are usually prey to white i colour and typically lack seassoring points of velerence such as sedimentary struciures: indeed even the bedding may not be a primary feature, ty thin section all the asuol familiar polacizing volours are absent and the rock is usually monominerallic. Insteadl, the rock contains a remarkable varicty of aria types, the natures ot many of which ave dlitficulr 10 resofve tcisily, None of this is helped by the jargom which has to be learned with terms such as wobiespanice, peck Mone, pisoid. neomorphic pseucoxpar, fascicular optic waleste and barogue dolomite. 1 came only a few. ‘The ain of this chapter is to tvtroduce the reader 1 some of the basic concepts and terminology of carbonate petrography. In citch of the following chaplers more twlormation is given about sedimentry processes and their products, amd tinally diag Processes anc! products are sliscussed in Chaprers 6 tie AT the simplest level earhonate petrography aims to chssity a limestone. enabling comparisons to be made sith present-day carbonate sediments. ow ever. limestones dilfer from cashonate sediments in xo mntin ways, The first is obvious, limestones are lirioied but sediments, hy definition, are nos, A more subtle difference exists it mineralogy, Modern car bunate sediments are composed mainly of twcr mine rl farms (Chapter 9), aragonite anel calcite. Two types of cileite are recognized. low magnesian ealeite (4 moles MgCOa} and high magnesian valcive (™4 awl 0), Both aragonite and high magnesian caleite are less stable than lew magoesian ealeite under normal diagenetic ecmditions and are replaced by it All three may be replaced by dolomite si that ast Himestones ip rhe peplogieal record consist of low onagnessun calcite anor dolomite, It nay be putting thiags 100 strongly to state that looking il tnestones is like “looking through a glass darkly’ but itis most Important ty he aware that significant mineratopical imestones: constituents and textural changes have qceurred in most lime~ stones, yen making the most hasie observations in overprinting subject Limestomes, despite being mineratogically quite simpic. ure highly sasied in composition. However, three main components cin he recoxnieed: grains matrix and cement. ‘The grain types can he turther subelivided into non-skeletal aeains and skeletal prin In Timestones the vost comavon gement type 1s sparite, represented by relatively coarsely erystallne clear calcite expstals, Cementation is discosted jn otal in Chapter 7 1.2 NON-SKELETAL GRAINS. Non-skelecal grains are those not abviously devised from the skeletal material of micce-argsinisms, invert ehrates or the thilli of calcareous plants. Four main types are recognized (Folk, 195Y): coated grains, peloidls, aggrogaes and clasts, 1.2.1 Coated grains A remarkable vari of carhenate-coated grains oceury and the existi itogy Is rile With Tneon- sistencies and problems. Indeed alawast every carbort- ate petrographer seems 10 Jive his oF HEY Own set OF desie Chated grains are polygenetic in origin with different processes forming similar types of grains and many of these process sire still very pourly uaudeestood, Furthermore. similar exated grains ean form in very different environments which makes their use in environmental interpretation difficult, A bewildering vasiery of terms eaists tor deseribing ed gyitins and some of the more bizaere names include macro-oneoil. pisovadoid, evanoid, beyoid tuberoid, puuwid and walnutoid (Peryt. 1983) Things have gone tov far and perhaps Une termine logical ness cam never be cleured vp, Thy niet recent review of coated grain terninalogy i thar by Bervt 127 CHAPTER I {83h} who proposed yet aaorher ckasilisation wsing hots generic wal genetic System for efasilying these i classification Jas been eriticized by Rieter COSA L ad the reser is reterred te Mese to papers tor at inzcouuction to the problems which exist this Many classifications, inchuding Peryr's, have alssinguished au rosa! eategories of canted grains chemically formed! (especially ookds) and hiogenically formed {onevids). Howeser. it iy aften impossible to prow uf % coated grain was biogenteally. formed and prany voids. usually chosifieel a6 ehemieally formed. ae vither directly biegenwally formed or their growih may he biochemically influenved, In theie classitications, Phigel (1982) sal Richter (198A) uke x more descriptive (genericy approach tothe terms avid and oncoid. The following delinitions are mouhlied fon those given hy these authors and sere the mature af the eorue w form sd continuity hie 1D. Ain void ¢or oatithi ts 0 couted yrs with @ ea sareonss vortes and a stclens which is variable fir Phe cortex is smmantily anid events tami sual especial ses cnuter nar, Bra tdi laoursae nag be thinner one pout af stronger eww vaeare oot the uelots. Phew ane typically spherical wr elipsordal bt ape wate tie degree of ypherieice increasing otiwards ov ianes Bicnentc sractres are hacking, OF ONE Costi= ats ce uniter part 0f the cnr Golds may be clessitied on their miccofabric or mineralogy. Diagenesis may obliterate many charae~ res anal this 6 especially the case where topic vampsition, ly made of oui is ain oobte. clin uncotd for oncedtiliy 68 a coaied gout with w partially overlapping lanaidae, The ate repicatty inregtar in share awed put osbibie bingenie siruvttares. Senne formes tack a ctear tes nwo eateareots cartes of teregutat jay he classitied on the types of bingeniec sciucture Uns contin, so that fer tormed by rel algal coatings are called rhodoliths (or Hhoddgiels). A riick mide of onewids should be called oncolite, Some seorkers have restricted the cern t0 algal oodules but this usige is traught with problems. The term pisoid is commonly used in earbor pevogeaphy but detinivon, Fhigel (1982) considered it to me; mane ok While Mose Workers have stressed it © ican an ood karger thi 2 mm in cligmeter (Leighton & Pendester, 1962: Donahue. 1978), As a result of than coids. they typically have a less It aw imple ones y be Coated grains oid samm Pisoid 2mm Micra-onceid Cortex is smoothly Cartex of and aveniy neegularly laminated overlapoing fconeeatrichusuaily —— lamitiae; ususlly | gpkercal to irregular in shape. | eipsaisal Comman iegenic features. Fig. LA Classification of caused grains. similar size division to the oncoids as shown an Fig, TL While most oncoids sre larger than 2 mma special category for oncoids under 2 mm might be used, the micro-oncoids Peryt (19826) hay defined three size categories for coated grains based on theis diameters: microid (22mm), pissid (2 Ll) mm) and macroid (10 mm). hese rave heen used hy PeryC as prefixes (or exareple © define large oneaids as macro-oncoids). but his system then reeagaizes generic, interpretative types which ae highly debatable (Richter. 1983) A recent ation 10 this Subject as come from Krumbein (1984) who elassified ooies and oncoids on the nature ofthe regularity of shape and continuity of the faminae, and he recognized micro-oneoids as out bined shove but further added a yenetic terminology based on whether the whole grain assemblage is bIo- genic of abiogenic. This classification recognizes ooliies and oncolites as assemblages of coated grsins which are biogeaically tormed und ooloids and oacoloids as assemblages of ablogenically-formed grains. Since itis impossible at present to tell if many coated grains ate biogenic or mot, this latest classification system is unusable and hopetully these additional confusing terms will no encer the literature Contoids are another type af coated grain’ recog zed by some workers (Flugel, 1982), They are grains ed by a migrile envelope. presumed 10 hive tormedl ny ondolithie micro-organisms (Section 1.2.2),CARBONATE SEDIMENTS AND LIMESTONES / 3 These are not sttietly coated erains hut represent alteration of the ra However, many thick micrite envelopes aire partly ceresionsiry im origin formed by the encrustation of micro-organisms which, ae partly endofithic au! portly gpilstlue CKobluk & Risk. 1077a.b), These wuulil constizute a (ype of none Jaminated eomied geun fer which the ferm cortoid might reasonably be used, surface 1.2.1a Ooids and pisoids These owe grain types will be considered tovetter as there ce many simakiriues in their minecalogies fabries and origins. Mineralegy. The mineralogy of oaids and pisoidls ine lluenves not only their subsequent di their microfubric. The evidence for. and significance of. the changing mincralogies of marine O0tds 38 dis- cussed in Section 9.3. Recent marine ovis ure mainly yosition (Richter. [S3), and 50 so ure OHS in saline lakes with a high My/Ca ratio: ¢Seotion 4.4.65}, High omanestan calcite ooids alse jovcur hat are muuch loss commun (Marshal & Davies, (97S; Milliman & Barretto, 187%: Land o af. 1979 Ipically ay ete MaCOn low mag: nesian cileite Gods have been desenbed from pre seutduy lakes, streams, caves and calearenus soils Wilkinson er ah, 1980; Geno & Chater, 1982 Richier, 18836), Biminerallic gods hase been de: scribed from bypersafine kigoons of Texas by Land #2 al. (1979) (aragonite and high magnesian calcite) trom the Picistocene of the Plorida Shell by Major er al. {1988} (aragonite and high matesian calcite, anel abo from tie alkaline Pyramid Lake ot Nevada by Popp & Wilkin wonite and low ma have been sleserived by Tucker (1984) et al. (1984), Pisnias aragonite in. com te, generally speaking, less common ia settings hut both arayonite and heb sileite pissids have heen recorded Troma ‘marging| marine hypersaliae cosaronments (Purser & pan, 1974, Pica, IIR: Ferguson et af., 1982). Low magnesinn calcite pisoids have been described trom a variety oF non-marine eovironmenty amd may reach quite large sizes (Risacher & Pugster, 1979; Chafets & Buller. 1980), Ovid cortical micrafabries. The microfalsies of oaids have attrieted considerable interest and & mumber of detailed studies have been nade of both Recent snd ancient aids. Reviews have been given by Simanc (1Y80), Richter (19836) and Mewedett & Witkinsom (1983), In doids forming at the present day three mais micrafabrics aveur tangential. eatial “ancl random (Fig. 1.2). Tungensia? microtabsies are the main microfabrie is Bahamian ods (Fig. 3.19) and consist fof aragonite “grains” whose long axes are aligned parallel 10 the ooid laminae auugonite rods without crystal terminations. which average J um long (maximum 3 4m) sind meters of 0.1 to U.3 im, Granules (or nanneygrains) of arsgonite abso eecur with chamuters of 1.1 40 8.3 jan (Fabricius. 1977; Guffey. 1983}. Radial microlabries consist of fibrous oF bladed eeystaly of aragonite, low Imynesiane calcite or high magnesim caleite. AS a general rule, radial aragonite fabrics in ovids The grains consist of Recent Marine Ooids Ranciam Tangential | 4 Concentric larninge Ancient Marine Ooids Pore-titing soary calcite Calsitised aragonite wath rao sueture f— atrite Fig. 1.2 Mayor espe oe) mtrnstineture seen fy paadera and tancient wits. Vininsione un those 1pes fate dere described Frome ancient rues by Hacker P84), Sasser (19801. Chane fumes (1887) cand Sraghy IS?4b CTIAPTER common ia mating setings than langenttal fabrigs but hey fave beet described trom the Trogial Coast of Ihe Arubisa Guilt (Lares & Purser. 1973) and fiver the Great Barrier Reel it Australia (Davies & Marvin Iuth1, Several siuulies hive also been Garniei out on, the redial eavids of the hypersaline Great Salt Lake of tah (Ruble, $974: Suaulberg, 1975s Halley. 1973), Koda) seagate comings nn the Trucial Const consist of asides 10-30 yon Teng atncl 2 Wiamewe (Loreau & Purser 1978). dn the Great Salt Take ooid, birge cimagnnite ‘rss ageur up 40 1S an foos (Halles. 1977) Chip. Ly. Low ragaesian ealeite dal fabrics have: recently boow deseribod iy detail fiom Poruaid Lake a Nesada Popp & Wilkinson, Teint) anal ie ealcine occurs ais kathy or Backes, 10201 tow long aoa Tigh radial cortiees which have been described fro srarine ave component “crystals ef Similar sizes toy some med howe srlelte ois [Richter T9X3h9, In fad ootds te inctivicusa erestos inereused cementation wt goann comers, be nrishually-sudecee gveeipaiarion, (fh depressnnts a ref ap sagen, Sage 4: flare of funy wetud cant fos a dinse, eas macriicel en nratvsorich exgrezarte, Sopie replacement of the IEME cinaiponenes Bs eougrane may alse eect, Based on Geel IF444, inl & Shades 119744 anal arse 97%), crea a awuphes 7CARBONATE SEDIMENT ‘ean result in variety of other intraclasis ah called hiatus concretions (Brown & burrow, [O78), Resculi mentation on slopes can ako creaty ircraclasts (Seenon 5.101. Mans limestones appear co contin clasts which are actully motites caused by bieturbation. «nd dif. al dolomitizarion cua also ereate “pseuckichists” The sevond category, lithockists. or estrackssts consists of htholopies nor represented in the imimediate Hepositional area. An obvious example would be a chit ef a Oilobite-hearing binclastic grainstone ina Teriury limestone, Howerer. Uiese terms rely on interpretation not simply deseription, Uf samples fare very limited. such ay well material. iC my be impossible to judge iP a clasts “intra? ar cextea” origin, The ase of the simple descriptive term fime= lust ar Hinestone last is adbsasable A particularly striking type of lime-ckast eommoniy assocuted with marginal marine limestones are Mack-pebhies”. These are dkirkened clasts, usually oF lithotoyies represented in the assoviited environments Bintruckests) which have & waricty af osigins ran from staining by organic solutions (in sails), black: caing during fires, or pyritizarion. In general they are associated with subacrial exposure surtaces (see Section 4.4.3h), fever 1.3 SKELETAL GRAINS There seems at first £0 he g hewikloring variety of sliforent types of skeletal grains in Famestones. At any fone time in the geological past prams differcat types orqunisms have been capable of pruxlucing ealeureous skeletons. ‘These umemblages ef bivgenig grains ckinecc! with time and with cnvironment. A Jurassic shallow weiter bioclastic Limestone is as different from a Cambrian one as 11s from a Jurassic deep-water hioclastic Limestone, However, correet identificntinn al thy types ot skel ins occurring. in limestone 1s eritical for ste environmental lo aul ition 10 all this variety, the type of preservation seen In biosenic grins varies from phylum to phyla, and within a phylum. Te ald to the dhificulties many hiogemie purtictes are complex three-imensicntal stimetures and their appearance in two-dimensinnal thin sections ean be highly sariable, depending on the orientation of the section, However, help is available and there are hooks whicé assist in pulsing a name Gnd sivnificancey to skeletal grams (Majewske. lot, Herowig & Potter, 1971; Milliman. 197s Rotlhurst, 1975; Scholle, IN: Adams ¢7 al. 1984} Skeletal grams are identited on the basis of theie Sie and shape, microstructure aterpretition: ND LIMFSTONES f 13 alogy. However, any conclusions on the nature of the original migr structure ancl mineralogy must be based fon sound endetstanding of the diagenesis the fossil has subsequently undergone. As diseusseu above, the inherent insta carbonate sciliments curing diagenesis resulls from the presence of “unstable” mincrals. such as aragonite aind bigh-Mg.caleite (IMC). Much of chis imstahiticy ‘comes teera skeletal geains whielt, an the caxe-af shallows nisiring Timestones, are manny composed of the une stable forms, Figure 1.9 shons the mineralogies of sn plamty andl animals with calcareous skeletons. esis and thal, The nature of the replacement mec! anisms and! products of the unstable skeletal miner alogies is complex but sosne broad points can be made a this stave, which are critical tor interpreting even basic features in Limestones. Aragonite shells or plat thalli ure generally completely dissolved nue during shagenesis aud the voids lilled bysparry caleite coment Thus. ia all organisms which were aragonitie ia com position, there bas usnally heen 2 vonsiderable. nat complete, loss of avierostructural detail The slissolution of skeletal aragonite iS one of the niost widespread diagenetic processes. Most aragonite shelly underys complete dissolution and passive mould filing by ealeite. ‘Theis shell shapes ane pac served in limestones because they are detined by nicrite envelopes (Fig, 1.10), Skeletal debris lying on (he sea floor is attacked by endotidhie | of garbonate crams Formation if A. Disaggregation 22 io ston | Bioerosion 2) Lime mua of calcareous | sean algao | Fig. 1A Lime ned ieatger for sh Bigh of baer, Bubs. Ravel on Newnan & Lund (1973) aed Toker Hash, ce tn saa precipitation ‘on fagaon floor. 2 alfshore in en teres a tidal tans Products of bivlogical Urosion and i taleite cementation (Land & Moore eMtonsive mierite cements may he cient Feels (Section 4.5.20). Mivrite cements occur in misrohorings « form micrite emselopes (Seetion 1.2.2: oak et af. 1983}, The terry mierite should be used a ie term For mcrocystalline calcite anct should wot be restricted te reter to micrite-eraele matrix. MEbinwan ee ad. (1985) Ihave discussed the terminological problems af rriee nani and cement inie high-Mg Lost. Similar 1.5 GRANULOMETRIC AND MORPHOMETRIC PROPERTIES The sranulomettic and morphometric praperties of a sediment or rock, such as grain size, sorting. runes ind spleneity. are giv irbernate sectinentology thaa they are in the study of sileiclastic deposits, ILis the setusl geain types whieh are gener- ally more useful for environmental interpretation it limestones. ‘These: properties are still important ant should he nated. hut the ase of sueh data must be fone widh many provisos, Grain’ size sneasurements of exrbonate sediments sand limestonesare usually classified using the Lilien — Sentworth system, dnd measurements on sedtiments ean he mide using, for example, pipettes, sieves ane STS AND LIMESTONES 47 setgling chambers. In limestones the grains may be measureil from thi sections or peeks, bul a variety of esrors cam occur by this method and. iat audition, a conversion w needed (Blatt ey al.. 198I; Blige]. 1982 Gutteridge. 1985; Tuckes, YK), The grain size of Tock may pruvide a guide to energy levels in the environment of deposition, but a aumaber at factors most he hore in mind: for esumple, the types of biological destruction a grain undergoes are particularly important. Some organisms. such as fish, actually crush hard skeletons and produce carbonate mid aml SL Skeletal grainy also have unique rydrodynamic pre PETHES aNd ate commonly porous ot hollow er eoutein rer (Brute. 1973h), In stuttying any n Ze population itis important te rem ember that caleatvous orgaaisons have ifferenst arch teetuzes ind sherelore disintegrate in different ways: for example. endiaccan algae such as Halinedu decay reaehy to form sand. t anuckgrade carbonate while associated corals such as Aeropone predominantly form gra el-to sand-sized fragments (Folk & Robles, eth Statistical analyses of evain size distributions, sor skewness, ele. must also be used with are in carbonates. Sorting can quickly be assessed for car bonates in thin scetiony using comparison chart. The degree of sorting is dependent an the transpoct and depositional regime and als on the nature of Une source smterial, which in carbonates omy 4s easily reflect the size range of lncal argaivisms as any Nyilroe dynamic property Morphometric properties include grain shape and roundness ancl both ary seller dhe amount of trans: post and abrasion a grain has unceruone. However, these properties must be viewed critically. As Poth (1862) has pointed out, when regacding grain round ness, only some bigelists provide: meaninaful results. for grains such as ogids form as well-rounded, spher val grains, and faecal pellets are rounded by. theic passage throush am orgamisnr’s waste disposal syste Some biockistie graimvare, of course. alecaly rounded andor spherical sueli as some foraminifera, Perther= more. the degree uf tatnding shown by a biogenic rain wil depend on a number of factors inelusling the eviginal_migrostrueture Gf the particle. Pilkey ef ul, (1967) Ihave providec! a conmuparison chet tar eke- seribing roundness of bioekists in thén section When interpreting the caergy levels that a lame stone was deposited in using these grain properties. st Is usually assumed Uiat the sediment surtaee is im equilibrium with the hydrodynamic regione, This may aot abways he the ease. for, 2s puinted out by Bathurst (1975), large areas of the Bahgia Banks ure covered18 / CHAPTFRI in subtidal microbial mats. which have stabilized dhe secliment cnabling it to withstand current velocities 2s much as five times as high ax those craig nearby sediments lacking a microbial cover 1.6 GRAIN ORIENTATION AND PACKING The most important factors controlling grain rien: tation (alignment) sie the transport reeinie ad eo paction, Flake breccias Gintrackint limestones) are Girmimom in peritidal sequences where cloawate: mucl fakes become imbrieated in tidal channels. $n some limestones small grains ace aligned nt circular pattern representing burrow Linings, whlle in general bioturba- tion results ia the obliteration ef any original grain ligaments, ‘Grain packing in imestones ean be described using the systems applica fo sandstones ¢Pettijohn et ai.. 1972) although meusurement e7Fo*s can occur usiNe thin sections (karrell, 1981). Compaction can also rautieally alter grain packiow andl carbonate grains are Particularly susceptible to pressure essolution. A sariety ol packing types can resblt. as described in Seevion 7.6.3 1.7 LIMESTONE CLASSIFICATION A variety of propel silable for classifying limestones such as colour, grtia oF enystal size, corte position and texture fabric. Any classification may fave a generic of a genvtic base, A yeacrie clasil- ation Simply involves defising eertatin properties ancl allocating a name to them. A genetic ehisi fone in which the buss for the clasifieacion uses some fundamental property which relates dircetly 10 the ‘origin of the item being classified. \ system based on cailour, which is Thghly sacizble property. would largely be a yeneti one. A system tased on grain size is widely sed recognizny three categories: calcilurite {cain «62 ina}. calearenite {42 um te 2 oom) snd alvirudite (2 mm}. Such a classiiestion, though having some genetic connotations ais texas the poss tke energy level of grain transport aond deposidion, ts limited. ‘Phe wo most important features of a Time= stone secn in fin seotion ae the actual grat proper tics (including composition und the rock Fabric, that is the relationship of the grains to one anor and to any groundivess. These grain properties will inelude ertnulometries and morphomettics, but grain vompo- Sion is probably the most important property. Since ovost simple petragraphic analyses of mex Mones are for the purpose of cavirenmental ine terpretation, the most uselul classification would be one which relates grain propertics and fabric to some environmental property such as energy level. In fet the chusitications which are most widely used are used on the concept of (extural (fabric) nratucity where the fabric is belioved to relate to the energy evel during the deposition of the hmestone. This 1s the hiisis of the classifications given by Folk (1959. 1962), Dunham (1962), Leighton & Pendeter (1962). Bissell & Chilingar (1967) and Fuclubayer (197-4, The most widely used classifications are those of Folk: and Dunhiim, Folk (1959, 1962) reeounized three main constituents in Timestones. allachem (grains), matrix (micrite) and sparite (cement). Me recognized Four catcporics wf allochoms: peloids. aids, bioclasts inal intraclasts, Theee main “tamilies’ of limestones wore recognized (Fig, 1.16): sparry allochemicat Time: stones (allachem cemented by sparry calcite), micro erystilline allochemicnl limestones (allechems bur with micrite matrix}, awe enicrocrystalline limestones lacking allochems or showing small sparry patches. The tast actually represent cither partly scerystallized for fenestra ouetites: (Scetion 4.3.34}. In addition, limestones showing coherent, 2 site organic structures are termed biolithites. Based om the types of allochem preseat eight sub- divisions can be made (Fig, 1.14). Folk also provided 4 system Tor clssifying the allochemical limestones based on the Solumetric proportions of cach allocher type, The classitieation included a system of naming such rock with sparites and rmierites and the abbre ated allochem name, Thus suel terms as pelsparite {peloital sparitey came into use. A grim size term could by addeel such 3s a hiosparrudite, to describe a eoarse-prtined bicelastie sparite (Folk took 1.0) ram as the Tower boundary for rudites) A further development was to subdivide the main limestone types into eight groups reflecting a “textural spocirun’ (Fig. 1.15) (Fotk, 1962). “This systern is clearly 2 genetic one and its use nol only involves Classifying # reck. hut ut the same ume provides an idea of the energy levels in the environment of depo- sition. A tierite to packed biomierite reflects depo- sition in a setting where current or wave cnerey was insufficient to winmow away the lime matrix, The unsorted biosparites to rounded hiesparites refleet in incrensing energy gradient of abrasion and sorts However, the most widely used tnd simplest lassification is that of Dunham (1962: Fig. 1.16), Th classification is based! on the rock oF sediment fabric, tund the presence of any biological binding. The threCARBONATE SEDIMENTS AND LIMESTONES / 49 1 Sparry allochemical 2 Micritie allochemical limestones. Intraclasts Ooias Bioclasts BSS Biamierte Peloids Pelsparite Femicrie Mictitic limestone Dismicrite a Biolithite Fig. 114 Beate timestoue apes of FuR's 19990 elossieuion. Four | pa el eer ares are cecongntced (ste fexth main divisions are becseen fimestones which are mat msupported (lime mudstones and wackestones, micrite taken as “20 um by Dunham), grain-stipported (packstones and grainstones) and biologically bounel foounustones). A fourth category, erysealine lim seones. is abo recognized. Figure 1.17 shows such :t seleetion ot limestone types. This elassitieation was estended by Embry & Klosan (1971) fo include the types of rocks encountered in rect deposits (Fie 494) la Dunham’ classtication the significance of cach tock type as regards energy level i relatively clear However, unlike silicielastic rocks where all the grains sand most of the matrix, sine usually allechthonous, in limestones hoth the matrix and the grains can be Incally produced. A lime murdstoae or suekestone with Lirge skeleial fragments is not-g eomeradietion in tenns of eneryy level. bur refleets mud accumulation sand the origina! presence af s enthos. The limestone fabrics reflect the interetinn of hydraulic processes and biological production. ‘Vhis a lime mudstone, reflects deposition in a low-energy setting where grain poduction, especially by organisms. was reduced. perhaps hecause of restricted conditions, Notall se Meats are in equilibrium sith their environment of depoxition and benthic microbial mats are capable of20 7 CHAPTER | suseauat | __ Sve 2 sear coment wn ~ soar and) cing Sov anded Parc on over sor | S22" AFT soning T Sorting | RRLRE sacchars | ; | poor goo | allSea Hor soniav| torte ene] F269" | sparse | panies | PRY, : unsorted ~ Sorted « rr jismicrite ous iomicrite fomieriia | Basted te; biosparit ok ems | cise | ES | gemerte | wires | SE | crgourte , wiosorte MEME rete 99 Spar catate cement Fig. 1S Pest manuriecsteatonof Fst 118% Deousitianal texture recogrizagle Grigina! camponents not bound fogethar during ceposition Containg mad ‘Lacks mud lay ang lina silt-size carbonate Tren Supported Mue-suppartag sugported fess rar Titore than | AU& grains 10% grains | | Mudstone | Wackestone and 1s grein Packstone Grainstone | Boundstone | Crystalline Depositionat Hledure rot TOrainar | reeognizatte comporents were bound iogether Fig, 1.16 Duatnuon's (19621 claificaon of dinurencs wilt selianatic diagrams af each rack ape Stibslizing grain populations which wood otherwise be transported itt that site (Seetion 3.2.1e) Iv descrilsiug a roek type using, these classifi spstems grain type terms can also be used: for esampl ahiociastic ertiosion equivalent of a biesparite mm Polk's classification, However. strict ertia class expes do not exist in the Dunant els Recently, Smosna (198?) has introduced another concept i meson’ classification. compositional maturity. This is defined ay “the extent to whieh a sediment approaches 1 eoasticucnt end member chy ined Isp co which tt as driven by the environmental processes uperitiag upon it, SarosmaCARBONATE SEDIMENTS AND LIMESTONES f 24 Fig, LAT Selecwune of Dionlnans finestane eves, (14 Mizaia talus veladdacean alga) grainsane, Poneman, Duark Carve Curibad, New Merica. The grains ure separaicd ts cement, 1B) Charoplite warkesione. Cyroganites ved mullaseat fragments are maar stuppuomed. Upper durassic ‘Cabracos Beil struc fragments, Lower Carbontterats eovigaged compositionally immature (varied) lime= ssones.asheine produced in cnviconmenrs where many inlogical, physical and chemical processes operate Simultaneously. As the numher of eperiling processes decreases se ihe sediment will progress to aut adysaneedl The Dunhany classification, like Oar of Folk, pro vides a clue 10 the cnerey levels during deposition however. there ate both problems in recogni jories and alse in their interpretation. One af the nest eonmnut probhesns ie rst studying limestones that in thin seetion muy grains ace nut iat eontact but appear To float. This may occur in a grainstone where no supporting. matrix 1S present. Such a propesty makes distinguishing a wackestonc from packstone dlificull. ‘This problem is an artefact of he two. Cabs Mondlegen Portegual (C1 Lone ascubiane wate eo Gorge, Prgtan dimensional view of the thice-dimensional rock Fabric (Dunham, 1962). Grains ing grain-supparted fabvie re ot ial cunesct along, every Surtice and sections through such a fabric will Show Some grains spparently Toariag In matrix, of cemwat, or pore spice. The Shape of the grains is very imporrant and highly irregular shapes may form a self-supporting frame work with only 20 30% of the volume actually being grain. sith such grains hasing apparently few points fof contact, ‘This three-dimensional aspect should by borne in ming in all carbonate pettography. ‘Truc eralasupported socks have a packing index (Sander. H951) of fess thas 2, and usually around [.2 (Plilgel, FORD) hut care needs fo he taken in assessing this (Harrell, 1981}, The origins of Time mudstone wackestone and221 CILAPTERT tone ate clear enough as regards energy level i two types are deposited in low-energy settings where mud manvix is not winnowel away, But what ailsout packstones? These are ai very common rack type. vet ifthe Fabric is grain supported. how is the uit introduced? Some packstones ceutainly have bud mudi washed in. for geupetal sediments oveur: many cculereres ste diagenetic packstomes. hecause miernie hus been precipitated wishin intereranulsr Hosever, most muddy limestones have undervone compaction caused by dewatering, In this sediments deposited as wackestomes become cot verted to packstones (Shinn & Robbin, 1983). During pressure disselurion many uncemented grains hecome welded rogether 16 form ficed ane! condensed fabries (Seetion 7.6.3) which, lscking clear sparry cement are commonly ckysificu as packstones even though they lack tng matrix Vhese features indheate the failing ju the existing ckassilication systems which were designed te deserihe primary. cupositional labrics. Sines these systers. were Iaveduced, carbonate seelimentalagisis have bosun ts appreciate how susceptible carhonate sedi- iicmis ancl limestones are fo diagenesis, I is now known shut the matriy in limestone prone to re- crpseallize to mare coarsely exystalline ealeite ¢sparite) anid tht mierike can be mix ar cement ino (Section 1A) ge The Processes stich compaction and pressure dissolution cam radically silver the primasy rock fabric (Seerion 7.6.3), Purtheemore, muy fabries occur in Timestones which are tor covered in either classiication In Timesiones. the final fabric has both a cicpo- sitigostl component antl one celatiog to ity subsequent diagenesis, Ie seems untikely that any convenient slasitication system can weld together bath these aspects, So any description of a limestone must be bingey. by being mame which describes its fabric but with diagenetic provisos, Perhaps the most commuaty seen example is due to Bielurbation for many hmes Stones displiy mociling with complex mixtures of us packing arcangements cused hy hurrowing, Limestones may aho be impure, with admisteres 61 siliciclistics. Such teks present furmer problems in clussificarion and & new scheme fas been proposed by Mount (1985) 1.8 DATA COLLECTION AND PROCESSING As deseribed in varlir Seetions, 9 sai cy oF compari. sow charts are available for estimating sorting, sound ness and sphericity in Fimestoaes, ut is diseussed corlicr itis the composition oF the grains ahieh is Probably she most usctel single prapery of a lime- stone, Calculating the pereemtages of ganas 10 mete. lo the porosity. or the relative percentages of various usin types, is most reliably done in this section fy Point counting. This technique is roviewed by Flugel (198). A semi-yusatitative mnethod 36 19 ese cone prion charts tor visu] estimates, variety of charts Sie available which include diferent grain shapes (Emcich & Webber, 1963: Bacclle & Bosellini, 1965: Sehater. 1969) Having collected data on the Hmestane compos sition st may then be processed into statistics ancingtul groups by such techniques as cluster and mukivariate analysis. relatively simple technique for testing the changes i afferent grina populations. oprimized similarity matsiee, has heen intraduced by emiehert 4 ces (5), By such methods hthotacic types may he debned quantitatively, which are a least reasonably olsjective. A brief review of these tcche niques as applied to carbonates i given by Fhigch (982), andl Smosea & Warshawer (1979) provided am Jineresting case study However, most facies are defined and interpreted fon & purely quaiative basis. usually on the presence (fF one oF more signitision Features. hwerprctation 36 axvally 2 vory subjective exercise. with the inerprster selecting important Fearures and giving kegs weight Uunsmportion ones, A corel interprctaton needs t0 take soto account rock testore. grain types. Fossil biota, sediments rie totus nd satus te sovimemtary associations of te fishofucies sn estion. 8 ‘shorthand! method ot studying Inne structures, di stones is W) compare them with Standars! mierofacies This is a system devis (SME) types. (1975) from a izes 24 standard mierofucies asi able to nine Standard facies belts (Table 1.1). Racin facies has a lists ve composition which should be diagnostic for rLicalir environment. This i offen the case bat cre are santy exceptions and some SMP types cu occur in more than one facies hele (Wilko, 1975 Fiugel, 1982), In studies where outcrops are available the mizcofacies approach can he checked sigtinst aut crap data, but if materi n wcll cetlings, solely is limited, such ng on a miczolacies approsich can lead 10 significant errors. Two eases (rom the author's experience aay illustrate this prevblem, A wildcat well Urillest in ssestern Portugal in Ube Late 197th encoun: tered over 250 m of oolitie and peloiclal grsinstonesCARBONATE SEDIMENTS AND LIMESTONTS 7 23 Table 1.1 Sianduid mierofieies types ised an Wilko 4197S) ant Flagel (172, (821 SUF pe Tithaloss Fovironmene 1 Sprculte. Irak clayey mudstooe or sachestne sina. loepsater sarge fic, a¢silicowus spiculitic caleisiice ceavitomniens sith Spicules ustlly urieatsek generally Slaccous slow sodonsatation anpaavens, coumnoay repleed by eave : Micrabvinelasti galsistiy. Small hinelasts snd ples Open st shel near ay in ory finc-praineil granseinne or packslenes salle lower Slope. deeper seals ripple eross-kaminatiner shel wsargin 3 Pelagic muaitsions and wickestonc. Migritie mutriy Ax Sond 2 containing sctered pels migrotissils (eu. Fasliwlarinas or globigerinads| oF megataana (6.8 iraptolites ar thin shellet Biles raeonentse 4 Miciobroeeti 0 hivclistic Tithoelastic packstone. Bone slope tals Rouadkal gests, often geavied, Pulymact 0r resodiateatad monwniet is origin. Also quartz. chevts. ancl limestones tcafusnte deritins s Geainstone—packstone oe Hestseone 8 Reot Rank tates btchass af reeF Gopal sediments a Reet rudsinne: no mstiris marcela Fore-recl spe, debris from ibe rest ‘enon Digheonerns ane : Uoondstone. Subtypes of Irumestane, bindsione. Reet, afta oun es boallestone latin mseains , Wuekesione wilh whole organisa. Well Srl gown wil preserved infu ad eta sivculation Foow energy Sater Ihelawe nerenal seave- bre. " Bivcliviie wiickestone ar bivelistic micrite, Bragments Shallow wacers with ‘of diverse arwanisos, Poturaced, Banelasts may be napen eiesulation uiriices ene th wsise-hane by Packstome sssehestone with ented aad abraded Lestural inversion: iets dormant, particles Arann Walemerss teivbiononent hase ron el dessa lca loses Hoss eR n Groinsiones with eouted binetants, i sparey Winona platfonm cage sts: areas ssith constant wave etna a1 oe ahs24) CHAPT able 1.1 oma ERI SUP aps w Litholngs Coxjuiti, fooehistis puckstone, grtiastooe oF riastene with coneentranions of erganisns, Certibn ‘pes of rongunnsas dain Ge at dayelads, Shells. sini) Ouciid Cosparite| ersinsione Jags. Cated and rounded particles, pices nied font pelosi, May he blackened! ond iron-stsmedl will pllesphte: Hiticasts: usually chin beds Dulites of wellswrted aot: fulbrie wseally overpacked: always exams bec Graimtone with poloidls Probably faecal pellets. i places abmised sith eonceatrvied ostragede bests or foraminitena Grapesiane. pelspante 67 reins. solved nn ented gras sinstony ta agarose cil peluids, some sgt Focamminaferal oF dasyelagaccan prainstenes Vonestral, laminates) nnulstone —weekeston, giding ‘ese: int pelsparite wilh Tenestel tubes Ostrscodes sl pelvis. sporadic taramini astropadts and algae Microbial stumacaline youdsine Spongienteon ia tine madslone. Cowolute mienstial fubtie rasa mnerte Lime: nnd sediment Micrite with large oncois, wagkestone oF Rinse Fovircrament Stopes and shot caleey Mode ely igh Shale water Stow accumulation of course material 10 ote of wionossing High enerey alte soa Froucies, ou tall pars Shutlow water wih oly saderate waiter seulation Shell wit restricted water eircution seu tival Macs aa burs aod tehannels 9) lagonns Restricted Rays ane! mons Copmminest ie the loveridl ane Vist pores Low energy Soles wate Track-reet: atten on the © paar vor ehsanelsCARBONATE SEDIMENTS AND LIMESTONES / 25 Table 1.4 (cont'a) SME spe Lithology : Uniamnatent crite: evaporitig minerals ebay wecur Rahtnine oF fo nautis spase wgenccu unfosstiterous pare toc with coarse lithoeksts ane ists. Clasts sully vomit a anfessiiferaus rnjerite: my be Lmbiacedl trad erasscbeihee Hypersatine tidal pols Lag depos im td manne. Cinecatonnaions) breevia') comesponding 10 SME types 15 and 16. ‘The well cotTines Were interpreted as thick shelf Iimestone sequence of oolite shoal ind back shoal assuciations. fon closer examination, iC was found thit mived in with these cuttings were small numbers of cultings of SME (ype 3, arwillaceous lime mudston ssid ia-sheltod pelagre bivalves (Basitrr). Aroutesop. the explanation was Simple, the xrainstones were lurbidies separated by hemipeTawie Time: mudstones The thick sequence oF zr a deep-water. progratlin tones actually represented » varbonate submarine fan [Section 5.15.2 and Fig, 5.57), ie, resedimented shelf deposits, Ju anuther example, 2 set of well eusti this time tom the Upper Palweozoie cf Cansuts. comisted of argithicous lime mudstones with spange opieules and chert fragments, This lithofacies corre sponds to SMF type 1a basinal limestone. and the swell interval was interpreted as sueh. However, some doubts developed and, on further exammation of sociated samples. ealereie fexrures suid sironatalitic fragments were lound. In fact, the spicule-besriag limestones were probahly of ain, while the chert turned vet to comtain minute anbyclrite lutbs. ‘The interval way reinterpreted as at poritidul deposit. This is net te say that the use OF SMF types is not a very useful technique, but dere seill be a rendeney to Tit the date co the model, snstesil of the other way round 1.9 POROSITY AS ioteresting ay grains, mately andl cements are, itis the holes in lisiestones which make thens so ie portant jw hydrocarbon explocation. Thy porosity af a rack is the ratio of the total pore space 49 chy eral volume oF the rock. anu this is usually given as a percentae. The impactanee of a earhonate reservoir really depends niore on us pesmeability, which controls the recovery of hydrocarbons. than its Simple porosity. Sume rocks are porous but have low permeabilities aid 9 itis the edjectice porosity which is importa: Various techniques can be used 1 escimate pox rosity in imestones, hut commonly used technique involves point counting. However. estimates of pore volume by thes technique are subject to error (Haley 1978). Porosity in wes is ther different from that in sandstones hy more ecrauic in cepe andl dlstcitution within a reservoir ane 3s generally much Jower that in sandslone reservoirs (Choquenie & Pray. 1970). Curhonate reservoirs sith ae tow as 5-10 porosity are known, while most ss reservoirs have values af 1S 3%. Most porusity in simeisione reservoirs is prininyy, depositional, inter particle porosity, although the importance nf diagene etic (Secondary) porosity is now hetter appreciated. Broadly speaking. most porosity in limestones is dite genetic ia origin, wand as a result itis more difficult 16 Predict carbonate reservoir quality. which will be controlled hy thy original facies types and hiner dia nenebic processes. Reviews of carhonate porosity have been given by Langman (LORI) and Moore 44979, Lush) A numberof classifications af porosity are available (reviewed int Fidgel, 1982) but the nwost svidely used as thar by Choquette & Pray C1970) (Fig. 118). This chosilicatinn has Four elements: hasie porosity types. andl aire ng: (1) sim origin of the porosity. (2) the pore size and shape. and (3) abundance. sels of modifying terms covet26 / CHAPLER | Fabric selective FERRE rrecranvar Invagrar slo Not fabric selective | AVP mm : - Channel toute 2 Incererystating sal “Fabrie selective or not SP 74 * grinkage “Burrow Fig, LS Pevene rspes. Bavedt one Claguette wal Pes 1.9.1 Porosity types There are at satiety of porosity types in limestones ond Choquette & Pray fiase dicted! them inte thr groups (Fig. LIN). The: fabricseloetine types tase: Civir pores defined by fabric elements af the rack, sucht ay groias oF crystals, The mor-fabrig-selectise porosity fypes exoseeut the actual fabric of the rock, Tor esample fracture porosity. ‘The third group may lisplay a fabrie control or nor. A review af porosity cen by Longmen (1982) utergranttar (imerparieles poorasisy. “Us is the vatie= ing. primary depesitional porosity at the sedinvent, and the types oF packing fabric will be important in contioliing thy types of pere space found. Liters nular porosity also occursen some very fine-grained Sediments und porosities GF as bigh as 10 hase been found in ancient chalky [Section 3.7}, Not all incorgranvler porosity is strictly primary in origio for clssolution of guatriy or even cement. may have eccurted creating secondary intergranular porosity Inerwgranatar porosity. This is porosity within the arams especially ia skeletal material. Such porosity 's commonly very Tecalized and its etfectiveness will Uepend on the miceupermeabihry of the grain. and oa the overall fabsic of the rock. striking exumple iy 7 rudlists, which are 3) group of estinet, aberrant huge bisulves oF Mesozoic aye. Some tamiies hatl comple: whly parauy skeletons. Commonly, Tui buillups dleseloped in low-energy, below wane-base Settings where the porous cudlsts became isolated in at Buc grained mats. However, both hi ular and may ist grainstones display nd reservoirs in ruuist inwestones ate found in Such grainstone facies not in the actual sudist buillups, interes \ecamular poresity Ineereresialtine porosiey. This porosity between jystals This most commonly occurs in replacive: fohomites ancl represents at porosity (Wardlkaw. 1973). Halo oceus in exaporite deposits nel in ecerySillized limestones, secondary Moudlre porosity. “The bulk of shallow-water carbon Ake grains in recent sediments consists of aragonite find igh maynesian caleite. Arazonite is highly suse ceptible to dissolution 1a undersaturated waters zd asa result. Inghly fabrieslective porosity ean result Similar aragonitic mouldic poresiay is abundant ia carhonate reservoirs, The original depositional fabric is very important for mouldie porosity eeeurs in ft amatrix-supported rock such as a wackestone. the mouldig poses may heceme isolated ay the matrix, compute and conigis. However, in a gtain supported: rock, high porosities ane permeabilities can occur, Arsgonitie dissolotign of bioclasts ancl voids creates iano ame] animales respectively. Esaporite mia. eruls are also prone to dissolution and during dedtolo- mnitizacion dolomeutels ean form, Pemestral puorosiey. Penestrae ave small porey whieh © common in peril carbonates and_ typically Form because of desiceation anti sus generation (Seetion 4.3.51). While local porosities may he high fenestr yy narrow range of environments ancl oveuir in thin, discontinuous borvens. They prone to early cementation sind often comain geopett sediments, (Hey ate, si hest, only a arinor porosity type complementing thy mose typical poresity types im peritidal sequences. Such as inererystalline and moullic porosity. form ina Shetier porosite, Shehwe pores, also called urabrella potes, are cusities formed beneath larger particles Such as comvex-up shells, This is a minor parosity type hut may complement other porositi Cirowah ur framework porosity. This type i ereated by the skeletal growth of frame-building organismsCARBONATI such is corals, stromatapornits or atkeareous sl The viried branching and foliese growth of fi sew rev! organioms can create numerous cavities (Section 45.20). This (ype is alten queted ay arpertint in reel resuroirs. aa is eertainly vonspicuus bt pres ventas rests, ut as pointed aut by Longman (1982) it is rarely proserved im aaviemt feet because of eh sedimentation rates arotind reels sind earke jeementatien Frocmire poresire. Fracture porosity. like channel sand cayern porosity. is nondabrie suleetive. and coats aerass the fab fats of dhe tock, Fractures comnoienls resul trom tectonic delvrmition, slumping. orsolutina collapse assoctaced with exaporires or lime= Stune diswlution. Fracture poresily is very eomman ancl eat gre saTiestonne by many Gnaes (Wats, TIS3) Ty increase the effective permeability of ated wauers, and st common product Is channel porosity. commonly developed along fractures, Nearsurtice Karstie solution pipes. are kommen example in the geek Finition a chanael is an cloagare pare with al Glenn porosity. Cimestonesare prone eeclissoln Im undersist ten Himes its aiameter. Vuger poroviey. Vugs ase pores woth cia gedler Ulan 116 mm. and so are just visible (0 ths nuked! eve. They are roughly caquant sn Shape. The rerm pin-poler porosity 1s sometimes ised for microv especially in dofomites. which may encompass forms of juterceystalline porosa Hagen, 17982). Mose vagy reprasent the sellin calkancement (ealergenent) of janular or inter exystalling pores and this may Involve the dissolution nearly cements. Some sugey porosity is thought tw be created by COstich eroundwwaters generated luring hydrocarbon maturation, ‘The migration of thw Mids crestes porosity ahead of migewt ydiocarbons, augy porosity Cure porosity, Casern pores are person-sived pores oF larger. of channel or vug shape. ‘They are mainly solutional an origin ancl are associaced wid ppakwokarstie processes (Seetion 7.5). ‘The remaining pore eypes may be fabric selective oe no Frecein porosity. “This is a cominuation of fracture SEDIMENTS AND LIMESTONES 1 27 povosity where the fragments have their on inter- particle porosity. and like fracture porosity they may have a tectonic or dissalutional origin. Hsamples of hreceia porosity reservoirs eecur iit memy salt basin sequemees such as the Permian Auk Field of the North Sea {Brennand & van Veen, 1973), Reeentiy Ipirigho & Schreiber (I9K81 have offered clissifi- saition for both fracture acl breceia porosity Minor types include boring ane! burrow porosity sesulcing: from biolosival activa ancl sltrinhage po- rosity resulting tram desiccation. Amaclditional type not inchucked by Choquette & Pray is stylolicic porosity. While in many’ limestones sflalites represent zones at very’ low oF 7e76 porosity they can act hoth as pocusity and ts important eon dlutis for Duaicl mgeation (8 onygman, 182) The second pact a the Choguette & Pray syste involves the use oF meuifying terms co describe the processes altecting the pore (dissolution, cementation for internal sedimentation). the stage Ural process 3s ine (eularsing, reducing or filling the poced ans the timing (primary or secondary). A se also used for describing the environment of formation of secondary porosity. “Regouerie” deserines di yenesis which occurred during the time interval between final depnsition and burial of the newly deposited sediment below the depth of significant iifluence of processes operating at. or dependent upon proximity to, te surface. Meteorie diageness isan example. “Mesngenetie” diagenetic provesses take place in the time interval in wiceh seuliments or cocks ae buied at depths below the major influences related t9 the surtace, Mesogenytic flagentesis 18 alse called buria) diagenesis. “Fefogenetie’ dragenet procesws take place during the time interval whe sedimems or rocks. long buried, are affected by processes associated with the formation of an uneon: formity. “These terms are sot widely used Other meailiers are available to cover the sige and abuaulanee of the pores and Choquette & Pray alo provived i standardized system tor deserihing porosity The onginy of diferent porosity types are also discussed in Chapter 7. and are briefly rewewed by Lomaman (1821. The descriptive system of Choquet: & Pray only dewls with the types of pores. but it is the nature of the pare system which influences che recovery ellicieney nf a carbonate reservoir, Basie work om this subject 6 0 he found in Wardlaw & Cassan (1978) and Wardliny (1979, 19804 sof terms isGeological background to carbonate sedimentation 2.1 INTRODUCTION This chapwr discusses the seolgi carbene ensiranntents anil facies factors whtch detennine whether carbonates will he deposited, gant theit facies anal seyuenees, but the oo oceriding chmrol. ay geutectonics andl lima. Much ast ouy fof Timescones has come sand the sediments, «il background to There ate many. from studies et madyen vark und facies ot three cksssi¢ areas, the Bahan Plethora the Florida Shelf, and Trueial Coast ate Chapler 3. However. modern cirbonates de not pros idle all the saiswers sind ach infer Tron ihe lisnestones themmehes, Phere are three epusiderittions shich hase ta be when Inferpreting aneient limestones tam medeen carbonates: FAs 3 consequence of thy Pleistocene glaciation and aesociated major fluctuations in sea-level over the: Tost one milling years ar se carbonates are forming todkis. sedimentation only Trepiss JM -SHAIO yenss age. eseri 4 stiomy coaltol on sedimentation and in some aires Cnostly how-Hutstue, deeper-water mi wouter cuntingntal shelbes) relic carhonate sediments abound, .V stots Site situation sith an equilibrium Belween sediments anid environments has not been Jitairied int rmmy location’. Mailer ewelvintte seh anew thickowsses are mostly only a few metres, although in arcas of active rect growth, suet as along the Poids: Reef Tract, up to tues secumulted Sings trauned S000 DU 9 2 Seirlevel al the presen) time is relatively Jew compared wich much of the geelogies! recast, ‘This sniests that shalhow-asater 6 not as akidespresad tovlay as they were ait certain Himes during the Phanerozuis. Ov particular, Het wigs is 16 in most areas where Ehus relic toposraphics. honate emvironments fag eatensive, fone-fatituue shallow seas Fepelic oF ep sontinental seas) where carbonates are aecumtat- ing. comparable with instances in ke past oF bu platforms being coxcred by knew-leup nearing ®:ters, 3. Moulers carhunate sevliments ave almost carirely produced! by Biogenic processes. apart fram voids 28 and some fine niu. The organisnt types contributing their skeletons ti limestones have variee! drastically throughout the Phiinerazoie due to changing fortunes: the esolotion af new groups and demise ef ethers The roles played by organisms bnave through time. this is purticulacly important seh considering ret limestones. In addition, te domi Aunt mineralogical composition pf ocganism skeletons. and of inorpanie CaCO; precipitates hus varied Uhrough time. in response 19 Buctwations in seanater— atmosphere chemustey (see Chapter 9). As vesple of the above three points. limestones cannist hy interpreted en earhonate sedimentary pracesses and products: es sentin! inforsuatiow his tG came from the enek record. In aiiion, as alluled to above, vonsidecation has 1 be given to the evolutionary pattern of carbon: scereting organisms through time, sind of changes in seawater chemistry, which affect marine precipitates ui patterns of early diagenesis, Trem studies of moder 2.2 MAJOR CONTROLS ON CARBONATE SEDIMENTATION Although there sire many fictors which devermine the ature of a cubenate formation, there are te overriding controls on carbonate sedimentation: (1) eotectonics, andl (2) climate, andl these together canto! the other smports The eotectanig enntet is GE pasamount importance, Tt wontrols one of the prime requisices for carbonaie sedimentation. the lack of Silicichastie material. by determining hunterlind tpography said river deain= ge. Apart trom simply diluting the earbonate com ponent of g Sedimea!, terrigenous matezial alse has a detrimental effet an carbonate production. particu- larly where coral reels are concerned, Shallow-water aarbonites ary extensively developed on the Bi Phutiorm. singe the deep Florida Straits elfeetiy preveat terrigenous mud fram reaching the platfor Carbonate sedimentation is iatibited around much of the porthet em shelves of the Gulf of Mexico by nud emanating from the Mississippi River 1 variahle, sea-level sunul sasand being trunmporied arounel the coast by langshere dat, In the Pat East, dhe equaroria! Suit Shelf oft Indonesia is blankered by river-borne mud atl coral reel development is resiriewed te distiat shelf metre gs. Aloay the Queenskid coast af Australia, elastic seditients are Urspped on the inner shell in a major depression, permitting the luxuriant growth af the Great Barrier Reef along the mud-free shelf vale. tn the Red Sea. reefs occa ia else pprosimity tis chastie sediments derived trom coastal allo fan delay, However, sar the most pact. the terri nous debris is relatively coarse and so quickly sedimenigal. In che extensional regime of the Red Sea, marrow graben structures ay tap. elastics (Purser ef al. (987), Goorectomies determine the depositional settin of carbonate sedimentation amd as discussed un Iter section 2A tive eiaior categories of earls: phaform are reuogmized: shell, camp. epeirie plat form, isolaseel phitiorm ara drowned! pladorm (Ey 2.0. Bach has a distinetive pattern of facies, generalized facics models can be constructed and various types of each plittor distinguishes. “The settings can he mobile sant chinged during sedimenriion by teetonie etfeets sowlevel clunges or carbonate sedimentition alone, Global sea tere! sand a enajor laclor 1B carhowstie sedioentation, with more welespreal aot ivker sequences being deposited at times of high staal (see Fig SIA}. The broad pusition af sea-level is deter mined by occan-basin volutes and glacial ice solumes, both coutrolied! by Risws and filly in sexrteve fans and sotectenicy and clisiate. really lect carxanane sedimentation, and eyeles of sei-lovel change are recognized on five ores of muignicude. Lc. a first order eyele of hundreds of mitlinas of ywars CHP years) down to a fifth onder eyele af tens of thousannes of seats (108 years. There are two sirst order cycles through the Phanerozoic (see Fig, AB), the rosie ‘fsupercomtinent deonsiraciion sine opening anu closing of muyor 96 cinder eyeles (1U” years duration} are kargely the result a passive margin subsidence, Third arcler cycles cof Seateyel rise sine Bale (1 years} ave eesqyansible for whole carbonate fone ¥ ins, une Ue sevondd ions (i carhvonate plat forms), but the ovigin of these eyeles is a matter of much discussion, They are attributed ie global cu state searlevel changes ia the Vail 1 ai, (19771 aad Haw et al, (1987) schemes. but another schoo of Uiought rokues the mewascquences depusited! durin Thiet onder seals sea-level changes to tectonic exiew sien ant subsequient thermai subsidkence (a GEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND # 29 a CARBONATE PLATFORMS. width 10-100Km ‘wth 10-1004 aa a epee platform ——wiatn 10% totem NY isolated platform width 1-100km srowned plattorm Fig. 20 Came plutons, shoals of ae nia Hubbard. 1988), Fourth gnu ith exer eyeles ¢1" 30" sears) contral the deveTapmignt andl expel metrescale shallowing-up lnnestone units. which are a feature of nity eabonaie platfonn sequienees, ‘The Ht 10 sear seaetevel ebaanges once be the result of orbital forcing, 1c. sim astronomas cantral on sea level via polar iee-ciys clue ty the Miaokensteh rhythms (sce Section 230). The: lat the rhythn ot deepens ion of alse conte ie Tayerin [see Seetion $.7.1). Dy the coneepts of segnericy suadgraply. derived largely from die work of sessmie stratigraphes {papers in Wilous eral. 1988}, the major eontrel en deposition Is the relative changes of seelevel, sind ds is eheter: Jevel changes and tectonic sub. c Fig. 2.2), Particular depositional systens fuer are developed duviig speciti¢ ting intervals of tle seaelevel curve {chitd orien) (Hig. 272}. Thick: casbonate sequences are depasiteal pemcapally in the ruined by custili¢ 8 sidemwe (6 higistand ssscuns cract, bul ako in the ianspressive - Ewe types of sequence are ba whether systems tract (Sara, [YN recognized (lypes [and 2), dependdin: seartevel fully below the shell break. givi fans and weuktes. or st. when x shell-ns30-1 CHAPTERS HST ist (st Ls sw HELP MARGIN Wel saw SURFACES SYSTEMS TaACIS HIGHSTAND SYSTEMS TRACT TRANSGRESSIVE SYSTEMS TRACT LOWSTAND SYSTEMS TRACT Lowsrato FAN ‘GUSTAND WEDGE LTHOrACIES: SUPRATIDAL TIAL [P| euateoawsneur uo (DGE SYSTEMS TRACT PLATFORM-MARGIN GRAINSTONES REEF SB ~ SEQUENCE BOUNDARIES SB 1 = TPE 3B2- TPE? DLS = DOWNLAP SURFACE | MEGABRECCIAS/SANOS + Fonestor= nis = miximum flooding surface TS ='TRANGGRESSIVE SURFACE 7] T08-oF-SLoPE:BASIN sneltiptattorm APIO SL FALL GIVES Type | SEGUENGE. LOWSTAND SLOPE DEBRIS - A rye 1 seouence: Lowstaws WeoGe & ‘Thansunessnve CePOsiTs "SToualt Mab GR VERSE KEY TO FACIES Fo sy Pa 2h Be ida shelf shel Slope basin supratizal margin ‘ine ‘iat grained ner Hgt net nigh | 131 aeatevel 4 Ae fX8 low ance 2 Timo Lswmay fore (see Ti third order, eustat If there is an osectiin contro] on deposition, with acat= ie. rises and falls i ‘nen ths also hs éraplications or the diayenesis of eathorates. espe posure and_me utes apply nn Seyuenke: Srafigraphy to carbonate formations can be found in Wiksus #7 28 (ISXS), notably Sire C&R) Crowle ve wl (1980) andl Tucker ef, CVA, Computer modelling af the earbonace phtform basin sssiem. depositional sequences and puease- qucikes imetre-scale eyelos) is very fashionable (see rapers in Crevella ef af. LISI: Tucker oF al. 1990) Bice (1988) for example has demonstrate the im: rortince of sea-level fuctuations un! subsidenee rite ss well as the higher-order. short-petiod sealevel sels. in comiolling the erossscetional geometey of curbonate platsorms Clanate along wills georeetonies. is important in dlewerovining water eitculation parcerhs, temperature “alinity, nutrient supply. turbulence, siorm snd til cortent sirengihs andl wave activity, Shallwewaier corbonates ean necumalate woiceevee there is a paucity of terrigenous material. but thy highest rates of oF inig productivity (Section 2.2.1) cake place in low lotimulss, chiefly 39° eather side of the equator. Muay important carbonate-producing orsmisms. such as vwnals and cadinesan groca alg sao. ean only exist in warn tropic! waters. Moluses andl piore toleram amt cas exist, andl indeed do toren substantial cepostts, up 10 vesy high lodudes (26° N jn aretic Norway fur example), The wo main factors afiecting shailow-nvarine euvhonate-sceteling organisms ire fernperaeee sa sainiis (ees. 1975), saul on this basis. Lees & Bullies U7) ize three principal skeletal grain as GEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND f 34 fons chlorozoan. sociations (Fig, 2.3). In Tow Lagtudes, by carbonate sediments ze produce hy the chivm: association, thats. the characteristic skeletal car homie producersare hermatypiecorilsand caleureous green alge, lame with many other onsanisms, The ehlorozoan associttiont docs not exist sshece minimum surface teraperatures fll low 15°C and it can only Tolerate a quite marrow salty eanye (32 44) Hence coral reehy are vulnerable to cakd (and very warm) waters. especially if they are of tose si Some coral reefs slong the Florala Reet Tract have dlicd eft over the lst fee thousand ears because a the dlecrimental fects of Fiona Bury water draining. on to the shell (Sevtion 3,3,1e), AF etevated salinities, corals dost survive hut gen a name to the ctarafgad wssociation tempers © mostly below 19°C, even down to WC. the Jonamet association is present, and sediments ae dominated By benthic foraminitera und molluscs. with carbonate ho coming from echinoderms amacles. brvozoans. caleareons red alae’ and ostzagonls, The foraniol association comprises teni- erate carbonates curvently beinye deposited ott western Ireland (Rosence. 1980), off northwestern and nocthern Seottand (arios cat. USE and New cud (Nef of if. 1982), Ancient examples of temperate cartons are tie in eompurisoa with lowe lastude fimestones. bur hey have been described from the Permian of Australia (Rao & Green. 18%, ane! ainozoie of Tasmania sn New Zestand (Nekon. IWS, McGregor. 1983. Noneakelefal grains, ooids, aggregates suet as rapestones and peligts (Section L2.L) occur ith the chlorozoan association. and piers extend imo the foramol regions, Water temperature and sal foramol and chlor edo. giving their Where sewwiter 22 The soquenee stratigraphy approach 1 carbonate deposition tafter Sarg, 1988). The rattanate ix Baan strasal purreracare comroited 8x the veketiec edeunge af sew doves (letereinnel by ecstasy cal tectonic sceataleice’ and thas enutray the sediment aecomuenodation perennial (+ — deposition and nf thy wudevel eure, parteculat weeny wracts are estab = erusion se wrap fue. Dsraag specie tie amoral ns FIST. TST, EST and SMW. Thick ageratatiomat-s0 progpadasional curbumuie sexutenees develop especially diving sea-level higiestaids (ol), Two ses af sequence bexindary are reer ui ira spe F farwidlary, re rae af cusiatte se-fovel fail ts grower that substdenee, so iat yrunteved drops edo te plactoron margin. Carbonate debs sucess urd sarbidites may be deposited ar this rime frown stape frosts evosicat se furan a lowstanel fate HLSEY apron ae le fou-of-sepe 1B). Deborts mma abv iil cesionad scary and cavisuans ane the slope front ie so give shape scar fits (SSE, Fig. Bi, During te seandoved foe stand a funk nay develags thowstand wedge ESB, and dye a ceteonnedanad, ontaypineg tunsgressive systenty trav as seuelovel rises (CH. TN a Bape 2 sequenes Pounds. he rite of sede full is fess tan ce subsidence, se dat she shaveline mance teri the vege of te shelf Prat os over the bveak. and a shelf-nurain wedge (SMW) vesiems ive Js esusblitiod daving the vewedevel dow stands this vlaps dering te subseqient seu evel nse (TST). Phe ESV aad SMPF sewers raers will be better developed an rungs sine vie EMF ar steep plaigoren mavens. Fhe seb veparaces she 784 frome dhe FEST. mat she TS separates heb 12 SW¥ tron ae92) CHAPTER? join appear to be thy conurlling lagtors (hig, 238). ‘Oois sen ageregares fern in args Where mean wen pormmies execedd 1S ©, Thee aya appeal 69 be testrte= tel 60 the subtropical Delis, 18 25 hatiende (rather hain cyteutenia where evaporation eius exceed preciprtation sung) sewsatey salinaty is seitly A Ts) Inarsenie precipitation of time hui likely to be restricted te the suberopieal helts Io. Many in salinity anor lemperamure. so that the nuenber of shee (Lees, nisms camo toleriie great uetustions. species sonerally dlecreases where these ogeur, ain pproteetoal lassen sundlan tical Mats, Mthough diverse vetally low an such Stutions, Feequency Gia he Sulina — reniperatere annual rave nd vecurretce of skeleiad sais ass itents (49 ea ruon-skeletat grain cossaciations (BY iv onder elf cat donnie sectnuet. Mier Lees (1978) steapods. for ckample. donrinate wis oF the world am cvaporitie tidal Mans in many p ecur in vast numbers, Tis the shailaw-marine environment, ware depa ancl urbidiiy sre jiaportant, Most orgiinie productivity Gakes plies in fess tha JD=18 ar of water. as dis cussed in Chapter 3, eodiseuan green aise suct as Ponivittus and Halinwea produce vast quantics bf sediment on the Bahama Platform ane Florida Shelf. anc althongin they cxist into quire deep water (Haltnterla resoedtedl from = 50 iu) highest poeta alos are ia ater depths fess thea LY. Coral granwth bar barrier reels also gues duser te pier: thann SC depth, bat most skeletal carbonate is produces inseater Mepis fess tha S mm. Turtle wrasse (Pualasviay is-aber mostly Feature of the shallowes parts af the Florida Shelf (<8 nr): it taps sediment and is hose 10 many organiems producing sediment so chat higher salimemtstion rates prevail tn these shallower, ers coseeed areas, Sitce the formation of carbonate set monty fs movt intense a depehs less thi Em. this shallow subsidal environment is frequently referred Iisa the carbonate faciey the ewer bonit of the pliotiv sone is an important depit i carbonate deposition, Above This, phot synthetic ors cae al MUNG BIAS un gras. ay well as metizcany whieh diese a sme Ione Felarionship with akzae, sueh as the hermatypic torals. Frdolitiie algae. whet inle in hinerosiot hy produ around! hivelsts cus) oviecitizedt grainy (see Section 1.31.aho only accur within the photic zone. The later Sunies ia its depth. depending on terhidity aud sure leit omtemsty, but ie my reach down to [than or nore in clear waters, Jurbieite can be brought sbout by suspenied clay from isers (ete,}, buLeven on siliciclanticsre shelves line nud is Frequently: put inte suspension by wanes Storms stl ish, Farhi inbihits carhonate pac ton be cutting: chown the amount of Hight rewehing the sealloor end thus discotiraging the growth of dal seaegrass sich rely ont lip tor Mle many benthic ersunisms with sarhunate skeletons esimmot Folerate Suspended uu asi anterteres with their feeuiag nicchanisms Die Uistribution ot varhonate-scereting organinnes also depends on sare cipevlarens ane eucseut regione Some ors iif hy the eovals. Howrish it tbuleat areas amd so are eoneentaaed tony shelf mianains. athers prefer the quieter waters of the inner shelf. "The wave current 9 Jor Yeworking and sorting sediment and transporting it from its Site of farmation. fn fat. to the shelt nna and onshelf teins it of sectiment is significa! ay av result of the someenieation nf save and stormy selion there, mest shave formed en stite and have only Been subjected 10 minimal transport Seawater s low kititades is supersaturated re 20, in she appr few Inundred acts. bat ie oad ant high eituces iv is undersaturated, Precipitation ef CaCO, ea thus take place in the tropes ane! dissolution in temperature shallow seis Fron considerations carbonace eyuibbria (revigweel in Bathurst, 1975: Krauskopt 1979), processes removing COs fram so ‘xarer ean Teal 10 CaCO: precipitation. ‘These incinde micrite envelopes ealeaceans Photosynthesis Jn where atish surhoaate sedi) GEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND 7 33 Temperature increases (solubility of COs ckerowses. with increasing temperature |. etaporaunn, pressure changes in seawater such as where deep iter is brourht rip to the surface, wwibulence ane phatisyn thests. ‘These: processes alecouat lor the precipitation fof cement br reels snd lime sands. [urmestinn af avis and precipitation &f lime mui on proweted platens ant in Tagoows, Below Zt) M0 py in the trepies esirbnaate Fiatble co safer dissolacinns especially iF sedimentation rites ane Tow 2. fan abs is OL a importiat process until depths af several thousand metres when the rite of dissolution increases drastically (the Issoetine) suet the carbonate com pensitinn depth {CCD is reached, where she rite i sestin Section 5 sins are ion equals dhe rake of disgohition [Soo 2.2.1 Organic productivity and sedimentation rates Cacbonake sediments can acewmultty tapadly com pared swith other sedimemtuy rock types. bate this apie can be considered om three levels: the provwth snes of mouicr carbonate skeletons, foiasimum value tor limestone: ekeposition sediment shiek allow fr ich phe a bates ot fon nf Efoloccoe carbonate scdiments. Aarigtions in geowih enes ever SUlof) sears. ancl rates denise trom chigk Himisstone sequences of the gelogien! cine which ae basically aelleetions of subsidence Tiles sand include breaks inn sedimemiation fue U9 ses petinds of erie dissolution of the limestone miss Where optiauin conlitions vsist fa die: grostlt of orssinisms #1) carbonate skeferons, Oiew i appeais that the carbonate production nity is fairly ental, reguuulless of the ispes of organism mselsed (Smith 173: Hallock. WSL). Gross production cites deter mined! for benthig forsiminitersi, corals aad coralline level fluctuations and ne compaction sand presse: alpen scassan feet This ane aronnd LS ho ke CaCO: m7 vr 1 cquivalent 1a a easiuanate depo ition rate of 1S Sm ye Ser 0.51.8 an LON yr Rates are somneatit lower in hagk-rect lagen AOL HLS aw HUBH yr bal ow the Teef trent, goed ghoul rates of Oa WAM yy" hau Been reeended {Loneman. 1981]. appears from studies uf ale skeletnas that cntonate production rates ace determined by cuan physicweherstyy 4h. aigitalion, Pras. niche supply than organic higlogical factors, Atihe present time. only arntind [1 of cacbasate production takes place in the shallow-marine avali boa tonperat tr eve.) rather84.1 CHAPTER? Ninety per cent of CaCDs preduetion tol eitie plankton tvoeen- Lahephorida and Focuminifera), and their deposits of pelagie carhomate eave on the deep seilloor (OH 2500 nn account for 8% oF the glo}val deposition of marine CaCO. Some planktoaie carhonate is lost hy dlissolotion where the seatlor is below the carbonate compensation depth (Section 3.3}, Reefs are major sites of carbonate sedimentation, bem responsible for We af production, “\ragonitic line mands toral 3% Cf pritnay production ane! the remaining: Vi: Cal production ts taosily hy henthic organisms on shelves. Holocene carbemate sediments in the Babama— Horida region have only heen aecumubating fay 3008) AMR yeas since the post-glacial sea-level Hse covered the ares. From the Plovich Reef Tract, a) anuximam thickBess oF 1 on is secures, in 600 years (2.3m Wkel ve Suc the aserage rate for the outer rect is nore like Lom TRIE Gy | Gea, Carysinn Reef anel Molasses Reef, where 6-8 nv have been deposited in OFERI years Enos. (7TY. Seuimentation sies om the innes shelf sae geneeally much lower (0.2 05 aL TOME YT 4 except wvitere mod hanks have develaped (Scetion 3.3.1) ad then rates are compuulle with the sheltedge reefs (e.g. Reeleiguey Bank: 3 ov in SOUD years. Turmel & Swanson, 19%: “Faventier Sn in SOMO years TNS: and Cra Key mud bank in Horak Bay: 3m in 300 years, Stuckmam ef af. $367) It is instructive to compare the typical sedimen= fation rate oF modern carbonates. To J000 yy | Subvidenee and sestlevel change Meisorements of modern subsidence rates in sca newtary sins of Ga 2S m 1060 yy‘ dlepeniing ow the type af subi flexural, thermal. or feult-co counted for by the mostly Bosence er a e will RS ot ele Typical subs ence rates oF passive continental miitg . ancient carbonate pliforms developed. are of the order oF fLOL 0.1m 10 yr as, where These values suggest that urbonate production shoatd be able co keep up with an average amount of subsidence. Eustatie se changes can be brought shout bs fluctuativns in jocean-hasia volume through plat teetanie processes, and Mluctuations ia aecansater volumes dunugh chasm the mass of lacs fee al uhe poles. How exer. the former process iypically gives. at race of sestevel change of (01m Hi00 yr 7 while glactal eustatis changes are up to three orders of magniturle faster (e.g. Flanndrian transgression up tey 10 an 1006 sf). Donosnn & Jones, 1979) Thus on the wlhsle Shaltos-water (15 mp carbonate sedimentation is relatioely Gust amd is able tu Aeep up wir moderne oeeanlevel changes. I crmot keep ip ith rapid subsience, generally faultinduced. or with major seasevel rises through glacial meltine: (sew Schlager, WSI and Kenclill A Schluer, 1981 for jurther dliscussion). Many ancient wastunate sequences are measured! in thicknesses of kilometres, but the net sedimentation rates are very low compared with 1 above from the Holocene. For example, some 4 ke of himestone. with sone dolomire and evaperite. were deposited on the Balin Phittneny trom the Upper Cretweous {10 Ma ayo). This gives a net sedimen- tation rte of D4 me 1000 ye. The Urgonian (Barremian—Aprian} Plattorm carbensies of the Subalpine Chions. France. are up to S10 m thick ann accumulated 19 10 Ma, using rate of 0.05 m 1000 yr [The Gpper Permian stratit of west’ Less. StH my thick snd deposited in 15 Ma. alsis save at rate of 0.05 mv LON se | igures flustzate the well-known fact that only a Iraccon of timy is represented by the tock record. Breaks in sedimentation, mostly throws emersence in shallowawater earhonares. may rep: tesenl long periods of time, However. since many earhonitle sequences consist of shallow-water sect ments deposited close 10 sea-level, the sedimentation, rates are really a reflection of the arrampneduiion, Me 16 he Allee by rioanedd shelf depositional mod, After Tacker 129854.shell will generally be dominated by ticki fats, es )ecialle it there tsa Significant tidal ange ¢mesomter tidal]. AW heach hacrier—tidhal delta coastline may torn if save eneray is substantial {determined by prevailing climate and coastline orientation} ant tea] raise is howe (imiczo= to auesosticial), This type of shoreline. however, is more (peal of eatbonate camps (ection 2.) 25.1 Modern rimmed shelves Moniera rimmed shelf carbonates are azetmubatiny in many ates in the Caribbean, They fave been stu esteosively off Belize (James & Ginsburg, 1979) where 4 fnging eeet is developed aon and x yaietawaier shelf lagoon occurs to shorewstd (Fig. 2.5). On the Bahama Platform, atypical dimmed Shelf facies pattern is scen to the ease of Andcos Mand. where s00s 5 the: shelf sar ul sand shoals aire developed along the platform mraryan und therg is a narrow (1 Vk} tigoon hehind. before the shoreline of the island. ‘Hie sediments of this aren are described in Section 3.2.1, The 300 kra long South Florida Shel is 2 SS km wide ares of shallow sedimentation with vk er carhonate rginall reefs and sat shoals he shelf margin (wee Section 3.3.1). The Hloeida Shell has a facies dlisted similir 10 samy wel shell Garbonates: shelfemarginal veers umestones antel boundstones) andl carbonate sands oolite and skekett! grainstones). giving way to shel vial packstones: and sackestones of Uke proteetee! immer shelf Fagoon. Ske hing in plant-stabilizec! mudd hanks, ane nuangrove swamps sind tidal flats occur alone the shoreline Anoiber well-documented rimmed! shell ccurs off Queensland where the Great Barrier Reet is narrow ancient i 15 bmi. but tone (2000 km, zone at aetive earl sreveth at the shel margin. with a broad (10 50 km} shelf lagoon behind, where curbonttes snl elascies 2 deposited (Hopley, 1982), Thy modern Feet are commonly developed upon ober reefs sncd Ines much relic Pleistocene sediment on the shell to. Alon rimmed shelf margins, sedimentation can lead to the development et istangs, eoppoweal of reel cubble aad carbonate sand. This hus happened along parts of Me southern Florid Reef Tract {Section 9.3.1) and at Joulter’s Cay iar the Bahamas ¢3.2.1b.). Studies ot the Recent have provided a welldetined! facies model tow shell gene ot reel slope and proaimal and distal talus. some carbone iss the fore-reet GEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND ¢ a4 BELIZE Belize ‘cHy, A sane! \ N a | ‘ GUATEMALA ! back-reol innet-arelt _s0km Caetanetos — -]SeStice Bow / E SHELF PATCH FRINGING GLOVERS| LAGOON REEFS UREEF REEF 0 m 20-7: 40. [Holocene reel Fig, 28 Fhe Relise cawhunoate ciel whet 144 Map Stonanag sbelfimrargin arrer ovals anid reeds arent eied plasfonans \Fagstonse and Glomers Reet aint Turse Islarath. (8) Sheth crossertion frome a sete poole showing levetaginten of mori rocte pon poe visting topagraphie high of Meistocen fives Saanee & Gonbines (199) ome Aer the reel iisell (or eeet core of reef framework and rf and the hack-reet cone of reel flat andl Puck-reel sind (see Seetions 3.2.14, 3.3.16 and AS.S, nd Longnian, LNT). This tasies mindel can be applied to many ancient rimmed shelf—regt campluves. but ia detail there are usually clepartuces Carbonate sinds are usually generated sa abun- dance alone: rimmed shell margins, Much of the sand, is oF skeletal origin, of eres evived teom shelf-break reeks42 1 CHAPTER? canes Seas oo J a f oniag margin eat anne Emergent margin Siose-seer Festa Gif preseatl andl trom dhe skeletons oF organises which five to the sbelfmargin area, The sueclon itr rier tat the shell slope makes to open avian and Storm wanes easure continuous turbukence along the Shel? nuurgin and constant reworking of seiinient amt erosion af reets, Ovid ase commonly se important gomponent of shelt-mirsm sands since CaCO, pre Gipitation is promoted by de active movement ot stigable muclei (line skeletal grains) and the warning . sof ocean water as it comes On KO the shallow shelf, Modern rimmed! shell sand boules wre well represented on the Bahama Plstlorn «Fine. 17: Hiow ev af. 1981; Hardon, 1988 types exist, dependent on the orientation of the shelf break relative ce die prevailing wind direction, sand fon suse—storm versus tidal effets (seu Seetion 4.2) The disiriburion of cachunste sediments an many modern rimmed siehes is very much eantretietl hy und several Fig. 2.9 General ade for rman carbene shelves penponading 19 sea-fove! changes. (AY Stewionaes 2H Olay. 11 Onlap. (2) Prone. (Ep Eynvaent, fer fares Menonyiny (1084, relict topuuraphies, produced during the Pleiscocene tes, Pury, 19Ma}, Reets and send bodies formed ducing high sca-level stanels over the pass million Dy luring the Sung of = 120000 years ayo, were modified by erasinn and hurstiication during subsequet Many modern reets at shelf margins ate thin seaeers oser Pleistocene ives. ancl copographic highs on shelves are sites of patch reels anc ime sind cleper sition, The ctlvet of this relict topography is well seen) fon the Belize Shell (Fig, 2.8) and off Queenslan along the Great Barrier Reet yours. expect low scalerel stands 2.5.2 Rimmed shelves and sea-level changes Rimmed shelf marging respond in different sigs to) searlevel change and James & Mountjoy (1983) identited five types: (1) stationary. (21 aap. (3) ona, (8) drowned. wid (3) emergent (Fy. 29), In the sions mode. the position of the rimmed shelf rrargio does oot change ouch through time, si tht Aettical accretion takes plate. Saney carbonate ro dluction is much higher ct the shelf eave. compared to the slope ai havin, the relic! berween rimmed shell aad basin gradually inereuses, "The stationary mole typically develops where the relative site of Seanlevel rise is more or eas hakmneed hy the sedimen tstinn rate at the shelf margin, Sioce sedimostation fnnmed shell nuargun, a shell \goon will commonly he well Uexeloped behind the mars with the actimemts very much determined by the degtee of connection ty the open ocean and the climate In the: offs made, the vinarnes shelt ma progratles hasinw tes are higher at the ast. In bs ease, the: whole shelf will be elase to seelecel so that comection with the Epyn wee: ‘wil oltea be poor o¢ nomeaisten. leading Wy hyper- saline lagnems with evsiporites and/or exposure with 3 whole range nf emergence phenomena posite. de pending on climate, When sea-level docs rise quickly then either onlap ur drowning takes place. Onlap ein bceue in steps oF moce yoadually thhromgh a sheliwarels inigration of facies belts, The latter wall mostly eceur when the shell margin is dlominaredl by carbonate sands andl the seaeievel rise is nor too fast. Bark stepping of the margin © more Hkely to oecus when relative sea-level rises in stages ancllor where reve are preset at dhe shelt margin. Whe rise Is really too fast for cazbonate sedimentation 10 Weep pace, then the shelf ane! slope are ezowned anil pokigle carbonates and other deeperwater sedinieats ane usually deposited over thy whole region. [ny dhe jenergent ape of margin, setevel falls below the siel-break and the shelf is subject 9 suhsterial es. posure, A nitrrow zone of shallow-waier carbomite production may be established upon the former slope. cious Ispes ot shell-margin response to Fel tive sea-level change have been well documented im earhonate formations (¢iscussed in Seetion These 25.3 Rimmed shelf types Consideration of modern and ancient rimmed shelf mangine reveals iat there are three ns secretionary. Aypass and erosional shelf 1 (Mellel & Toss: Read, L9N2, TKS), GEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND #43 Rimmed shelf anurgis ean also he divided an whether they are reel ur lime sand dominated. Aecrerionary riyuned shelf exhibiting lateral migration, with same ar litle verticn! agerackition, and the shallow shelf-rnary sind bodies huilel out aver fore-reef andl slope deposits (Fig. 2.0). The shelf slope consists af s prograding apron talus, There is aa intercigitation af shallow water rimmed shett, resedimenied slope ancl deeper water basinal fucies. Frequently a well-detined vtiar furm bedding is seen. which consists of lurge-scwle dipping suctaces. formed largely of the shallow-water chris sbcul off the shelf margin, Ctineslorms generally Ihave a significang dip. S— 15" sind a height of several ens 16 hundreds oF modes (nest section andl 8081) Aceretionacy shelf aairgins costly form when seat levels stile, or only rising productivity high at the shelf margin, Modern ae: eretignsiry niirgine eecur slong parts af the Baba Plagerm (ee. Hine er a.. WiSt; Eberls & Ginsburg, 1987). and clinoform-lke structures are revealed in seismic reflection data (Fig. 2.11}, Similar features sre seen along patriy of tke Florida Shelf marvin tEnos, 1977), Bspuss immed sf) rari tes where little sediment is deposited on the shel! slope. They occur in areas of rapidl vertical acceetion where shelE-nyargin mentation & able ( Keep pares with risiny sea- level, hur insulficient sediment is deposited on the slope for any signiticant kateral acerction. Seitiment shed off the shell edge is deposited at the tee of the, shelt slope of in the busin. A steep, shelf-edye chlt ugh rapid uphuilding iar the naa pureat hypass” (ype of Reel (1982), andl i the ‘gullied-siape Bypass’ type debris is taken dese sub- migiine channels to fans sum aprons ait the hase of the shelf slope (Fig. 2.10). Mvtern examples of bypass shelf margiay are sven olf Queenskand sh ree! groweh nay dominated over any hited dsce Johnson & Searle, (US). Frosioual rimmed shelf margins eur in aes ot strong tidal or seven eurnents and cliffs and escarpe ments characterwe: the Stell slope (Fig. 2.10), Debris, Irom the eresionil marin may aecumubite in fans and aprons ai the toc of the self slope, Some modern Fined shelt margins are erosional i is Pleistocene shallow-water limestones thalt ate es porcd anu they are being graded both by plysieal and bielogical processes. Examples include paris ob the shelf macein off Jacuaiea and Belize (Land & Gores 147th: Lames & Ginsburg, 1979} margins aire ones in rvefs andl Slowly. sl esrhoaate se vevtical und in mast eases44 f CHAPTER? * Shalt ecgo, ane sande ‘Forelone Bypass sielf margin Fimmed and pater reels sand gullled slope type shelt = oreoriss Port platform tahis accretionary Sha Lagoon | age slope rus reefs: f+ Basin mud one roto! 7 wth sandy Sets channel fills Lower slope mds * Wave base Lower seneitasinl 5, oauasin, graded curbidtes, breccias, sand and ud Siopervasin foemsloge shat . B Bypass shell maraIN Caran escarpment type D Erosional shelf margin | Pent-pattorn Peri platforsn 1 [testes {ope an basin ano sard. ‘ sand and mud 10 Rinoned eartnonate shel per. OM Avcreinanary type. (BS Bypass, escarpment tepe. (CI fiypass qullied stage supe UP Bvesiad annie! stefani Afr Rea 7982). prograding | BIMINI STRAITS OF ANDROS: margin ote CANK =b-ANDROS te BANK + Fig. 2.11 Scieinatic sevtion across the Great Buran band frown ae seosinve protite shosityy poe buried banks (nudes eae Bivens, Uatevad proagrachadon of ii esters region of Binrni aad coniphes jilliag of the Sieaite af Andres unin. cer Bberks Ae Gili (IM87 2.5.4 Ancient carbonate rimmed shelves ' _ . eathonates oecur in the Alpine Chin and were par Phere are many well-documented ancient rimmed ticularly well developed during the Trisssie. Shelf mar shell Himestone lormations swhich car be compared were sites of reel growth with corals. sponges. ith modern rinnied shelf curlsanates. Classic shell Tivbapleyzes ancl vee lgae the dominant orgainisiys. fheTotes Gebirge FAR REEF Fig. 22 Eppes frase sinnmead let facies pasirern in she Ties Gebarge und Caestinse sang Aunt rotor culeatronts ps Mir Phiged (2081) hue fei Dachserins Limestone af ihe nostera calvawveus Aips, cAwsiris eontains anany shelt marginal Feet complexes (Fig, 2.72. Blugel. Fs), sath smaller patch reels on the Shelf (e.g Sehiiler & Senoweburl Daryan, 1981}. In samme regions. aolite sand bodies developed at the sheltbreak, tater than Shell-Liyoom) fueies sire typivally seones tor (ig. 2.12). Tidal taeprotected lagoon. iunceshelfare tenestal. pelletsillimy mutlstoies of the Toter eyeles (Section 2.1, nthe Dodoniites ef te souihvre Mbps. Heady, Middle Fensssle carbonates sere deposited on sane shelves find isolated phetforms (Leonarcli, H67, Bosellia & Rossi, 1974; Busellis. 194. 198. A complex: plat fear basin twpography was produced hy block fuking and an carly phase of carbamate platform selimentition in thy Ladinian was terminated by feagalte kava filling: the hosing! seas when the pit forms were subaecially exposed ainel Rarstificd in sn emergent mode (Fig. 2.15) ling Carnie phiforns prograded rapidly ioe busing where Sen Cassio Formation deep-water mutrls were deposited Aluiough extensive, dotomitized. rects hive been recoguized at shelf margins, wit bedded Ligoorl tial fat facies behind, Shelf mareins commonly show spectactlar elnofursns of reel debris (Fig. 2,13). anc these accretionary margins. many of the elflap aype un he shown fo Rave prograehd rany dilomeires into the basin. In whole aiouncainside exposures. Bosellini [1484 hay recognized several types of elimatiorm «is. eussed further in Seetinn 3.13.1. many of which se ch Fopestoms grain 1 graisiones snd packstones, avies oF ihe. The sncee GEOLOGIC. L BACKGROUND / 45 coalitie NEAR REEF BACKREEE comparable 1 th Hes fas in Fi seinmie strat e dippins planes seen in scismie pre. J ane seed For sequence: analysis fn saphy The Middle te Upper Devoniae was avinne al esten- Sve shalloweavarer cuboniie sedimentation, and shelt-margin rects were well developed mn sane in Slances. sitet as western Cask. westera Gh ad Western Aust, Various rimmed shell rae esisied. ineluciog aeeretienary and bypass types hv ahy Canning Basia, showing offlap. onlap, station: owned sequemess (see Vig. 498: Playford, [8 The ‘classie ew”. Windjaaa Gorge. Canning Basia (Fig. 2.14) clearly shows bedded shell-tagvan fate shelt-margin sect and reefal-slope elitoforns. A ser tieal plagorm-margin encoatormsity was prosuceal hy ovion during a short peri! of souleved tall and gence. S variety of vimpwed shelf types is ell sen in Upper Cambrian chrough Devonian strata of Deval this 2.13). husassir Lower Crotueeeis carbonate plarfioross formed 2 discontinuous Bch aver 6000 Ke Tong of te eastern USA amd Canal thon tte Grand Banks ta the Bahgmas. and the rinmacel shelves hore were ot varius types. but particulurly accretional offlap stationary ay decueutl mainly trom seismic selection studies (eg Fig 2.6, Bluk, ITS: ans, 198 Gawboa ef al. 1985), dasn (IST vo descructional kinésot onargin where ether eresion or growth faulting took phe. The erosion af the carbonate plata te ase cabo place ducing the Barly Tertiary by North Atkintie con (et in places cut the: margin Pack 31 kn margins is thous tour curr46 / CHAPTER? PERITIDAL COMPLEX "| FSF (OOLOMIA PRINGIFALED [worn T A : Z Psau cASSiAN oS SASINALEAGIES — {CIPI BOULDERS) CARNIAN ‘s VOLGANOGENIC * DEEP WATER LASTICS Lapwwian| = [TE tvwattongo Ss [SSE BASINAL FACIES “Si Zz TUPPER ANISIAN Dt! B [io ioe Gargonares oe 2 Prograding carbonate platform margins SE gant? gordo Bl slinotom margins {basinal facies 10km In the Permian Basan of Texas and New Mevico. ects occur at shell margins in some areas (iselucting the ckissic Capitan Reeth, and oalite sand heks developed in others (e.g. Lower Clear Fork suid Wichita Foctations: Mazzulle, 982). In fact, there hay been much sliscussiom aver the precise nature of the Capitan Reet, whether it was a battier reef complex, shelt-marginal mound er a deeper- seater reel rim (sce Wilson, 1975), The reef consists fof much bioslastic grvinstone ancl wackestone, and Fig, 2.13 Mislle Prins eurbonare plafoner mneties Ja te Dotooiues, northern Bale. (A) Stratigraphy showin placionn: and base fries (2) Barts Ledinan Pulweagengraphy stewing cinbemate planformts, eats With eliafonns aad asm Frenne Fosinaion After Bosellint EIS) «C) Carafes of the Carmaan oi Plasforn rags progeanen ine ate aig Daag fenwential parern on oo Dasa nnadeoeky ene arbres fo} the San Cassia Formations. Puno conmesy rf Adfimse Basel Doundstone of sessile henthie and enerasting organ meloing bryozoans. red algac. spong Tubiphsies, foraminilia, bruchiopeds sand erinoids A wellaleveloped forervel slope fies consists of feet debris arranged in inclined Neds (eliaoforms, Fig, 2.16), Lateral progeadiation of 20+ 37 kim ean bbe demonstrated, making the Capican complex an sample of ain aecretionary shelf margin, However. i aloes appear as ifthe reel dik nor grow at a sh self margin. but at depths from #0 ra chown ter 200 an, Geainstones with a hege savety of hinelasts ind ois appear to have formed at a Shallow rime SielE margin 3 fexe Allonwetres hawk ror chis slighty deeperoiter reel. Onshele “Carb tacies are skeletal graimstones packstones. stromateliti lime muuistones anal caleisphere and ostravend wackestones, with top vatlose pisolites and Fenescray (hig. 2.16}. Much of this shelbhigonn fimesiong is dolomitized, contrasting with the mesily mon Uolomitie “Capitan tacies’ Along the innes shell mar win. there cceur evaponites and texkbed elasties (Chall Blut and Be PraGEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND #47 marginal slope Napier Formation 4 Fhe elasate jure” of Windiaa Gorge, Carindag Rose Woseee asian 9 Eppes Pesan reetal rmersoner (for | arignapiey soe Big. L981. (Ab Fick phone conrtesy of Coin Sevan 1B Inserprinidien afer Plavore [2080 i Back-reef facies in aneicnt rimmed shell sequences ase commonly eyehe. generally of the shallowing upward type. The sare purtieatirly well des eloped a Devonian rimmed shelf compieses, such as those of sestern Furope (Burchote. TANI). western Cantds, leg. the Snipe Lake und Kayboly Reefs. Havardl & Dblersmaw. LW: Wong & Oldershase, 1480) and Western Australia fe.x. the Pillars Limestone of the Canmang Basin. Real. 197% Playford. 1980), they abe occur inthe Carlsbadl facies of the Beeman Capitan Reef comptes of west Tess (Fig. 2.460), The Devonian vamsiss nf coral Sromatoporoit biestromes passing up uito lenestval. planar scomatoliic limestones with evince ol emorgenee such as destecation ccacks, e pacudomorphs. Where well developed. matnpornid growth torms is seen hough the bio smme. fram viomal andl tahislar at the bas through agvorite cars yuciose cements and ps veriical zonation af stro Feet mara Surlaee ! ema backed feat Tat backreot Pitara Limestone shelt“margin Unconfornty Fes, acon hay bulbous to brauehed forms at the top, “Lasiuels the: Shelf interiac cyeles became thinner anil resittetedt frcies more prominent. with even fluvial sandstones tang conglomerates ai the tp ot some vyeles, cuetin down into the carhonates, The Back-reel eyeles refect aan upwind decrease in torhulence acl water slypth ancl increase jo restriction of the cas inmument 2s cial Hats wore establishetl. Carboate oveles are diseissed tunher in Svetion 2.10. 2.6 CARBONATE RAMPS Acs of the ocler of rhode ramp isa gently Sapiig surface. wrahients 1 foe metres pet hil esting markedly wath the steep slope up te) a cur one shel! On a) camp, shallows wacer carbonates idually ofishore tate tle imo husioal Gednne mis (Fig, 2.172, There is nay major pass er walter and thea48) CHAPTER? BASIN SLOPE SHELF MARGIN. SHELF 1 PILOT j__ Davies GATE Z é S “NEVADA” I one“ LAKETOWN z EN Epp rel = rel ISON GRR ELY SPA 3 2 ae Fig. 248 Caner Cambrian feroith 26 Devonian

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